Nanoscale chemical imaging of a working catalyst by scanning transmission X-ray microscopy

Rapid in situ X-ray position stabilization via extremum seeking feedback

X-ray beam stability is crucial for acquiring high-quality data at synchrotron beamline facilities. When the X-ray beam and defining apertures are of similar dimensions, small misalignments driven by position instabilities give rise to large intensity fluctuations. This problem is solved using extremum seeking feedback control (ESFC) for in situ vertical beam position stabilization. In this setup, the intensity spatial gradient required for ESFC is determined by phase comparison of intensity oscillations downstream from the sample with pre-existing vertical beam oscillations. This approach compensates for vertical position drift from all sources with position recovery times <6 s and intensity stability through a 5 µm aperture measured at 1.5% FWHM over a period of 8 hours.

In Situ Ptychography of Heterogeneous Catalysts using Hard X-Rays: High Resolution Imaging at Ambient Pressure and Elevated Temperature

A new closed cell is presented for in situ X-ray ptychography which allows studies under gas flow and at elevated temperature. In order to gain complementary information by transmission and scanning electron microscopy, the cell makes use of a Protochips E-chipTM which contains a small, thin electron transparent window and allows heating. Two gold-based systems, 50 nm gold particles and nanoporous gold as a relevant catalyst sample, were used for studying the feasibility of the cell. Measurements showing a resolution around 40 nm have been achieved under a flow of synthetic air and during heating up to temperatures of 933 K. An elevated temperature exhibited little influence on image quality and resolution. With this study, the potential of in situ hard X-ray ptychography for investigating annealing processes of real catalyst samples is demonstrated. Furthermore, the possibility to use the same sample holder for ex situ electron microscopy before and after the in situ study underlines the unique possibilities available with this combination of electron microscopy and X-ray microscopy on the same sample.

Direct in situ observation of ZnO nucleation and growth via transmission X-ray microscopy

The nucleation and growth of a nanostructure controls its size and morphology, and ultimately its functional properties. Hence it is crucial to investigate growth mechanisms under relevant growth conditions at the nanometer length scale. Here we image the nucleation and growth of electrodeposited ZnO nanostructures in situ, using a transmission X-ray microscope and specially designed electrochemical cell. We show that this imaging technique leads to new insights into the nucleation and growth mechanisms in electrodeposited ZnO including direct, in situ observations of instantaneous versus delayed nucleation.

Size-dependent redox behavior of iron observed by in-situ single nanoparticle spectro-microscopy on well-defined model systems

Understanding the chemistry of nanoparticles is crucial in many applications. Their synthesis in a controlled manner and their characterization at the single particle level is essential to gain deeper insight into chemical mechanisms. In this work, single nanoparticle spectro-microscopy with top-down nanofabrication is demonstrated to study individual iron nanoparticles of nine different lateral dimensions from 80 nm down to 6 nm. The particles are probed simultaneously, under same conditions, during in-situ redox reaction using X-ray photoemission electron microscopy elucidating the size effect during the early stage of oxidation, yielding time-dependent evolution of iron oxides and the mechanism for the inter-conversion of oxides in nanoparticles. Fabrication of well-defined system followed by visualization and investigation of singled-out particles eliminates the ambiguities emerging from dispersed nanoparticles and reveals a significant increase in the initial rate of oxidation with decreasing size, but the reactivity per active site basis and the intrinsic chemical properties in the particles remain the same in the scale of interest. This advance of nanopatterning together with spatially-resolved single nanoparticle X-ray absorption spectroscopy will guide future discourse in understanding the impact of confinement of metal nanoparticles and pave way to solve fundamental questions in material science, chemical physics, magnetism, nanomedicine and nanocatalysis.

Active phase distribution changes within a catalyst particle during Fischer–Tropsch synthesis as revealed by multi-scale microscopy

A new combination of three chemical imaging methods has been developed and applied to fresh and spent co-based Fischer–Tropsch catalysts.

Solution synthesis protocols for shaping mixed valent oxide crystalline particles as robust catalytic materials

Recent progress in the solution based shape controlled synthesis of several typical mixed valent oxides which have been used as highly efficient catalytic nanomaterials in some heterogeneous and photocatalytic reactions has been reviewed.

