Rayleigh imaging of graphene and graphene layers

A Simple Transmission Electron Microscopy Method for Fast Thickness Characterization of Suspended Graphene and Graphite Flakes

We present a simple, fast method for thickness characterization of suspended graphene/graphite flakes that is based on transmission electron microscopy (TEM). We derive an analytical expression for the intensity of the transmitted electron beam I 0(t), as a function of the specimen thickness t (t<<λ; where λ is the absorption constant for graphite). We show that in thin graphite crystals the transmitted intensity is a linear function of t. Furthermore, high-resolution (HR) TEM simulations are performed to obtain λ for a 001 zone axis orientation, in a two-beam case and in a low symmetry orientation. Subsequently, HR (used to determine t) and bright-field (to measure I 0(0) and I 0(t)) images were acquired to experimentally determine λ. The experimental value measured in low symmetry orientation matches the calculated value (i.e., λ=225±9 nm). The simulations also show that the linear approximation is valid up to a sample thickness of 3-4 nm regardless of the orientation and up to several ten nanometers for a low symmetry orientation. When compared with standard techniques for thickness determination of graphene/graphite, the method we propose has the advantage of being simple and fast, requiring only the acquisition of bright-field images.

Towards a general growth model for graphene CVD on transition metal catalysts

The chemical vapour deposition (CVD) of graphene on three polycrystalline transition metal catalysts, Co, Ni and Cu, is systematically compared and a first-order growth model is proposed which can serve as a reference to optimize graphene growth on any elemental or alloy catalyst system. Simple thermodynamic considerations of carbon solubility are insufficient to capture even basic growth behaviour on these most commonly used catalyst materials, and it is shown that kinetic aspects such as carbon permeation have to be taken into account. Key CVD process parameters are discussed in this context and the results are anticipated to be highly useful for the design of future strategies for integrated graphene manufacture.

Surface Plasmon Polariton Graphene Photodetectors

The combination of plasmonic nanoparticles and graphene enhances the responsivity and spectral selectivity of graphene-based photodetectors. However, the small area of the metal-graphene junction, where the induced electron-hole pairs separate, limits the photoactive region to submicron length scales. Here, we couple graphene with a plasmonic grating and exploit the resulting surface plasmon polaritons to deliver the collected photons to the junction region of a metal-graphene-metal photodetector. This gives a 400% enhancement of responsivity and a 1000% increase in photoactive length, combined with tunable spectral selectivity. The interference between surface plasmon polaritons and the incident wave introduces new functionalities, such as light flux attraction or repulsion from the contact edges, enabling the tailored design of the photodetector's spectral response. This architecture can also be used for surface plasmon biosensing with direct-electric-redout, eliminating the need of bulky optics.

Demulsification of heavy oil-in-water emulsions by reduced graphene oxide nanosheets

The purpose of this work is to investigate the relationship between the chemical structure of the GO materials and the demulsification performance.

Near-field absorption imaging by a Raman nano-light source

We demonstrate nano-scale absorption imaging by using a novel Raman light source.

Visibility of atomically-thin layered materials buried in silicon dioxide

Recently, the coating of thin oxide or nitride film on top of crystals of atomically-thin layered material (ATLM) has been introduced, which benefits optical and electrical properties of the materials and shields them from environmental contact, and has important implications for optoelectronics applications of layered materials. By calculating the reflection contrast, we show the possibility of using an additional oxide film on top of ATLM with good average optical color contrast in broad- and narrow-band wavelength ranges. Our work presents a more comprehensive map of optical color contrast of various ATLMs including graphene, MoS2, MoSe2, WS2, and WSe2 when kept in a sandwich structure between two thin SiO2 films on a Si substrate. The average color contrasts of ATLMs with varying thicknesses of SiO2 films at three different wavelength ranges (i.e. broadband range, range for green filtering and range for red filtering) have been discussed with a summary of optimized thicknesses of the top and bottom oxide films in order to achieve the highest color contrast from the sandwich structures.

