A new method to position and functionalize metal-organic framework crystals

Nanocomposite of europium organic framework and quantum dots for highly sensitive chemosensing of trinitrotoluene

Luminescent metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are considered as next-generation sensor materials for small molecules and explosives. In the present work, a nanocomposite of luminescent europium organic framework (EuOF) and CdSe quantum dots (QDs) has been first time investigated for photoluminescence (PL) based highly sensitive detection of trinitrotoluene (TNT). The nanocomposite EuOF/QD has been synthesized by initiating the growth of EuOF in the presence of QDs. The successful synthesis of the product has been verified with the help of electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction analysis, and surface area measurements. Compared to EuOF alone, the EuOF/QD nanocomposite offers reproducible and stable measurements. The linear range of PL quenching based detection of TNT with EuOF/QD nanocomposite is 5-1000 ppb with the detection limit of 3 ppb. The detection of TNT with EuOF/QD is selective with respect to some other investigated aromatic compounds, such as phenol, o-cresol, toluene, benzene, nitrobenzene and nitrophenol.

A family of metal-organic frameworks exhibiting size-selective catalysis with encapsulated noble-metal nanoparticles

The encapsulation of noble-metal nanoparticles (NPs) in metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) with carboxylic acid ligands, the most extensive branch of the MOF family, gives NP/MOF composites that exhibit excellent shape-selective catalytic performance in olefin hydrogenation, aqueous reaction in the reduction of 4-nitrophenol, and faster molecular diffusion in CO oxidation. The strategy of using functionalized cavities of MOFs as hosts for different metal NPs looks promising for the development of high-performance heterogeneous catalysts.

Influence of Structural Heterogeneity on Diffusion of CH4 and CO2 in Silicon Carbide-Derived Nanoporous Carbon

We investigate the influence of structural heterogeneity on the transport properties of simple gases in a Hybrid Reverse Monte Carlo (HRMC) constructed model of silicon carbide-derived carbon (SiC-DC). The energy landscape of the system is determined based on free energy analysis of the atomistic model. The overall energy barriers of the system for different gases are computed along with important properties, such as Henry constant and differential enthalpy of adsorption at infinite dilution, and indicate hydrophobicity of the SiC-DC structure and its affinity for CO₂ and CH₄ adsorption. We also study the effect of molecular geometry, pore structure and energy heterogeneity considering different hopping scenarios for diffusion of CO₂ and CH₄ through ultramicropores using the Nudged Elastic Band (NEB) method. It is shown that the energy barrier of a hopping molecule is very sensitive to the shape of the pore entry. We provide evidence for the influence of structural heterogeneity on self-diffusivity of methane and carbon dioxide using molecular dynamics simulation, based on a maximum in the variation of self-diffusivity with loading. A comparison of the MD simulation results with self-diffusivities from quasi-elastic neutron scattering (QENS) measurements and, with macroscopic uptake-based low-density transport coefficients, reveals the existence of internal barriers not captured in MD simulation and QENS experiments. Nevertheless, the simulation and macroscopic uptake-based diffusion coefficients agree within a factor of 2-3, indicating that our HRMC model structure captures most of the important energy barriers affecting the transport of CH₄ in the nanostructure of SiC-DC.

Using functional nano- and microparticles for the preparation of metal-organic framework composites with novel properties

A critical materials challenge over the next quarter century is the sustainable use and management of the world's natural resources, particularly the scarcest of them. Chemistry's ability to get more from less is epitomized by porous coordination polymers, also known as metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), which use a minimum amount of material to build maximum surface areas with fine control over pore size. Their large specific surface area and tunable porosity make MOFs useful for applications including small-molecule sensing, separation, catalysis, and storage and release of molecules of interest. Proof-of-concept projects have demonstrated their potential for environmental applications such as carbon separation and capture, water purification, carcinogen sequestration, byproduct separation, and resource recovery. To translate these from the laboratory into devices for actual use, however, will require synthesis of MOFs with new functionality and structure. This Account summarizes recent progress in the use of nano- and microparticles to control the function, location, and 3D structure of MOFs during MOF self-assembly, creating novel, hybrid, multifunctional, ultraporous materials as a first step towards creating MOF-based devices. The use of preformed ceramic, metallic, semiconductive, or polymeric particles allows the particle preparation process to be completely independent of the MOF synthesis, incorporating nucleating, luminescent, magnetic, catalytic, or templating particles into the MOF structure. We discuss success in combining functional nanoparticles and porous crystals for applications including molecular sieve detectors, repositionable and highly sensitive sensors, pollutant-sequestering materials, microfluidic microcarriers, drug-delivery materials, separators, and size-selective catalysts. In sections within the Account, we describe how functional particles can be used for (1) heterogeneous nucleation (seeding) of MOFs, (2) preparation of framework composites with novel properties, (3) MOF positioning on a substrate (patterning), and (4) synthesis of MOFs with novel architectures.