Design and performance of a compact scanning transmission X-ray microscope at the Photon Factory

We present a new compact instrument designed for scanning transmission X-ray microscopy. It has piezo-driven linear stages, making it small and light. Optical components from the virtual source point to the detector are located on a single optical table, resulting in a portable instrument that can be operated at a general-purpose spectroscopy beamline without requiring any major reconstruction. Careful consideration has been given to solving the vibration problem common to high-resolution microscopy, so as not to affect the spatial resolution determined by the Fresnel zone plate. Results on bacteriogenic iron oxides, single particle aerosols, and rare-earth permanent magnets are presented as examples of its performance under diverse applications.

Development of an in situ temperature stage for synchrotron X-ray spectromicroscopy

In situ characterization of micro- and nanoscale defects in polycrystalline thin-film materials is required to elucidate the physics governing defect formation and evolution during photovoltaic device fabrication and operation. X-ray fluorescence spectromicroscopy is particularly well-suited to study defects in compound semiconductors, as it has a large information depth appropriate to study thick and complex materials, is sensitive to trace amounts of atomic species, and provides quantitative elemental information, non-destructively. Current in situ methods using this technique typically require extensive sample preparation. In this work, we design and build an in situ temperature stage to study defect kinetics in thin-film solar cells under actual processing conditions, requiring minimal sample preparation. Careful selection of construction materials also enables controlled non-oxidizing atmospheres inside the sample chamber such as H2Se and H2S. Temperature ramp rates of up to 300 °C/min are achieved, with a maximum sample temperature of 600 °C. As a case study, we use the stage for synchrotron X-ray fluorescence spectromicroscopy of CuIn(x)Ga(1-x)Se2 (CIGS) thin-films and demonstrate predictable sample thermal drift for temperatures 25-400 °C, allowing features on the order of the resolution of the measurement technique (125 nm) to be tracked while heating. The stage enables previously unattainable in situ studies of nanoscale defect kinetics under industrially relevant processing conditions, allowing a deeper understanding of the relationship between material processing parameters, materials properties, and device performance.

Complex structural dynamics of nanocatalysts revealed in Operando conditions by correlated imaging and spectroscopy probes

Understanding how heterogeneous catalysts change size, shape and structure during chemical reactions is limited by the paucity of methods for studying catalytic ensembles in working state, that is, in operando conditions. Here by a correlated use of synchrotron X-ray absorption spectroscopy and scanning transmission electron microscopy in operando conditions, we quantitatively describe the complex structural dynamics of supported Pt catalysts exhibited during an exemplary catalytic reaction—ethylene hydrogenation. This work exploits a microfabricated catalytic reactor compatible with both probes. The results demonstrate dynamic transformations of the ensemble of Pt clusters that spans a broad size range throughout changing reaction conditions. This method is generalizable to quantitative operando studies of complex systems using a wide variety of X-ray and electron-based experimental probes.

Studying a catalyst during reaction (operando conditions) can give significant insights into the changes a catalyst undergoes. Here, the authors use an operando approach to correlate X-ray spectroscopy and electron based imaging techniques to measure the dynamic changes in Pt nanoparticles during the catalytic hydrogenation of ethylene.

Imaging of drug loading distributions in individual microspheres of calcium silicate hydrate--an X-ray spectromicroscopy study

Imaging is one of the most direct and ideal ways to track drug loading distributions in drug carriers on the molecular level, which will facilitate the optimization of drug carriers and drug loading capacities. Herein, we report the mapping of an individual mesoporous calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) microsphere before and after the loading of ibuprofen (IBU) and the interactions between drug carriers and drug molecules simultaneously by scanning transmission X-ray microscopy (STXM). Nanoscaled X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy clearly indicates that IBU is bonded to calcium and silicate sites via carboxylic acid groups. More importantly, STXM has been successfully used to determine the absolute thickness of IBU, revealing its distribution in the CSH microsphere.