Effect of the thin-film limit on the measurable optical properties of graphene

The fundamental sheet conductance of graphene can be directly related to the product of its absorption coefficient, thickness and refractive index. The same can be done for graphene's fundamental opacity if the so-called thin-film limit is considered. Here, we test mathematically and experimentally the validity of this limit on graphene, as well as on thin metal and semiconductor layers. Notably, within this limit, all measurable properties depend only on the product of the absorption coefficient, thickness, and refractive index. As a direct consequence, the absorptance of graphene depends on the refractive indices of the surrounding media. This explains the difficulty in determining separately the optical constants of graphene and their widely varying values found in literature so far. Finally, our results allow an accurate estimation of the potential optical losses or gains when graphene is used for various optoelectronic applications.

Interface Coupling in Twisted Multilayer Graphene by Resonant Raman Spectroscopy of Layer Breathing Modes

Raman spectroscopy is the prime nondestructive characterization tool for graphene and related layered materials. The shear (C) and layer breathing modes (LBMs) are due to relative motions of the planes, either perpendicular or parallel to their normal. This allows one to directly probe the interlayer interactions in multilayer samples. Graphene and other two-dimensional (2d) crystals can be combined to form various hybrids and heterostructures, creating materials on demand with properties determined by the interlayer interaction. This is the case even for a single material, where multilayer stacks with different relative orientations have different optical and electronic properties. In twisted multilayer graphene there is a significant enhancement of the C modes due to resonance with new optically allowed electronic transitions, determined by the relative orientation of the layers. Here we show that this applies also to the LBMs, which can be now directly measured at room temperature. We find that twisting has a small effect on LBMs, quite different from the case of the C modes. This implies that the periodicity mismatch between two twisted layers mostly affects shear interactions. Our work shows that ultralow-frequency Raman spectroscopy is an ideal tool to uncover the interface coupling of 2d hybrids and heterostructures.

High accuracy determination of the thermal properties of supported 2D materials

We present a novel approach for the simultaneous determination of the thermal conductivity κ and the total interface conductance g of supported 2D materials by the enhanced opto-thermal method. We harness the property of the Gaussian laser beam that acts as a heat source, whose size can easily and precisely be controlled. The experimental data for multi-layer graphene and MoS₂ flakes are supplemented using numerical simulations of the heat distribution in the Si/SiO2/2D material system. The procedure of κ and g extraction is tested in a statistical approach, demonstrating the high accuracy and repeatability of our method.

Graphene: A Versatile Carbon-Based Material for Bone Tissue Engineering

The development of materials and strategies that can influence stem cell attachment, proliferation, and differentiation towards osteoblasts is of high interest to promote faster healing and reconstructions of large bone defects. Graphene and its derivatives (graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide) have received increasing attention for biomedical applications as they present remarkable properties such as high surface area, high mechanical strength, and ease of functionalization. These biocompatible carbon-based materials can induce and sustain stem cell growth and differentiation into various lineages. Furthermore, graphene has the ability to promote and enhance osteogenic differentiation making it an interesting material for bone regeneration research. This paper will review the important advances in the ability of graphene and its related forms to induce stem cells differentiation into osteogenic lineages.

Layer number identification of intrinsic and defective multilayered graphenes up to 100 layers by the Raman mode intensity from substrates

An SiO2/Si substrate has been widely used to support two-dimensional (2d) flakes grown by chemical vapor deposition or prepared by micromechanical cleavage. The Raman intensity of the vibration modes of 2d flakes is used to identify the layer number of 2d flakes on the SiO2/Si substrate, however, such an intensity is usually dependent on the flake quality, crystal orientation and laser polarization. Here, we used graphene flakes, a prototype system, to demonstrate how to use the intensity ratio between the Si peak from SiO2/Si substrates underneath graphene flakes and that from bare SiO2/Si substrates for the layer-number identification of graphene flakes up to 100 layers. This technique is robust, fast and nondestructive against sample orientation, laser excitation and the presence of defects in the graphene layers. The effect of relevant experimental parameters on the layer-number identification was discussed in detail, such as the thickness of the SiO2 layer, laser excitation wavelength and numerical aperture of the used objective. This paves the way to use Raman signals from dielectric substrates for layer-number identification of ultrathin flakes of various 2d materials.

