Free radical destruction of beta-blockers in aqueous solution

Trimethoprim: kinetic and mechanistic considerations in photochemical environmental fate and AOP treatment

Trimethoprim (TMP), a bacteriostatic antibiotic, has recently been detected in wastewater and surface waters. In this study the sunlight mediated photochemical fate, and treatment using advanced oxidation and reduction (free radical) processes, have been investigated with respect to their effect on TMP. Photochemical fate, in the presence of humic acid, and advanced oxidation treatment both involve the hydroxyl radical (OH) as one of the reactive species of interest. Another reactive oxygen species, singlet oxygen (1O2), may also be important in the photochemical fate of TMP. The bimolecular reaction rate constants of TMP with 1O2 and OH were evaluated to be (3.2±0.2)×10(6) M(-1) s(-1) and 8.66×10(9) M(-1) s(-1), respectively. The reaction kinetics for the sub-structural moieties of TMP, 1,2,3-trimethoxybenzene (TMBz) and 2,4-diaminoprimidine (DAP), was evaluated to facilitate an understanding of the loss mechanisms. For TMBz and DAP the reaction rate constants with 1O2 were <1.0×10(4) and (3.0±0.1)×10(6) M(-1) s(-1), while with OH they were 8.12×10(9) and 1.64×10(9) M(-1) s(-1), respectively. The data suggests that the 1O2 attacks the DAP and the OH radical attacks the TMBz moiety. However, for TMP, 1O2 and OH reactions accounted for only ∼19% and ∼6%, of its total photodegradation, respectively. Therefore, the reaction of TMP with excited state natural organic matter is postulated as a significant degradation pathway for the loss of TMP in sunlit waters containing natural organic matter. There was no effect of pH on the direct or indirect photolysis of TMP. To complete the study for reductive treatment processes, the solvated electron reaction rates for the destruction of TMP, TMBz and DAP were also evaluated. The absolute bimolecular reaction rates obtained were, (13.6±0.01)×10(9), (6.36±0.11)×10(7) and (10.1±0.01)×10(9) M(-1) s(-1), respectively.

Effects of Fenton treatment on the properties of effluent organic matter and their relationships with the degradation of pharmaceuticals and personal care products

This study examined effects of Fenton oxidation on trace level pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) commonly occurring in wastewater. The tested PPCPs included acetaminophen, atenolol, atrazine, carbamazepine, metoprolol, dilantin, DEET, diclofenac, pentoxifylline, oxybenzone, caffeine, fluoxetine, gemfibrozil, ibuprofen, iopromide, naproxen, propranolol, sulfamethoxazole, bisphenol-A and trimethoprim. Transformations of effluent organic matter (EfOM) caused by Fenton oxidation were also quantified. All tested PPCPs, except atrazine and iopromide, were completely removed by Fenton treatment carried out using a 20mg/L Fe (II) concentration and a 2.5 H(2)O(2)/Fe (II) molar ratio. Up to 30% on the total carbon concentration was removed during Fenton treatment which was accompanied by the oxidation of EfOM molecules and formation of oxidation products such as oxalic, formic and acetic acids and, less prominently, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde and glycolaldehyde. The absorbance of EfOM treated with Fenton reagent at varying Fe (II) concentration and contact time underwent a consistent decrease. The relative decrease of EfOM absorbance was strongly and unambiguously correlated with the removal of all tested PPCPs.

Photodegradation of propranolol by Fe(III)-citrate complexes: kinetics, mechanism and effect of environmental media

Photogeneration of HO was optimized in Fe(III)-citrate solution within the pH range of 3.0-9.0 to investigate its photoreactivity at neutral pH without the addition of H(2)O(2) under simulated sunlight. The generation of HO decreased with increasing pH within the range of 6.0-9.0 at the Fe(III)-to-citrate ratio of 10:50 (10(-6)M). However, when the concentration of citrate increased to 1.5 × 10(-4)M, the formation rate of HO increased in the order of pH 9.0<3.0<7.0<4.0<5.0. The pH-dependent HO production was governed by the stability of Fe(II)/Fe(II)-citrate and the amount of O(2)(-) in the solution. Propranolol can be efficiently photodegraded in Fe(III)-citrate system at pH 7.0 with pseudo-first-order constant 3.1 × 10(-4)s(-1). HO was verified to be the main reactive oxygen species (ROS) responsible for the photodegradation of propranolol. The presence of metal ions inhibited the Fe(III)-cit-induced photodegradation in the order of Mn(2+)>Cu(2+)>Ca(2+)>Mg(2+). Both humic acid (HA) and fulvic acid (FA) markedly suppressed the degradation of propranolol. Moreover, the iron in Fe(III)-citrate system was reused by a simple addition of citrate to the reaction solution. By GC-MS analysis, the photoproducts of the propranolol were identified and the degradation pathway was proposed. This work suggests that Fe(III)-citrate complexes are good alternative for the advanced treatment of organic pollutants at neutral pH in aqueous solution.