Visualizing electronic interactions between iron and carbon by X-ray chemical imaging and spectroscopy

Pod-like carbon nanotube with encapsulated iron particles (Pod-Fe) was used as a well-defined model to study the electronic interaction between carbon shells and the iron particles by scanning transmission X-ray microscopy (STXM).

The electronic interaction of a catalyst and its support is of vital importance to its catalytic performance. However, it is still a great challenge to directly probe the interaction due to the lack of well-defined models and efficient technical means. In this study, we report that pod-like carbon nanotubes with encapsulated iron particles (Pod-Fe) and scanning transmission X-ray microscopy (STXM) can be used as an ideal model and technique to study the electronic interaction between carbon shells and iron particles. The chemical imaging and spectroscopy of Pod-Fe by STXM show that the local electronic structures at C K-edge near edge (π*) of carbon shells can be significantly modified by the encapsulated iron particles, which promotes the adsorption of oxygen-containing species, and thereby further modifies the electronic structure (π* and σ*) of the carbon shells. Moreover, computed X-ray absorption near edge structure spectra (XANES) confirmed the electronic modifications of carbon shells by the encapsulated iron particles. The present study provides a direct evidence of electronic interactions with simultaneously collected images and spectra, which can promote the understanding towards the nature of active sites and supports.

Correlative electron and X-ray microscopy: probing chemistry and bonding with high spatial resolution

Two powerful and complementary techniques for chemical characterisation of nanoscale systems are electron energy-loss spectroscopy in the scanning transmission electron microscope, and X-ray absorption spectroscopy in the scanning transmission X-ray microscope. A correlative approach to spectro-microscopy may not only bridge the gaps in spatial and spectral resolution which exist between the two instruments, but also offer unique opportunities for nanoscale characterisation. This review will discuss the similarities of the two spectroscopy techniques and the state of the art for each microscope. Case studies have been selected to illustrate the benefits and limitations of correlative electron and X-ray microscopy techniques. In situ techniques and radiation damage are also discussed.

Catalyst characterisation techniques and reaction cells operating at realistic conditions; towards acquisition of kinetically relevant information

Catalyst characterisation techniques and reaction cells operating at realistic conditions; towards acquisition of kinetically relevant information.

Tailoring and visualizing the pore architecture of hierarchical zeolites

This review provides an overview of the different synthesis methods and microscopy techniques for tailoring and visualizing the pore architecture of hierarchical zeolites.

Rationalizing inter- and intracrystal heterogeneities in dealuminated acid mordenite zeolites by stimulated Raman scattering microscopy correlated with super-resolution fluorescence microscopy

Dealuminated zeolites are widely used acid catalysts in research and the chemical industry. Bulk-level studies have revealed that the improved catalytic performance results from an enhanced molecular transport as well as from changes in the active sites. However, fully exploiting this information in rational catalyst design still requires insight in the intricate interplay between both. Here we introduce fluorescence and stimulated Raman scattering microscopy to quantify subcrystal reactivity as well as acid site distribution and to probe site accessibility in the set of individual mordenite zeolites. Dealumination effectively introduces significant heterogeneities between different particles and even within individual crystals. Besides enabling direct rationalization of the nanoscale catalytic performance, these observations reveal valuable information on the industrial dealumination process itself.

Synchrotron soft X-ray absorption spectroscopy study of carbon and silicon nanostructures for energy applications

Carbon and silicon materials are two of the most important materials involved in the history of the science and technology development. In the last two decades, C and Si nanoscale materials, e.g., carbon nanotubes, graphene, and silicon nanowires, and quantum dots, have also emerged as the most interesting nanomaterials in nanoscience and nanotechnology for their myriad promising applications such as for electronics, sensors, biotechnology, etc. In particular, carbon and silicon nanostructures are being utilized in energy-related applications such as catalysis, batteries, solar cells, etc., with significant advances. Understanding of the nature of surface and electronic structures of nanostructures plays a key role in the development and improvement of energy conversion and storage nanosystems. Synchrotron soft X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and related techniques, such as X-ray emission spectroscopy (XES) and scanning transmission X-ray microscopy (STXM), show unique capability in revealing the surface and electronic structures of C and Si nanomaterials. In this review, XAS is demonstrated as a powerful technique for probing chemical bonding, the electronic structure, and the surface chemistry of carbon and silicon nanomaterials, which can greatly enhance the fundamental understanding and also applicability of these nanomaterials in energy applications. The focus is on the unique advantages of XAS as a complementary tool to conventional microscopy and spectroscopy for effectively providing chemical and structural information about carbon and silicon nanostructures. The employment of XAS for in situ, real-time study of property evolution of C and Si nanostructures to elucidate the mechanisms in energy conversion or storage processes is also discussed.

