Advanced anodes for high-temperature fuel cells

Nanoionics and Nanocatalysts: Conformal Mesoporous Surface Scaffold for Cathode of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

Nanoionics has become increasingly important in devices and systems related to energy conversion and storage. Nevertheless, nanoionics and nanostructured electrodes development has been challenging for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) owing to many reasons including poor stability of the nanocrystals during fabrication of SOFCs at elevated temperatures. In this study, a conformal mesoporous ZrO2 nanoionic network was formed on the surface of La1-xSrxMnO3/yttria-stabilized zirconia (LSM/YSZ) cathode backbone using Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) and thermal treatment. The surface layer nanoionic network possesses open mesopores for gas penetration, and features a high density of grain boundaries for enhanced ion-transport. The mesoporous nanoionic network is remarkably stable and retains the same morphology after electrochemical operation at high temperatures of 650-800 °C for 400 hours. The stable mesoporous ZrO2 nanoionic network is further utilized to anchor catalytic Pt nanocrystals and create a nanocomposite that is stable at elevated temperatures. The power density of the ALD modified and inherently functional commercial cells exhibited enhancement by a factor of 1.5-1.7 operated at 0.8 V at 750 °C.

New Rhenium-Doped SrCo1-xRexO3-δ Perovskites Performing as Cathodes in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

In the aim to stabilize novel three-dimensional perovskite oxides based upon SrCoO_3−δ, we have designed and prepared SrCo_1−xRe_xO_3−δ phases (x = 0.05 and 0.10), successfully avoiding the competitive hexagonal 2H polytypes. Their performance as cathode materials in intermediate-temperature solid oxide fuel cells (IT-SOFC) has been investigated. The characterization of these oxides included X-ray (XRD) and in situ temperature-dependent neutron powder diffraction (NPD) experiments for x = 0.10. At room temperature, SrCo_1−xRe_xO_3−δ perovskites are defined in the P4/mmm space group, which corresponds to a subtle tetragonal perovskite superstructure with unit-cell parameters a = b ≈ a_o, c = 2a_o (a_o = 3.861 and 3.868 Å, for x = 0.05 and 0.10, respectively). The crystal structure evolves above 380 °C to a simple cubic perovskite unit cell, as observed from in-situ NPD data. The electrical conductivity gave maximum values of 43.5 S·cm⁻¹ and 51.6 S·cm⁻¹ for x = 0.05 and x = 0.10, respectively, at 850 °C. The area specific resistance (ASR) polarization resistance determined in symmetrical cells is as low as 0.087 Ω·cm² and 0.065 Ω·cm² for x = 0.05 and x = 0.10, respectively, at 850 °C. In single test cells these materials generated a maximum power of around 0.6 W/cm² at 850 °C with pure H₂ as a fuel, in an electrolyte-supported configuration with La_0.8Sr_0.2Ga_0.83Mg_0.17O_3−δ (LSGM) as the electrolyte. Therefore, we propose the SrCo_1−xRe_xO_3−δ (x = 0.10 and 0.05) perovskite oxides as promising candidates for cathodes in IT-SOFC.

Postextraction Separation, On-Board Storage, and Catalytic Conversion of Methane in Natural Gas: A Review

In today's perspective, natural gas has gained considerable attention, due to its low emission, indigenous availability, and improvement in the extraction technology. Upon extraction, it undergoes several purification protocols including dehydration, sweetening, and inert rejection. Although purification is a commercially established technology, several drawbacks of the current process provide an essential impetus for developing newer separation protocols, most importantly, adsorption and membrane separation. This Review summarizes the needs of natural gas separation, gives an overview of the current technology, and provides a detailed discussion of the progress in research on separation and purification of natural gas including the benefits and drawbacks of each of the processes. The transportation sector is another growing sector of natural gas utilization, and it requires an efficient and safe on-board storage system. Compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied natural gas (LNG) are the most common forms in which natural gas can be stored. Adsorbed natural gas (ANG) is an alternate storage system of natural gas, which is advantageous as compared to CNG and LNG in terms of safety and also in terms of temperature and pressure requirements. This Review provides a detailed discussion on ANG along with computation predictions. The catalytic conversion of methane to different useful chemicals including syngas, methanol, formaldehyde, dimethyl ether, heavier hydrocarbons, aromatics, and hydrogen is also reviewed. Finally, direct utilization of methane onto fuel cells is also discussed.