Degradation of pharmaceutical beta-blockers by electrochemical advanced oxidation processes using a flow plant with a solar compound parabolic collector

The degradation of the beta-blockers atenolol, metoprolol tartrate and propranolol hydrochloride was studied by electro-Fenton (EF) and solar photoelectro-Fenton (SPEF). Solutions of 10 L of 100 mg L⁻¹ of total organic carbon of each drug in 0.1 M Na₂SO₄ with 0.5 mM Fe²⁺ of pH 3.0 were treated in a recirculation flow plant with an electrochemical reactor coupled with a solar compound parabolic collector. Single Pt/carbon felt (CF) and boron-doped diamond (BDD)/air-diffusion electrode (ADE) cells and combined Pt/ADE-Pt/CF and BDD/ADE-Pt/CF cells were used. SPEF treatments were more potent with the latter cell, yielding 95-97% mineralization with 100% of maximum current efficiency and energy consumptions of about 0.250 kWh g TOC⁻¹. However, the Pt/ADE-Pt/CF cell gave much lower energy consumptions of about 0.080 kWh g TOC⁻¹ with slightly lower mineralization of 88-93%, then being more useful for its possible application at industrial level. The EF method led to a poorer mineralization and was more potent using the combined cells by the additional production of hydroxyl radicals (•OH) from Fenton's reaction from the fast Fe²⁺ regeneration at the CF cathode. Organics were also more rapidly destroyed at BDD than at Pt anode. The decay kinetics of beta-blockers always followed a pseudo first-order reaction, although in SPEF, it was accelerated by the additional production of •OH from the action of UV light of solar irradiation. Aromatic intermediates were also destroyed by hydroxyl radicals. Ultimate carboxylic acids like oxalic and oxamic remained in the treated solutions by EF, but their Fe(III) complexes were photolyzed by solar irradiation in SPEF, thus explaining its higher oxidation power. NO₃⁻ was the predominant inorganic ion lost in EF, whereas the SPEF process favored the production of NH₄⁺ ion and volatile N-derivatives.

Electrochemical degradation of the β-blocker metoprolol by Ti/Ru 0.7 Ir 0.3 O 2 and Ti/SnO 2-Sb electrodes

Electrochemical oxidation has been proposed for the elimination of pesticides, pharmaceuticals and other organic micropollutants from complex waste streams. However, the detrimental effect of halide ion mediators and the generation of halogenated by-products in this process have largely been neglected thus far. In this study, we investigated the electrochemical oxidation pathways of the β-blocker metoprolol in reverse osmosis concentrate (ROC) from a water reclamation plant using titanium anodes coated with Ru(0.7)Ir(0.3)O(2) or SnO(2)-Sb metal oxide layers. The results of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis indicated that irrespective of the electrode coating the same oxidant species participated in electrochemical transformation of metoprolol in ROC. Although Ti/SnO(2)-Sb exhibited higher oxidizing power for the same applied specific electrical charge, the generation of large fractions of chloro-, chloro-bromo- and bromo derivatives was observed for both electrode coatings. However, degradation rates of metoprolol and its degradation products were generally higher for the Ti/SnO(2)-Sb anode. Chemical analyses of metoprolol and its by-products were complemented with bioanalytical tools in order to investigate their toxicity relative to the parent compound. Results of the bioluminescence inhibition test with Vibrio fischeri and the combined algae test with Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata indicated a substantial increase in non-specific toxicity of the reaction mixture due to the formed halogenated by-products, while the specific toxicity (inhibition of photosynthesis) remained unchanged.