Full-field X-ray diffraction microscopy using polymeric compound refractive lenses

Diffraction imaging is the science of imaging samples under diffraction conditions. Diffraction imaging techniques are well established in visible light and electron microscopy, and have also been widely employed in X-ray science in the form of X-ray topography. Over the past two decades, interest in X-ray diffraction imaging has taken flight and resulted in a wide variety of methods. This article discusses a new full-field imaging method, which uses polymer compound refractive lenses as a microscope objective to capture a diffracted X-ray beam coming from a large illuminated area on a sample. This produces an image of the diffracting parts of the sample on a camera. It is shown that this technique has added value in the field, owing to its high imaging speed, while being competitive in resolution and level of detail of obtained information. Using a model sample, it is shown that lattice tilts and strain in single crystals can be resolved simultaneously down to 10−3° and Δa/a= 10−5, respectively, with submicrometre resolution over an area of 100 × 100 µm and a total image acquisition time of less than 60 s.

Prospects of high-resolution resonant X-ray inelastic scattering studies on solid materials, liquids and gases at diffraction-limited storage rings

The spectroscopic technique of resonant inelastic X-ray scattering (RIXS) will particularly profit from immensely improved brilliance of diffraction-limited storage rings (DLSRs). In RIXS one measures the intensities of excitations as a function of energy and momentum transfer. DLSRs will allow for pushing the achievable energy resolution, signal intensity and the sampled spot size to new limits. With RIXS one nowadays probes a broad range of electronic systems reaching from simple molecules to complex materials displaying phenomena like peculiar magnetism, two-dimensional electron gases, superconductivity, photovoltaic energy conversion and heterogeneous catalysis. In this article the types of improved RIXS studies that will become possible with X-ray beams from DLSRs are envisioned.

X-ray and electron microscopy studies on the biodistribution and biomodification of iron oxide nanoparticles in Daphnia magna

Biodistribution and biomodification of iron oxide (Fe3O4 and α-Fe2O3) nanoparticles (NPs) in a well-known toxicity test organism, Daphnia magna (D. magna), were investigated using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning transmission X-ray microscopy (STXM). In addition to the morphological changes in the gut tissues of D. magna, biodistribution and biomodification of iron oxide NPs in the digestive tract of D. magna were also monitored in this study. Upon exposures to both iron oxide NPs, unique morphological changes (e.g., irregular shaped microvilli, epithelial cell protrusion, and dilatation of cytoplasmic inclusion) in the gut tissues of D. magna were observed along with bacterial colonization of the gut lumen. However, despite their heavy accumulations in the digesitive tract, TEM and STXM images confirmed us that both Fe3O4 and α-Fe2O3 NPs were not penetrating into the gut tissues of D. magna. Moreover, for the Fe3O4 NPs in direct contact with the gut microvilli of D. magna, slight but significant spectral changes were observed in their Fe L-edge X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) spectra, which indicated that there were biomodifications of Fe3O4 NPs, probably involving oxidative dissolution of Fe3O4 NPs followed by rapid precipitation of ferric oxide or hydroxide. However, no significant changes were observed in the Fe L-edge XANES spectra of the α-Fe2O3 NPs present in the gut lumen of D. magna. These X-ray and electron microscopic observations confirmed us that, despite similarities in core sizes and chemical compositions, NPs with different crystalline phase and dissolution rates can interact quite differently with their local environment, may result in different biodistribution and cause completely dissimilar toxicities.