A perovskite oxide with high conductivities in both air and reducing atmosphere for use as electrode for solid oxide fuel cells

Electrode materials which exhibit high conductivities in both oxidising and reducing atmospheres are in high demand for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) and solid oxide electrolytic cells (SOECs). In this paper, we investigated Cu-doped SrFe_0.9Nb_0.1O_3−δ finding that the primitive perovskite oxide SrFe_0.8Cu_0.1Nb_0.1O_3−δ (SFCN) exhibits a conductivity of 63 Scm⁻¹and 60 Scm⁻¹ at 415 °C in air and 5%H₂/Ar respectively. It is believed that the high conductivity in 5%H₂/Ar is related to the exsolved Fe (or FeCu alloy) on exposure to a reducing atmosphere. To the best of our knowledge, the conductivity of SrFe_0.8Cu_0.1Nb_0.1O_3−δ in a reducing atmosphere is the highest of all reported oxides which also exhibit a high conductivity in air. Fuel cell performance using SrFe_0.8Cu_0.1Nb_0.1O_3−δ as the anode, (Y₂O₃)_0.08(ZrO₂)_0.92 as the electrolyte and La_0.8Sr_0.2FeO_3−δ as the cathode achieved a power density of 423 mWcm⁻² at 700 °C indicating that SFCN is a promising anode for SOFCs.

Thermal Expansion Anomaly in TTB Ferroelectrics: The Interplay between Framework Structure and Electric Polarization

Tetragonal tungsten bronze (TTB) makes up a large family of functional materials with fascinating dielectric, piezoelectric, or ferroelectric properties. Understanding the thermal expansion mechanisms associated with their physical properties is important for their practical applications as well as theoretical investigations. Fortunately, the appearance of anomalous thermal expansion in functional materials offers a chance to capture the physics behind them. Herein, we report an investigation of the thermal expansion anomalies in TTBs that are related to ferroelectric transitions and summarize recent progress in this field. The special role of Pb(2+) cation is elucidated. The interplay between the thermal expansion anomaly, electric polarization, and framework structure provides new insight into the structure-property relationships in functional materials.

New Opportunity for in Situ Exsolution of Metallic Nanoparticles on Perovskite Parent

One of the main challenges for advanced metallic nanoparticles (NPs) supported functional perovskite catalysts is the simultaneous achievement of a high population of NPs with uniform distribution as well as long-lasting high performance. These are also the essential requirements for optimal electrode catalysts used in solid oxide fuel cells and electrolysis cells (SOFCs and SOECs). Herein, we report a facile operando manufacture way that the crystal reconstruction of double perovskite under reducing atmosphere can spontaneously lead to the formation of ordered layered oxygen deficiency and yield segregation of massively and finely dispersed NPs. The real-time observation of this emergent process was performed via an environmental transmission electron microscope. Density functional theory calculations prove that the crystal reconstruction induces the loss of coordinated oxygen surrounding B-site cations, serving as the driving force for steering fast NP growth. The prepared material shows promising capability as an active and stable electrode for SOFCs in various fuels and SOECs for CO2 reduction. The conception exemplified here could conceivably be extended to fabricate a series of supported NPs perovskite catalysts with diverse functionalities.