Plasmon excitation on flat graphene by s-polarized beams using four-wave mixing

Graphene plasmons have received significant attention recently due to its attractive properties such as high spatial confinement and tunability. However, exciting plasmons on graphene effectively still remains a challenge owing to the large wave-vector mismatch between the optical beam in air and graphene plasmon. In this paper, we present a novel scheme capable of exciting graphene surface plasmons (GSPs) on a flat suspended graphene by using only s-polarized optical beams through four-wave mixing (FWM) process, where the GSPs fields were derived analytically based on the Green's function analysis, under the basis of momentum conservation. By incorporating the merits of nonlinear optics, the presented scheme avoids any patterning of either graphene or substrate. We believe that the proposed scheme potentially paves the way towards an efficient pure optical excitation, switching and modulation of GSPs for realizing graphene-based nano-photonic and optoelectronic integrated circuits.

Nanocavity absorption enhancement for two-dimensional material monolayer systems

Here we propose a strategy to enhance the light-matter interaction of two-dimensional (2D) material monolayers based on strong interference effect in planar nanocavities, and overcome the limitation between optical absorption and the atomically-thin thickness of 2D materials. By exploring the role of spacer layers with different thicknesses and refractive indices, we demonstrate that a nanocavity with an air spacer layer placed between a graphene monolayer and an aluminum reflector layer will enhance the exclusive absorption in the graphene monolayer effectively, which is particularly useful for the development of atomically-thin energy harvesting/conversion devices.

Science and technology roadmap for graphene, related two-dimensional crystals, and hybrid systems

We present the science and technology roadmap for graphene, related two-dimensional crystals, and hybrid systems, targeting an evolution in technology, that might lead to impacts and benefits reaching into most areas of society. This roadmap was developed within the framework of the European Graphene Flagship and outlines the main targets and research areas as best understood at the start of this ambitious project. We provide an overview of the key aspects of graphene and related materials (GRMs), ranging from fundamental research challenges to a variety of applications in a large number of sectors, highlighting the steps necessary to take GRMs from a state of raw potential to a point where they might revolutionize multiple industries. We also define an extensive list of acronyms in an effort to standardize the nomenclature in this emerging field.

Optical reflection modulation using surface plasmon resonance in a graphene-embedded hybrid plasmonic waveguide at an optical communication wavelength

We propose a high-performance, graphene-based optical modulator with a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) at 1550 nm. In the proposed device, a graphene layer is embedded in a hybrid plasmonic waveguide to enhance the light-graphene interaction. The adjustment of the permittivity of the graphene causes a significant modulation of the absorption in the SPR through a variation of the field confinement in the graphene layer, in addition to a resonant angle shift. With an optimal thickness of a metal (Ag) film and the properly chosen operation point of the Fermi level of graphene, a modulation depth of ∼100% was achieved. As the number of graphene layers in the proposed device increases, the insertion loss decreases. With five-layer graphene, a 6% insertion loss was achieved.

Engineering light outcoupling in 2D materials

When light is incident on 2D transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs), it engages in multiple reflections within underlying substrates, producing interferences that lead to enhancement or attenuation of the incoming and outgoing strength of light. Here, we report a simple method to engineer the light outcoupling in semiconducting TMDCs by modulating their dielectric surroundings. We show that by modulating the thicknesses of underlying substrates and capping layers, the interference caused by substrate can significantly enhance the light absorption and emission of WSe2, resulting in a ∼11 times increase in Raman signal and a ∼30 times increase in the photoluminescence (PL) intensity of WSe2. On the basis of the interference model, we also propose a strategy to control the photonic and optoelectronic properties of thin-layer WSe2. This work demonstrates the utilization of outcoupling engineering in 2D materials and offers a new route toward the realization of novel optoelectronic devices, such as 2D LEDs and solar cells.

Limitations of MTT and CCK-8 assay for evaluation of graphene cytotoxicity

Cellular toxicity test is a key step in assessing the graphene toxicity for its biomedical applications.

Photocurrent generation with two-dimensional van der Waals semiconductors

We review photodetectors based on transition metal dichalcogenides, novel van der Waals materials, black phosphorus, and heterostructures.