Structural and electronic analysis of the atomic scale nucleation of Ag on α-Ag2WO4 induced by electron irradiation

In this work, we utilise a combination of theory, computation and experiments to understand the early events related to the nucleation of Ag filaments on α-Ag2WO4 crystals, which is driven by an accelerated electron beam from an electron microscope under high vacuum. The growth process and the chemical composition and elemental distribution in these filaments were analysed in depth at the nanoscale level using TEM, HAADF, EDS and XPS; the structural and electronic aspects were systematically studied in using first-principles electronic structure theory within QTAIM framework. The Ag nucleation and formation on α-Ag2WO4 is a result of the order/disorder effects generated in the crystal by the electron-beam irradiation. Both experimental and theoretical results show that this behavior is associated with structural and electronic changes of the [AgO2] and [AgO4] clusters and, to a minor extent, to the [WO6] cluster; these clusters collectively represent the constituent building blocks of α-Ag2WO4.

Distinct charge dynamics in battery electrodes revealed by in situ and operando soft X-ray spectroscopy

Developing high-performance batteries relies on material breakthroughs. During the past few years, various in situ characterization tools have been developed and have become indispensible in studying and the eventual optimization of battery materials. However, soft X-ray spectroscopy, one of the most sensitive probes of electronic states, has been mainly limited to ex situ experiments for battery research. Here we achieve in situ and operando soft X-ray absorption spectroscopy of lithium-ion battery cathodes. Taking advantage of the elemental, chemical and surface sensitivities of soft X-rays, we discover distinct lithium-ion and electron dynamics in Li(Co(¹/₃)Ni(¹/₃)Mn(¹/₃))O₂ and LiFePO₄ cathodes in polymer electrolytes. The contrast between the two systems and the relaxation effect in LiFePO₄ is attributed to a phase transformation mechanism, and the mesoscale morphology and charge conductivity of the electrodes. These discoveries demonstrate feasibility and power of in situ soft X-ray spectroscopy for studying integrated and dynamic effects in batteries.

Pair distribution function computed tomography

An emerging theme of modern composites and devices is the coupling of nanostructural properties of materials with their targeted arrangement at the microscale. Of the imaging techniques developed that provide insight into such designer materials and devices, those based on diffraction are particularly useful. However, to date, these have been heavily restrictive, providing information only on materials that exhibit high crystallographic ordering. Here we describe a method that uses a combination of X-ray atomic pair distribution function analysis and computed tomography to overcome this limitation. It allows the structure of nanocrystalline and amorphous materials to be identified, quantified and mapped. We demonstrate the method with a phantom object and subsequently apply it to resolving, in situ, the physicochemical states of a heterogeneous catalyst system. The method may have potential impact across a range of disciplines from materials science, biomaterials, geology, environmental science, palaeontology and cultural heritage to health.

Revealing the role of catalysts in carbon nanotubes and nanofibers by scanning transmission X-ray microscopy

The identification of effective components on the atomic scale in carbon nanomaterials which improve the performance in various applications remains outstanding challenges. Here the catalyst residues in individual carbon nanotube (CNT) and carbon nanofiber (CNF) were clearly imaged with a concurrent characterization of their electronic structure by nanoscale scanning transmission X-ray microscopy. Except for prominent catalyst nanoparticle at the tip, tiny catalyst clusters along the tube (fiber) were detected, indicating a migration of the catalysts with the growth of CNTs (CNFs). The observation provides the direct evidence on the atomic metal in CNT for oxygen reduction reported in the literature. Interaction between catalysts (Fe, Ni) and CNTs (CNFs) at the tip was also identified by comparing the X-ray absorption spectra. A deep understanding of catalyst residues such as Fe or Ni in carbon nanomaterials is very vital to growth mechanism development and practical applications.

Understanding catalysis

Catalysts often perform miraculous transformations of reactants A to very different products P in seemingly a single step. Such catalysts appear as a black box. This tutorial shows how we can shine light into this black box and understand the reaction mechanism. In particular, it aims at explaining some of the fundamental principles of the action of a catalyst.