Size- and shape-controlled synthesis of hexagonal bipyramidal crystals and hollow self-assembled Al-MOF spheres

We report an efficient protocol for the synthesis of monodisperse crystals of an aluminum (Al)-based metal organic framework (MOF) while obtaining excellent control over the size and shape solely by tuning of the reaction parameters without the use of a template or structure-directing agent. The size of the hexagonal crystals of the Al-MOF can be selectively varied from 100 nm to 2000 nm by simply changing the reaction time and temperature via its nucleation-growth mechanism. We also report a self-assembly phenomenon, observed for the first time in case of Al-MOF, whereby hollow spheres of Al-MOF were formed by the spontaneous organization of triangular sheet building blocks. These MOFs showed broad hysteresis loops during the CO2 capture, indicating that the adsorbed CO2 is not immediately desorbed upon decreasing the external pressure and is instead confined within the framework, which allows for the capture and subsequent selective trapping of CO2 from gaseous mixtures.

Localized, stepwise template growth of functional nanowires from an amino acid-supported framework in a microfluidic chip

A spatially controlled synthesis of nanowire bundles of the functional crystalline coordination polymer (CP) Ag(I)TCNQ (tetracyanoquinodimethane) from previously fabricated and trapped monovalent silver CP (Ag(I)Cys (cysteine)) using a room-temperature microfluidic-assisted templated growth method is demonstrated. The incorporation of microengineered pneumatic clamps in a two-layer polydimethylsiloxane-based (PDMS) microfluidic platform was used. Apart from guiding the formation of the Ag(I)Cys coordination polymer, this microfluidic approach enables a local trapping of the in situ synthesized structures with a simple pneumatic clamp actuation. This method not only enables continuous and multiple chemical events to be conducted upon the trapped structures, but the excellent fluid handling ensures a precise chemical activation of the amino acid-supported framework in a position controlled by interface and clamp location that leads to a site-specific growth of Ag(I)TCNQ nanowire bundles. The synthesis is conducted stepwise starting with Ag(I)Cys CPs, going through silver metal, and back to a functional CP (Ag(I)TCNQ); that is, a novel microfluidic controlled ligand exchange (CP → NP → CP) is presented. Additionally, the pneumatic clamps can be employed further to integrate the conductive Ag(I)TCNQ nanowire bundles onto electrode arrays located on a surface, hence facilitating the construction of the final functional interfaced systems from solution specifically with no need for postassembly manipulation. This localized self-supported growth of functional matter from an amino acid-based CP shows how sequential localized chemistry in a fluid cell can be used to integrate molecular systems onto device platforms using a chip incorporating microengineered pneumatic tools. The control of clamp pressure and in parallel the variation of relative flow rates of source solutions permit deposition of materials at different locations on a chip that could be useful for device array preparation. The in situ reaction and washing procedures make this approach a powerful one for the fabrication of multicomponent complex nanomaterials using a soft bottom-up approach.

MOF positioning technology and device fabrication

Methods for permanent localisation, dynamic localisation and spatial control of functional materials within MOF crystals are critical for the development of miniaturised MOF-based devices for a number of technological applications.

Advancement of sorption-based heat transformation by a metal coating of highly-stable, hydrophilic aluminium fumarate MOF

A 300 μm thick, polycrystalline, thermally well coupled coating of microporous aluminium fumarate was deposited on a metal substrate and found to be stable for at least 4500 ad-/desorption cycles with water vapour.

Multifunctional nanoparticle@MOF core-shell nanostructures

Controllable integration of inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) is leading to the creation of many new multifunctional materials. In this Research News, an emerging type of core-shell nanostructure, in which the inorganic NP cores are encapsulated by the MOF shells, is briefly introduced. Unique functions originating from the property synergies of different types of inorganic NP cores and MOF shells are highlighted, and insight into their future development is suggested. It is highly expected that this Research News could arouse research enthusiasm on such NP@MOF core-shell nanostructures, which have great application potential in devices, energy, the environment, and medicine.

Correlation of Gas Permeability in a Metal-Organic Framework MIL-101(Cr)-Polysulfone Mixed-Matrix Membrane with Free Volume Measurements by Positron Annihilation Lifetime Spectroscopy (PALS)

Hydrothermally stable particles of the metal-organic framework MIL-101(Cr) were incorporated into a polysulfone (PSF) matrix to produce mixed-matrix or composite membranes with excellent dispersion of MIL-101 particles and good adhesion within the polymer matrix. Pure gas (O₂, N₂, CO₂ and CH₄) permeation tests showed a significant increase of gas permeabilities of the mixed-matrix membranes without any loss in selectivity. Positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy (PALS) indicated that the increased gas permeability is due to the free volume in the PSF polymer and the added large free volume inside the MIL-101 particles. The trend of the gas transport properties of the composite membranes could be reproduced by a Maxwell model.

Combining UV lithography and an imprinting technique for patterning metal-organic frameworks

Thin metal-organic framework (MOF) films are patterned using UV lithography and an imprinting technique. A UV lithographed SU-8 film is imprinted onto a film of MOF powder forming a 2D MOF patterned film. This straightforward method can be applied to most MOF materials, is versatile, cheap, and potentially useful for commercial applications such as lab-on-a-chip type devices.