Magneto-optical properties of ABC-stacked trilayer graphene

The generalized tight-binding model is developed to investigate the magneto-optical absorption spectra of ABC-stacked trilayer graphene.

Raman modes of MoS2 used as fingerprint of van der Waals interactions in 2-D crystal-based heterostructures

In this work, we use Raman spectroscopy as a nondestructive and rapid technique for probing the van der Waals (vdW) forces acting between two atomically thin crystals, where one is a transition metal dichalcogenide (TMDC). In this work, MoS2 is used as a Raman probe: we show that its two Raman-active phonon modes can provide information on the interaction between the two crystals. In particular, the in-plane vibration (E2g(1)) provides information on the in-plane strain, while the out-of-plane mode (A1g) gives evidence for the quality of the interfacial contact. We show that a vdW contact with MoS2 is characterized by a blue shift of +2 cm(-1) of the A1g peak. In the case of a MoS2/graphene heterostructure, the vdW contact is also characterized by a shift of +14 cm(-1) of the 2D peak of graphene. Our approach offers a very simple, nondestructive, and fast method to characterize the quality of the interface of heterostructures containing atomically thick TMDC crystals.

Graphene-based electroresponsive scaffolds as polymeric implants for on-demand drug delivery

Stimuli-responsive biomaterials have attracted significant attention in the field of polymeric implants designed as active scaffolds for on-demand drug delivery. Conventional porous scaffolds suffer from drawbacks such as molecular diffusion and material degradation, allowing in most cases only a zero-order drug release profile. The possibility of using external stimulation to trigger drug release is particularly enticing. In this paper, the fabrication of previously unreported graphene hydrogel hybrid electro-active scaffolds capable of controlled small molecule release is presented. Pristine ball-milled graphene sheets are incorporated into a three dimensional macroporous hydrogel matrix to obtain hybrid gels with enhanced mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties. These electroactive scaffolds demonstrate controlled drug release in a pulsatile fashion upon the ON/OFF application of low electrical voltages, at low graphene concentrations (0.2 mg mL(-1) ) and by maintaining their structural integrity. Moreover, the in vivo performance of these electroactive scaffolds to release drug molecules without any "resistive heating" is demonstrated. In this study, an illustration of how the heat dissipating properties of graphene can provide significant and previously unreported advantages in the design of electroresponsive hydrogels, able to maintain optimal functionality by overcoming adverse effects due to unwanted heating, is offered.

Photothermoelectric and photoelectric contributions to light detection in metal-graphene-metal photodetectors

Graphene's high mobility and Fermi velocity, combined with its constant light absorption in the visible to far-infrared range, make it an ideal material to fabricate high-speed and ultrabroadband photodetectors. However, the precise mechanism of photodetection is still debated. Here, we report wavelength and polarization-dependent measurements of metal-graphene-metal photodetectors. This allows us to quantify and control the relative contributions of both photothermo- and photoelectric effects, both adding to the overall photoresponse. This paves the way for a more efficient photodetector design for ultrafast operating speeds.

Raman identification of edge alignment of bilayer graphene down to the nanometer scale

The ideal edges of bilayer graphene (BLG) are that the edges of the top and bottom graphene layers (GLs) of BLG are well-aligned. Actually, the alignment distance between the edges of the top and bottom GLs of a real BLG can be as large as the submicrometer scale or as small as zero, which cannot be distinguished using an optical microscope. Here, we present a detailed Raman study on BLG at its edges. If the alignment distance of the top and bottom GLs of BLG is larger than the laser spot, the measured D mode at the edge of the top GL of BLG shows a similar spectral profile to that of disordered BLG. If the alignment distance is smaller than the laser spot, the D mode at a real BLG edge shows three typical spectral profiles similar to that at the edge of SLG, that of the well-aligned edge of BLG, or a combination of both. We show the sensitivity and ability of Raman spectroscopy to acquire the alignment distance between two edges of top and bottom GLs of BLG as small as several nanometers, which is far beyond the diffraction limit of a laser spot. This work opens the possibility to probe the edge alignment of multi-layer graphene.