High spatial resolution Raman thermometry analysis of TiO2 microparticles

A new technique of high-resolution micro-Raman thermometry using anatase TiO2 microparticles (0.5-3 μm) is presented. These very high spatial resolution measurements (280 nm) reveal temperature gradients even within individual microparticles. Potential applications of this technique are demonstrated by probing the temperature distribution of a micro-fabricated heater consisting of a thin silicon nitride (Si-N) membrane with a gold coil on top of the membrane. Using TiO2 microparticle micro-Raman thermometry, the temperature from the outer edge of the coil to the inner portion was measured to increase by ~40 °C. These high spatial resolution microscopic measurements were also used to measure the temperature gradient within the 20 μm wide Si-N between the gold heating coils. 2D numerical simulations of the micro heater temperature distribution are in excellent agreement with the experimental measurements of the temperatures. These measurements illustrate the potential to extend applications of micro-Raman thermometry to obtain temperature details on a sub-micrometer spatial resolution by employing microparticles.

Hard X-ray spectroscopic nano-imaging of hierarchical functional materials at work

Heterogeneous catalysts often consist of an active metal (oxide) in close contact with a support material and various promoter elements. Although macroscopic properties, such as activity, selectivity and stability, can be assessed with catalyst performance testing, the development of relevant, preferably quantitative structure-performance relationships require the use of advanced characterisation methods. Spectroscopic imaging in the hard X-ray region with nanometer-scale resolution has very recently emerged as a powerful approach to elucidate the hierarchical structure and related chemistry of catalytic solids in action under realistic reaction conditions. This X-ray-based chemical imaging method benefits from the combination of high resolution (∼30 nm) with large X-ray penetration and depth of focus, and the possibility for probing large areas with mosaic imaging. These capabilities make it possible to obtain spatial and temporal information on chemical changes in catalytic solids as well as a wide variety of other functional materials, such as fuel cells and batteries, in their full complexity and integrity. In this concept article we provide details on the method and setup of full-field hard X-ray spectroscopic imaging, illustrate its potential for spatiotemporal chemical imaging by making use of recent showcases, outline the pros and cons of this experimental approach and discuss some future directions for hierarchical functional materials research.

In-situ studies of nanocatalysis

A heterogeneous catalyst in industry consists of nanoparticles with variable crystallite sizes, shapes, and compositions. Its catalytic performance (activity, selectivity, and durability) derives from surface chemistry of catalyst nanoparticles during catalysis. However, the surface chemistry of the catalyst particles during catalysis, termed in-situ information, is a "black box" because of the challenges in characterizing the catalysts during catalysis. The lack of such in-situ information about catalysts has limited the understanding of catalytic mechanisms and the development of catalysts with high selectivity and activity. The challenges in understanding heterogeneous catalysis include measurement of reaction kinetics, identification of reaction intermediates, bridging pressure gap and materials gap. The pressure gap is the difference in surface structure and chemistry between a catalyst during catalysis and under an ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) condition. The materials gap represents the difference between the structural and compositional complexity of industrial catalysts and the well-defined surface of model catalysts of metals or oxides. Development of in-situ characterization using electron spectroscopy and electron microscopy in recent decades has made possible studies of surface chemistry and structure of nanocatalysts under reaction conditions or during catalysis at near ambient pressure. In this Account, we review the new chemistries and structures of nanocatalysts during reactions revealed with in-situ analytical techniques. We discuss changes observed during catalysis including the evolution of composition, oxidation state, phase, and geometric structure of the catalyst surface, and the sintering of catalysts. These surface chemistries and structures have allowed researchers to build a correlation between surface chemistry and structure of active nanocatalysts and their corresponding catalytic performances. Such a correlation provides critical insights for understanding catalysis, optimization of existing nanocatalysts, and development of new nanocatalysts with high activity and selectivity.