Removal of pharmaceutical and personal care products from reverse osmosis retentate using advanced oxidation processes

The application of reverse osmosis (RO) in water intended for reuse is promising for assuring high water quality. However, one significant disadvantage is the need to dispose of the RO retentate (or reject water). Studies focusing on Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) have raised questions concerning their concentrations in the RO retentate. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are alternatives for destroying these compounds in retentate that contains high concentration of effluent organic matter (EfOM) and other inorganic constituents. Twenty-seven PPCPs were screened in a RO retentate using solid phase extraction (SPE) and UPLC-MS/MS, and detailed degradation studies for 14 of the compounds were obtained. Based on the absolute hydroxyl radical (HO•) reaction rate constants for individual pharmaceutical compounds, and that of the RO retentate (EfOM and inorganic constituents), it was possible to model their destruction. Using excitation-emission matrix (EEM) fluorescence spectroscopy, the HO• oxidation of the EfOM could be observed through decreases in the retentate fluorescence. The decrease in the peak normally associated with proteins correlated well with the removal of the pharmaceutical compounds. These results suggest that fluorescence may be a suitable parameter for monitoring the degradation of PPCPs by AOPs in RO retentates.

Electro-Fenton and photoelectro-Fenton degradations of the drug beta-blocker propranolol using a Pt anode: identification and evolution of oxidation products

The beta-blocker propranolol hydrochloride has been degraded by electrochemical advanced oxidation processes like electro-Fenton (EF) and photoelectro-Fenton (PEF) using a single cell with a Pt anode and an air diffusion cathode (ADE) for H(2)O(2) electrogeneration and a combined system containing the above Pt/ADE pair coupled in parallel to a Pt/carbon-felt (CF) cell. Organics are mainly oxidized with hydroxyl radical (OH) formed from Fenton's reaction between added Fe(2+) and electrogenerated H(2)O(2). The PEF treatment in Pt/ADE-Pt/CF system yields almost total mineralization because OH production is enhanced by Fe(2+) regeneration from Fe(3+) reduction at the CF cathode and Fe(III) complexes with generated carboxylic acids are rapidly photodecarboxylated under UVA irradiation. Lower mineralization degree is found for PEF in Pt/ADE cell due to the little influence of UVA light on Fe(2+) regeneration. The homologous EF processes are much less potent as a result of the persistence of Fe(III)-carboxylate complexes. Aromatic intermediates such as 1-naphthol, 1,4-naphthoquinone and phthalic acid and generated carboxylic acids such as pyruvic, glycolic, malonic, maleic, oxamic, oxalic and formic are identified. While chloride ion remains stable, NH(4)(+) and NO(3)(-) ions are released to the medium. A reaction sequence for propranolol hydrochloride mineralization is proposed.

Evolution of absorbance spectra of ozonated wastewater and its relationship with the degradation of trace-level organic species

This study examined the evolution of absorbance spectra of wastewater ozonated using varying initial ozone concentrations or treatment times; concomitant changes of concentrations of trace-level pharmaceuticals were also quantified. The absorbance of ozonated wastewater decreased due to the degradation of chromophores in effluent organic matter (EfOM). The relative decrease of absorbance (DeltaA/A(0)) ranged from < 30% for lambda < 250 nm to > 80% for lambda > 320 nm. The removal of atenolol, carbamazepine, DEET, diclofenac, gemfibrozil, ibuprofen, iopromide, naproxen, propranolol, sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim, and p-chlorobenzoic acid was strongly correlated with DeltaA/A(0) values. The observed features were hypothesized to correspond to the engagement of kinetically distinct groups of EfOM chromophores. Modeling of the evolution of EfOM absorbance and concurrent degradation of trace-level organic species based on this hypothesis confirmed its applicability and utility for practical applications and theoretical exploration.

Degradation mechanisms and kinetic studies for the treatment of X-ray contrast media compounds by advanced oxidation/reduction processes