Nanocavity enhancement for ultra-thin film optical absorber

A fundamental strategy is developed to enhance the light-matter interaction of ultra-thin films based on a strong interference effect in planar nanocavities, and overcome the limitation between the optical absorption and film thickness of energy harvesting/conversion materials. This principle is quite general and is applied to explore the spectrally tunable absorption enhancement of various ultra-thin absorptive materials including 2D atomic monolayers.

Charge tuning of nonresonant magnetoexciton phonon interactions in graphene

Far from resonance, the coupling of the G-band phonon to magnetoexcitons in single layer graphene displays kinks and splittings versus filling factor that are well described by Pauli blocking and unblocking of inter- and intra-Landau level transitions. We explore the nonresonant electron-phonon coupling by high-magnetic field Raman scattering while electrostatic tuning of the carrier density controls the filling factor. We show qualitative and quantitative agreement between spectra and a linearized model of electron-phonon interactions in magnetic fields. The splitting is caused by dichroism of left- and right-handed circular polarized light due to lifting of the G-band phonon degeneracy, and the piecewise linear slopes are caused by the linear occupancy of sequential Landau levels versus ν.

Determination of the elastic properties of graphene by indentation and the validity of classical models of indentation

Ab initio and empirical force field methods are used to simulate the loading of a large graphene membrane under an indenter analogous to an atomic force microscope tip. From these calculations we attempt to resolve ambiguities around determination of the elastic constants of graphene from such indentation experiments. We investigate the effect of the formation of wrinkles and more importantly the applicability of modelling the membrane as a continuous elastic sheet. By comparing empirical potential and large scale density functional theory calculations we have also assessed the performance of classical potentials in describing bending in this system. We find that the in-plane Young's modulus deduced from the indentation simulations using the classical expression for a clamped elastic membrane under a central point load is not consistent with that calculated directly from the in-plane stress-strain curve.

Facile method to sort graphene quantum dots by size through ammonium sulfate addition

Schematic of graphene quantum dots salting-out procedure through ammonium sulfate.

Graphene's potential in materials science and engineering

Materials have become an indispensable part of our modern life, which was tailored such as good mechanical, electrical, thermal properties, establish the basis and fundamentals and the governing rules for every modern technology.

Tribology study of lanthanum-treated graphene oxide thin film on silicon substrate

Low friction coefficient and wear rate of components are crucial for nano-electromechanical-systems.

Computational modelling of a graphene Fresnel lens on different substrates

In this work we studied tunable lensing effects of graphene Fresnel lens on different substrates with incident light of 850 nm and 1550 nm wavelengths.

Ultrafast and widely tuneable vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting laser, mode-locked by a graphene-integrated distributed Bragg reflector

We report a versatile way of controlling the unsaturated loss, modulation depth and saturation fluence of graphene-based saturable absorbers (GSAs), by changing the thickness of a spacer between a single layer graphene (SLG) and a high-reflection mirror. This allows us to modulate the electric field intensity enhancement at the GSA from 0 up to 400%, due to the interference of incident and reflected light at the mirror. The unsaturated loss of the SLG-mirror-assembly can be reduced to ∼0. We use this to mode-lock a vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting laser (VECSEL) from 935 to 981 nm. This approach can be applied to integrate SLG into various optical components, such as output coupler mirrors, dispersive mirrors or dielectric coatings on gain materials. Conversely, it can also be used to increase the absorption (up to 10%) in various graphene based photonics and optoelectronics devices, such as photodetectors.

Quinone-mediated microbial synthesis of reduced graphene oxide with peroxidase-like activity

The effects of different quinones on graphene oxide (GO) reduction by Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 and the peroxidase activity of the resultant reduced graphene oxide (QRGO) were studied. The presence of 100 μM anthraquinone-2-sulfonate (AQS), anthraquinone-2,6-disulfonate and 5-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone could lead to 1.6-2.8-fold increase in GO reduction rate, whereas anthraquinone-2-carboxylate slowed down the reduction. The stimulating effects of AQS increased with the increase of its concentration (10-100 μM). The mediated effects were proved by direct GO reduction by microbially reduced AQS. The mediated reduction of GO to QRGO was characterized by UV-vis, XRD, FTIR, Raman spectra, XPS, TEM and AFM, respectively. The as-prepared QRGO possessed peroxidase-like activity, which could catalyze the oxidation of 3,3'5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine by H2O2, and followed Michealis-Menten kinetics. A colorimetric sensor for quantitative determination of glucose based on the peroxidase activity of QRGO was developed over a range of 1-120 μM with a detection limit of 1 μM.