An environmental sample chamber for reliable scanning transmission x-ray microscopy measurements under water vapor

We have designed, fabricated, and tested a compact gas-phase reactor for performing in situ soft x-ray scanning transmission x-ray microscopy (STXM) measurements. The reactor mounts directly to the existing sample holder used in the majority of STXM instruments around the world and installs with minimal instrument reconfiguration. The reactor accommodates many gas atmospheres, but was designed specifically to address the needs of measurements under water vapor. An on-board sensor measures the relative humidity and temperature inside the reactor, minimizing uncertainties associated with measuring these quantities outside the instrument. The reactor reduces x-ray absorption from the process gas by over 85% compared to analogous experiments with the entire STXM instrument filled with process gas. Reduced absorption by the process gas allows data collection at full instrumental resolution, minimizes radiation dose to the sample, and results in much more stable imaging conditions. The reactor is in use at the STXM instruments at beamlines 11.0.2 and 5.3.2.2 at the Advanced Light Source.

Mesoscale phase distribution in single particles of LiFePO4 following lithium deintercalation

The chemical phase distribution in hydrothermally grown micrometric single crystals LiFePO4 following partial chemical delithiation was investigated. Full field and scanning X-ray microscopy were combined with X-ray absorption spectroscopy at the Fe K- and O K-edges, respectively, to produce maps with high chemical and spatial resolution. The resulting information was compared to morphological insight into the mechanics of the transformation by scanning transmission electron microscopy. This study revealed the interplay at the mesocale between microstructure and phase distribution during the redox process, as morphological defects were found to kinetically determine the progress of the reaction. Lithium deintercalation was also found to induce severe mechanical damage in the crystals, presumably due to the lattice mismatch between LiFePO4 and FePO4. Our results lead to the conclusion that rational design of intercalation-based electrode materials, such as LiFePO4, with optimized utilization and life requires the tailoring of particles that minimize kinetic barriers and mechanical strain. Coupling TXM-XANES with TEM can provide unique insight into the behavior of electrode materials during operation, at scales spanning from nanoparticles to ensembles and complex architectures.

Electron yield soft X-ray photoabsorption spectroscopy under normal ambient-pressure conditions

Ambient-pressure soft X-ray photoabsorption spectroscopy (XAS) was demonstrated to be applicable to the chemical analysis of hydrated transition-metal compounds. For this purpose, even under ambient-pressure conditions, electron yield detection XAS (EY-XAS), based on a simple drain-current set-up, was used to overcome a weakness in fluorescence yield detection XAS (FY-XAS), which does not give a pure soft XAS. The feasibility of EY-XAS was investigated and it was clarified that the EY-XAS under ambient-pressure conditions corresponds to the mixed data of the total EY and conversion EY spectra. Normal ambient-pressure EY-XAS analysis was applied to anhydrous (CoCl2) and to hydrated (CoCl2·6H2O) cobalt chloride at the Co L23-edge. The present measurements demonstrated the ability to unambiguously distinguish the different chemical states of cobalt ions, relying upon spectral differences that indicate octahedral/quasi-octahedral structural changes as a result of hydration/dehydration reactions.

Design of a new reactor-like high temperature near ambient pressure scanning tunneling microscope for catalysis studies

Here, we present the design of a new reactor-like high-temperature near ambient pressure scanning tunneling microscope (HT-NAP-STM) for catalysis studies. This HT-NAP-STM was designed for exploration of structures of catalyst surfaces at atomic scale during catalysis or under reaction conditions. In this HT-NAP-STM, the minimized reactor with a volume of reactant gases of ∼10 ml is thermally isolated from the STM room through a shielding dome installed between the reactor and STM room. An aperture on the dome was made to allow tip to approach to or retract from a catalyst surface in the reactor. This dome minimizes thermal diffusion from hot gas of the reactor to the STM room and thus remains STM head at a constant temperature near to room temperature, allowing observation of surface structures at atomic scale under reaction conditions or during catalysis with minimized thermal drift. The integrated quadrupole mass spectrometer can simultaneously measure products during visualization of surface structure of a catalyst. This synergy allows building an intrinsic correlation between surface structure and its catalytic performance. This correlation offers important insights for understanding of catalysis. Tests were done on graphite in ambient environment, Pt(111) in CO, graphene on Ru(0001) in UHV at high temperature and gaseous environment at high temperature. Atom-resolved surface structure of graphene on Ru(0001) at 500 K in a gaseous environment of 25 Torr was identified.