The presence of iodinated X-ray contrast media compounds (ICM) in surface and ground waters has been reported. This is likely due to their biological inertness and incomplete removal in wastewater treatment processes. The present study reports partial degradation mechanisms based on elucidating the structures of major reaction by-products using gamma-irradiation and LC-MS. Studies conducted at concentrations higher than observed in natural waters is necessary to elucidate the reaction by-product structures and to develop destruction mechanisms. To support these mechanistic studies, the bimolecular rate constants for the reaction of OH and e(-)(aq) with one ionic ICM (diatrizoate), four non-ionic ICM (iohexol, iopromide, iopamidol, and iomeprol), and the several analogues of diatrizoate were determined. The absolute bimolecular reaction rate constants for diatrizoate, iohexol, iopromide, iopamidol, and iomeprol with OH were (9.58 +/- 0.23)x10(8), (3.20 +/- 0.13)x10(9), (3.34 +/- 0.14)x10(9), (3.42 +/- 0.28)x10(9), and (2.03 +/- 0.13) x 10(9) M(-1) s(-1), and with e(-)(aq) were (2.13 +/- 0.03)x10(10), (3.35 +/- 0.03)x10(10), (3.25 +/- 0.05)x10(10), (3.37 +/- 0.05)x10(10), and (3.47 +/- 0.02) x 10(10) M(-1) s(-1), respectively. Transient spectra for the intermediates formed by the reaction of OH were also measured over the time period of 1-100 micros to better understand the stability of the radicals and for evaluation of reaction rate constants. Degradation efficiencies for the OH and e(-)(aq) reactions with the five ICM were determined using steady-state gamma-radiolysis. Collectively, these data will form the basis of kinetic models for application of advanced oxidation/reduction processes for treating water containing these compounds.

Photocatalytic degradation kinetics and mechanism of environmental pharmaceuticals in aqueous suspension of TiO2: a case of beta-blockers

This study investigated the photocatalytic degradation of three beta-blockers in TiO(2) suspensions. The disappearance of the compounds followed pseudo-first-order kinetics according to the Langmuir-Hinshelwood model and the rate constants were 0.075, 0.072 and 0.182 min(-1) for atenolol, metoprolol and propranolol, respectively. After 240 min irradiation, the reaction intermediates were completely mineralized to CO(2) and the nitrogen was predominantly as NH(4)(+). The influence of initial pH and beta-blocker concentration on the kinetics was also studied. From adsorption studies it appears that the photocatalytic degradation occurred mainly on the surface of TiO(2). Further studies indicated that surface reaction with OH radical was principally responsible for the degradation of these three beta-blockers. The major degradation intermediates were identified by HPLC/MS analysis. Cleavage of the side chain and the addition of the hydroxyl group to the parent compounds were found to be the two main degradation pathways for all three beta-blockers.

Degradation of tetracycline antibiotics: Mechanisms and kinetic studies for advanced oxidation/reduction processes

This study involves elucidating the destruction mechanisms of four tetracyclines via reactions with ()OH and solvated electrons (e(aq)(-)). The first step is to evaluate the bimolecular rate constants for the reaction of ()OH and e(aq)(-). Transient absorption spectra for the intermediates formed by the reaction of ()OH were also measured over the time period of 1-250micros to assist in selecting the appropriate wavelength for the absolute bimolecular reaction rate constants. For these four compounds, tetracycline, chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, and doxycycline, the absolute rate constants with ()OH were (6.3+/-0.1)x10(9), (5.2+/-0.2)x10(9), (5.6+/-0.1)x10(9), and (7.6+/-0.1)x10(9) M(-1) s(-1), and for e(aq)(-) were (2.2+/-0.1)x10(10), (1.3+/-0.2)x10(10), (2.3+/-0.1)x10(10), and (2.5+/-0.1)x10(10) M(-1) s(-1), respectively. The efficiencies for ()OH reaction with the four tetracyclines ranged from 32% to 60%. The efficiencies for e(aq)(-) reaction were 15-29% except for chlortetracycline which was significantly higher (97%) than the other tetracyclines in spite of the similar reaction rate constants for e(aq)(-) in all cases. To evaluate the use of advanced oxidation/reduction processes for the destruction of tetracyclines it is necessary to have reaction rates, reaction efficiencies and destruction mechanisms. This paper is the first step in eventually realizing the formulation of a detailed kinetic destruction model for these four tetracycline antibiotics.