A simple high-performance matrix-free biomass molten carbonate fuel cell without CO2 recirculation

In previous reports, flowing CO2 at the cathode is essential for either conventional molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) based on molten carbonate/LiAlO2 electrolytes or matrix-free MCFCs. For the first time, we demonstrate a high-performance matrix-free MCFC without CO2 recirculation. At 800°C, power densities of 430 and 410 mW/cm(2) are achieved when biomass-bamboo charcoal and wood, respectively-is used as fuel. At 600°C, a stable performance is observed during the measured 90 hours after the initial degradation. In this MCFC, CO2 is produced at the anode when carbon-containing fuels are used. The produced CO2 then dissolves and diffuses to the cathode to react with oxygen in open air, forming the required [Formula: see text] or [Formula: see text] ions for continuous operation. The dissolved [Formula: see text] ions may also take part in the cell reactions. This provides a simple new fuel cell technology to directly convert carbon-containing fuels such as carbon and biomass into electricity with high efficiency.

Electrochemically Scavenging the Silica Impurities at the Ni-YSZ Triple Phase Boundary of Solid Oxide Cells

Silica impurity originated from the sealing or raw materials of the solid oxide cells (SOCs) accumulating at the Ni-YSZ triple phase boundaries (TPBs) is known as one major reason for electrode passivation. Here we report nanosilica precipitates inside Ni grains instead of blocking the TPBs when operating the SOCs at |i| ≥ 1.5 A cm(-2) for electrolysis of H2O/CO2. An electrochemical scavenging mechanism was proposed to explain this unique behavior: the removal of silica proceeded through the reduction of the silica to Si under strong cathodic polarization, followed by bulk diffusion of Si into Ni and reoxidation of Si in the Ni grain.

Tailoring the Microstructure of a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Anode Support by Calcination and Milling of YSZ

In this study, the effects of calcination and milling of 8YSZ (8 mol% yttria stabilized zirconia) used in the nickel-YSZ anode on the performance of anode supported tubular fuel cells were investigated. For this purpose, two different types of cells were prepared based on a Ni-YSZ/YSZ/Nd₂NiO_4+δ-YSZ configuration. For the anode preparation, a suspension was prepared by mixing NiO and YSZ in a ratio of 65:35 wt% (Ni:YSZ 50:50 vol.%) with 30 vol.% graphite as the pore former. As received Tosoh YSZ or its calcined form (heated at 1500 °C for 3 hours) was used in the anode support as the YSZ source. Electrochemical results showed that optimization of the fuel electrode microstructure is essential for the optimal distribution of gas within the support of the cell, especially under electrolysis operation where the performance for an optimized cell (calcined YSZ) was enhanced by a factor of two. In comparison with a standard cell (containing as received YSZ), at 1.5 V and 800 °C the measured current density was −1380 mA cm⁻² and −690 mA cm⁻² for the cells containing calcined and as received YSZ, respectively. The present study suggests that the anode porosity for improved cell performance under SOEC is more critical than SOFC mode due to more complex gas diffusion under electrolysis mode where large amount of steam needs to be transfered into the cell.

Structural and chemical degradation mechanisms of pure YSZ and its components ZrO2 and Y2O3 in carbon-rich fuel gases

Structural and chemical degradation mechanisms of metal-free yttria stabilized zirconia (YSZ-8, 8 mol% Y2O3 in ZrO2) in comparison to its pure oxidic components ZrO2 and Y2O3 have been studied in carbon-rich fuel gases with respect to coking/graphitization and (oxy)carbide formation. By combining operando electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), operando Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), the removal and suppression of CH4- and CO-induced carbon deposits and of those generated in more realistic fuel gas mixtures (syngas, mixtures of CH4 or CO with CO2 and H2O) was examined under SOFC-relevant conditions up to 1273 K and ambient pressures. Surface-near carbidization is a major problem already on the "isolated" (i.e. Nickel-free) cermet components, leading to irreversible changes of the conduction properties. Graphitic carbon deposition takes place already on the "isolated" oxides under sufficiently fuel-rich conditions, most pronounced in the pure gases CH4 and CO, but also significantly in fuel gas mixtures containing H2O and CO2. For YSZ, a comparative quantification of the total amount of deposited carbon in all gases and mixtures is provided and thus yields favorable and detrimental experimental approaches to suppress the carbon formation. In addition, the effectivity and reversibility of removal of the coke/graphite layers was comparably studied in the pure oxidants O2, CO2 and H2O and their effective contribution upon addition to the pure fuel gases CO and CH4 verified.