Engineering ZIF-8 thin films for hybrid MOF-based devices

Patterned metal-organic framework, ZIF-8 thin films can be generated by using standard photolithography or via selective growth with the aid of microcontact printing. The alternate chemical deposition (of ZIF-8) and physical deposition (of metallic materials) allow the insertion of metal layers in the ZIF-8 film that could serve as multifunctional chemical sensors for vapors and gases.

X-ray lithography and small-angle X-ray scattering: a combination of techniques merging biology and materials science

The advent of micro/nanotechnology has blurred the border between biology and materials science. Miniaturization of chemical and biological assays, performed by use of micro/nanofluidics, requires both careful selection of the methods of fabrication and the development of materials designed for specific applications. This, in turn, increases the need for interdisciplinary combination of suitable microfabrication and characterisation techniques. In this review, the advantages of combining X-ray lithography, as fabrication technique, with small-angle X-ray scattering measurements will be discussed. X-ray lithography enables the limitations of small-angle X-ray scattering, specifically time resolution and sample environment, to be overcome. Small-angle X-ray scattering, on the other hand, enables investigation and, consequently, adjustment of the nanostructural morphology of microstructures and materials fabricated by X-ray lithography. Moreover, the effect of X-ray irradiation on novel materials can be determined by use of small-angle X-ray scattering. The combination of top-down and bottom-up methods to develop new functional materials and structures with potential in biology will be reported.

Patterning techniques for metal organic frameworks

The tuneable pore size and architecture, chemical properties and functionalization make metal organic frameworks (MOFs) attractive versatile stimuli-responsive materials. In this context, MOFs hold promise for industrial applications and a fervent research field is currently investigating MOF properties for device fabrication. Although the material properties have a crucial role, the ability to precisely locate the functional material is fundamental for device fabrication. In this progress report, advancements in the control of MOF positioning and precise localization of functional materials within MOF crystals are presented. Advantages and limitations of each reviewed technique are critically investigated, and several important gaps in the technological development for device fabrication are highlighted. Finally, promising patterning techniques are presented which are inspired by previous studies in organic and inorganic crystal patterning for the future of MOF lithography.

Mesoscopic architectures of porous coordination polymers fabricated by pseudomorphic replication

The spatial organization of porous coordination polymer (PCP) crystals into higher-order structures is critical for their integration into separation systems, heterogeneous catalysts, ion/electron transport and photonic devices. Here, we demonstrate a rapid method to spatially control the nucleation site, leading to the formation of mesoscopic architecture made of PCPs, in both two and three dimensions. Inspired by geological processes, this method relies on the morphological replacement of a shaped sacrificial metal oxide used both as a metal source and as an 'architecture-directing agent' by an analogous PCP architecture. Spatiotemporal harmonization of the metal oxide dissolution and the PCP crystallization allowed the preservation of very fine mineral morphological details of periodic alumina inverse opal structures. The replication of randomly structured alumina aerogels resulted in a PCP architecture with hierarchical porosity in which the hydrophobic micropores of the PCP and the mesopores/macropores inherited from the parent aerogels synergistically enhanced the material's selectivity and mass transfer for water/ethanol separation.

Highly luminescent metal-organic frameworks through quantum dot doping

The incorporation of highly luminescent core-shell quantum dots (QDs) within a metal-organic framework (MOF) is achieved through a one-pot method. Through appropriate surface functionalization, the QDs are solubilized within MOF-5 growth media. This permits the incorporation of the QDs within the evolving framework during the reaction. The resulting QD@MOF-5 composites are characterized using X-ray fluorescence, cross-sectional confocal microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and small-angle X-ray scattering. The synergistic combination of luminescent QDs and the controlled porosity of MOF-5 in the QD@MOF-5 composites is harnessed within a prototype molecular sensor that can discriminate on the basis of molecular size.

Porous organic cage nanocrystals by solution mixing

We present here a simple method for the bottom-up fabrication of microporous organic particles with surface areas in the range 500-1000 m(2) g(-1). The method involves chiral recognition between prefabricated, intrinsically porous organic cage molecules that precipitate spontaneously upon mixing in solution. Fine control over particle size from 50 nm to 1 μm can be achieved by varying the mixing temperature or the rate of mixing. No surfactants or templates are required, and the resulting organic dispersions are stable for months. In this method, the covalent synthesis of the cage modules can be separated from their solution processing into particles because the modules can be dissolved in common solvents. This allows a "mix and match" approach to porous organic particles. The marked solubility change that occurs upon mixing cages with opposite chirality is rationalized by density functional theory calculations that suggest favorable intermolecular interactions for heterochiral cage pairings. The important contribution of molecular disorder to porosity and surface area is highlighted. In one case, a purposefully amorphized sample has more than twice the surface area of its crystalline analogue.