Ozonation of metoprolol: elucidation of oxidation pathways and major oxidation products

Oxidation products (OPs) formed during ozonation of metoprolol were identified via liquid chromatography and hybride Qq LIT-MS. Experiments carried out at pH 3 and 8 showed the formation of different OPs, depending on pH. The analysis of samples with and without tertiary butanol (t-BuOH) revealed the influence of OH radical reactions. The OH radical exposure was measured by adding a probe compound (para-chlorobenzoic acid, pCBA). Elucidation of chemical structures confirmed the formation of aldehyde moieties as well as the occurrence of hydroxylation reactions. Several reaction pathways for the formation of the oxidation products are proposed. Analysis of ozonated raw wastewater and the effluent of a municipal wastewater treatment plant spiked with 10 microM metoprolol exhibited a similar OP formation pattern as detected in the reaction system at pH 8 without a radical scavenger. This indicates a significant impact of OH radical exposure on the formation of OPs in real wastewater matrices.

Free-radical-induced oxidative and reductive degradation of fibrate pharmaceuticals: kinetic studies and degradation mechanisms

The presence of pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) in aquatic systems is an emerging environmental issue and poses a potential threat to ecosystems and human health. Unfortunately, current water treatment techniques do not efficiently remove all of the PhACs, which results in the occurrence of such compounds in surface and ground waters. Advanced oxidation/reduction processes (AO/RPs) which utilize free radical reactions to directly degrade chemical contaminants are alternatives to traditional water treatment methods. This study reports the absolute bimolecular reaction rate constants for three pharmaceutical compounds (fibrates), clofibric acid, bezafibrate, and gemfibrozil, with the hydroxyl radical (*OH) and hydrated electron (e(-)(aq)). The bimolecular reaction rate constants for *OH were (6.98 +/- 0.12) x 10(9), (8.00 +/- 0.22) x 10(9), and (10.0 +/- 0.6) x 10(9), and for e(-)(aq) were (6.59 +/- 0.43) x 10(8), (112 +/- 3) x 10(8), and (6.26 +/- 0.58) x 10(8), for clofibric acid, bezafibrate, and gemfibrozil, respectively. Transient spectra were obtained for the intermediate radicals produced by the hydroxyl radical reactions. In addition, preliminary degradation mechanisms and major products were elucidated using (137)Cs gamma-irradiation and LC-MS. These data are required for evaluating the potential use of AO/RPs for the destruction of these compounds in treating water for various purposes.

Radiolysis studies on the destruction of microcystin-LR in aqueous solution by hydroxyl radicals

In this study, steady-state and time-resolved radiolysis methods were used to determine the primary reaction pathways and kinetic parameters for the reactions of hydroxyl radical with microcystin-LR (MC-LR). The fundamental kinetic data is critical for the accurate evaluation of hydroxyl-radical based technologies for the destruction of this problematic class of cyanotoxins. The bimolecular rate constant for the reaction of hydroxyl radical with MC-LR is 2.3 (+/-0.1) x 10(10) M(-1)s(-1) based on time-resolved competition kinetics with SCN-at low conversions using pulsed radiolysis experiments. The reaction of hydroxyl radical with MC-LR can occur via a number of competing reaction pathways, including addition to the benzene ring and diene and abstraction of aliphatic hydrogen atoms. LC-MS analyses indicate the major products from the reaction of hydroxyl radicals with MC-LR involve addition of hydroxyl radical to the benzene ring and diene moieties of the Adda side chain. Transient absorption spectroscopy monitored between 260-500 nm, following pulsed hydroxyl radical generation, indicate the formation of a transient species with absorption maxima at 270 and 310 nm. The absorption maxima and lifetime of the transient species are characteristic of hydroxycyclohexadienyl radicals resulting from the addition of hydroxyl radical to the benzene ring. The rate constant for the formation of hydroxycyclohexadienyl radical is 1.0 (+/-0.1) x 10(10) M(-1)s(-1) accounting for approximately 40% of the primary reaction pathways. Representative rate constants and partitioning of hydroxyl radical reactions were assessed based on the reactivities of surrogate substrates and individual amino acids. Summation of the individual reactivities of hydroxyl radical at the different reactive sites (amino acids) leads to a rate constant of 2.1 x 10(10) M(-1) s(-1) in good agreementwith the rate constant determined in our studies. The relative magnitude of the rate constants for the reactions of hydroxyl radical with the individual amino acids and appropriate surrogates, suggest 60-70% reactions of hydroxyl radical occur at the benzene and diene functional groups of the Adda moiety.