Rapid and reliable thickness identification of two-dimensional nanosheets using optical microscopy

The physical and electronic properties of ultrathin two-dimensional (2D) layered nanomaterials are highly related to their thickness. Therefore, the rapid and accurate identification of single- and few- to multilayer nanosheets is essential to their fundamental study and practical applications. Here, a universal optical method has been developed for simple, rapid, and reliable identification of single- to quindecuple-layer (1L-15L) 2D nanosheets, including graphene, MoS2, WSe2, and TaS2, on Si substrates coated with 90 or 300 nm SiO2. The optical contrast differences between the substrates and 2D nanosheets with different layer numbers were collected and tabulated, serving as a standard reference, from which the layer number of a given nanosheet can be readily and reliably determined without using complex calculation or expensive instrument. Our general optical identification method will facilitate the thickness-dependent study of various 2D nanomaterials and expedite their research toward practical applications.

Carbon nanowalls: the next step for physical manifestation of the black body coating

The optical properties of carbon nanowall (CNW) films in the visible range have been studied and reported for the first time. Depending on the film structure, ultra-low total reflectance up to 0.13% can be reached, which makes the CNW films a promising candidate for the black body-like coating, and thus for a wide range of applications as a light absorber. We have estimated important trends in the optical property variation from sample to sample, and identified the presence of edge states and domain boundaries in carbon nanowalls as well as the film mass density variation as the key factors. Also we demonstrated that at much lower film thickness and density than for a carbon nanotube forest the CNWs yield one order higher specific light absorption.

Controlling subnanometer gaps in plasmonic dimers using graphene

Graphene is used as the thinnest possible spacer between gold nanoparticles and a gold substrate. This creates a robust, repeatable, and stable subnanometer gap for massive plasmonic field enhancements. White light spectroscopy of single 80 nm gold nanoparticles reveals plasmonic coupling between the particle and its image within the gold substrate. While for a single graphene layer, spectral doublets from coupled dimer modes are observed shifted into the near-infrared, these disappear for increasing numbers of layers. These doublets arise from charger-transfer-sensitive gap plasmons, allowing optical measurement to access out-of-plane conductivity in such layered systems. Gating the graphene can thus directly produce plasmon tuning.

Graphene for energy solutions and its industrialization

Graphene attracts intensive interest globally across academia and industry since the award of the Nobel Prize in Physics 2010. Within the last half decade, there has been an explosion in the number of scientific publications, patents and industry projects involved in this topic. On the other hand, energy is one of the biggest challenges of this century and related to the global sustainable economy. There are many reviews on graphene and its applications in various devices, however, few of the review articles connect the intrinsic properties of graphene with its energy. The IUPAC definition of graphene refers to a single carbon layer of graphite structure and its related superlative properties. A lot of scientific results on graphene published to date are actually dealing with multi-layer graphenes or reduced graphenes from insulating graphene oxides (GO) which contain defects and contaminants from the reactions and do not possess some of the intrinsic physical properties of pristine graphene. In this review, the focus is on the most recent advances in the study of pure graphene properties and novel energy solutions based on these properties. It also includes graphene metrology and analysis of both intellectual property and the value chain for the existing and forthcoming graphene industry that may cause a new 'industry revolution' with the strong and determined support of governments and industries across the European Union, U. S., Asia and many other countries in the world.

Dynamic light scattering microscope: accessing opaque samples with high spatial resolution

We developed a new technique that conducts dynamic light scattering (DLS) under a microscope with high spatial resolution. This technique dramatically extends the range of DLS application from transparent to opaque samples. The total scattered electric field contains both electric field generated from the samples and time-independent reflected electric field. These two components are decomposed by applying a partial heterodyne method. By using this technique, we successfully calculate the characteristic size distribution of both multiple-scattering samples and strong light-absorbing samples. This is the first study to observe the collective motion of particles in a highly concentrated solution by using DLS.