Free-radical-induced oxidative and reductive degradation of N,N'-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET): Kinetic studies and degradation pathway

N,N'-Diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET) is widely used as an insect repellent and has therefore been detected as a contaminant in numerous waste and surface waters. In this study we have determined the absolute reaction rate constants of DEET with the hydroxyl radical and the hydrated electron in aqueous solution as (4.95+/-0.18)x10(9) and (1.34+/-0.04)x10(9) M(-1) s(-1), respectively, using pulse radiation. To provide additional information on the radicals formed upon oxidation, transient spectra were measured from 1 to 150 micros, with transient decay rates determined from the time-dependence of the maximum absorption at 330 nm. These data suggest simple decay of the initially formed radical to stable products. Radical-based destruction mechanisms for destruction of DEET are proposed based on the LC-MS determination of the stable compounds produced by 60Co gamma-irradiation of DEET solutions. These data will be useful in evaluating potential advanced oxidation/reduction processes for the control of DEET and understanding its fate and transport in surface water where analogous radical chemistry is operative.

Free-radical destruction of beta-lactam antibiotics in aqueous solution

Many pharmaceutical compounds and metabolites are being found in surface and ground waters, indicating their ineffective removal by conventional wastewater treatment technologies. Advanced oxidation/reduction processes (AO/RPs), which utilize free-radical reactions to directly degrade chemical contaminants, are alternatives to traditional water treatment. This study reports the absolute rate constants for reaction of three beta-lactam antibiotics (penicillin G, penicillin V, amoxicillin) and a model compound (+)-6-aminopenicillanic acid with the two major AO/RP reactive species: hydroxyl radical ((*)OH) and hydrated electron (e(-)aq). The bimolecular reaction rate constants (M(-1) s(-1)) for penicillin G, penicillin V, amoxicillin, and (+)-6-aminopenicillanic acid for (*)OH were (7.97 +/- 0.11) x 10(9), (8.76 +/- 0.28) x 10(9), (6.94 +/- 0.44) x 10(9), and (2.40 +/- 0.05) x 10(9) and for e(-)aq were (3.92 +/- 0.10) x 10(9), (5.76 +/- 0.24) x 10(9), (3.47 +/- 0.07) x 10(9), and (3.35 +/- 0.06) x 10(9), respectively. To provide a better understanding of the decomposition of the intermediate radicals produced by hydroxyl radical reactions, transient absorption spectra were observed from 1 to 100 micros. In addition, preliminary degradation mechanisms and major products were elucidated using (137)Cs gamma irradiation and LC-MS. These data are required for both evaluating the potential use of AO/RPs for the destruction of these compounds and studies of their fate and transport in surface waters where radical chemistry may be important in assessing their lifetime.

Ozonation of reverse osmosis concentrate: kinetics and efficiency of beta blocker oxidation

Reverse osmosis (RO) concentrate samples were obtained from a RO-membrane system that uses effluents of wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) as feed water for the production of drinking water. A number of different pharmaceuticals (e.g. antibiotics, contrast media, beta blockers) were found in the WWTP effluent as well as in the RO-concentrate. Overall, a concentration factor (feed:concentrate) of approximately 3-4 was measured. Beta blockers (acebutolol, atenolol, bisoprolol, celiprolol, metoprolol, propranolol, timolol) were found in the range of low ng/L to low microg/L. Because metoprolol and propranolol are classified as potentially toxic to aquatic organisms and all beta blocker molecules have moieties, which are reactive towards ozone (amine groups, activated aromatic rings), it was tested whether ozonation can be applied for their mitigation. Rate constants for the reaction of acebutolol, atenolol, metoprolol and propranolol with ozone and OH radicals were determined. At pH 7 acebutolol, atenolol and metoprolol react with ozone with an apparent second-order rate constant k(O)(3) of about 2,000 M(-1)s(-1), whereas propranolol reacts with approximately 10(5)M(-1)s(-1). The rate constants for the reaction of the selected compounds with OH radicals were determined to be 0.5-1.0 x 10(10)M(-1)s(-1). Experiments with RO concentrate showed that an ozone dose of only 5mg/L resulted in a quantitative removal of propranolol in 0.8s and 10mg O(3)/L oxidized 70% of metoprolol in only 1.2s. Tests with chlorinated and non-chlorinated WWTP effluent showed an increase of ozone stability but a decrease of hydroxyl radical exposure in the samples after chlorination. This may shift the oxidation processes towards direct ozone reactions and favor the degradation of compounds with high k(O)(3).