Stereo-epitaxial growth of single-crystal Ni nanowires and nanoplates from aligned seed crystals

Epitaxially grown anisotropic Ni nanostructures are promising building blocks for the development of miniaturized and stereo-integrated data storage kits because they can store multiple magnetic domain walls (DWs). Here, we report stereo-epitaxially grown single-crystalline Ni nanowires (NWs) and nanoplates, and their magnetic properties. Vertical and inclined Ni NWs were grown at the center and edge regions of c-cut sapphire substrates, respectively. Vertical Ni nanoplates were grown on r-cut sapphire substrates. The morphology and growth direction of Ni nanostructures can be steered by seed crystals. Cubic Ni seeds grow into vertical Ni NWs, tetrahedral Ni seeds grow into inclined Ni NWs, and triangular Ni seeds grow into vertical Ni nanoplates. The shapes of the Ni seeds are determined by the interfacial energy between the bottom plane of the seeds and the substrates. The as-synthesized Ni NWs and nanoplates have blocking temperature values greater than 300 K at 500 Oe, verifying that these Ni nanostructures can form large magnetic DWs with high magnetic anisotropy properties. We anticipate that epitaxially grown Ni NWs and nanoplates will be used in various types of 3-dimensional magnetic devices.

Hydrophilic CeO2 nanocubes protect pancreatic β-cell line INS-1 from H2O2-induced oxidative stress

Oxidative stress plays a key role in the occurrence and development of diabetes. With their unique redox properties, CeO2 nanoparticles (nanoceria) exhibit promising potential for the treatment of diabetes resulting from oxidative stress. Here, we develop a novel preparation of hydrophilic CeO2 nanocubes (NCs) with two different sizes (5 nm and 25 nm) via an acetate assisted hydrothermal method. Dynamic light scattering, zeta potential measurements and thermogravimetric analyses were utilized to investigate the changes in the physico-chemical characteristics of CeO2 NCs when exposed to in vitro cell culture conditions. CCK-8 assays revealed that the CeO2 NCs did not impair cell proliferation in the pancreatic β-cell line INS-1 at the highest dose of 200 μg mL(-1) over the time scale of 72 h, while being able to protect INS-1 cells from H2O2-induced cytotoxicity even after protein adsorption. It is also noteworthy that nanoceria with a smaller hydrodynamic radius exhibit stronger antioxidant and anti-apoptotic effects, which is consistent with their H2O2 quenching capability in biological systems. These findings suggest that nanoceria can be used as an excellent antioxidant for controlling oxidative stress-induced pancreatic β-cell damage.

Atomic structures and oxygen dynamics of CeO2 grain boundaries

Material performance is significantly governed by grain boundaries (GBs), a typical crystal defects inside, which often exhibit unique properties due to the structural and chemical inhomogeneity. Here, it is reported direct atomic scale evidence that oxygen vacancies formed in the GBs can modify the local surface oxygen dynamics in CeO2, a key material for fuel cells. The atomic structures and oxygen vacancy concentrations in individual GBs are obtained by electron microscopy and theoretical calculations at atomic scale. Meanwhile, local GB oxygen reduction reactivity is measured by electrochemical strain microscopy. By combining these techniques, it is demonstrated that the GB electrochemical activities are affected by the oxygen vacancy concentrations, which is, on the other hand, determined by the local structural distortions at the GB core region. These results provide critical understanding of GB properties down to atomic scale, and new perspectives on the development strategies of high performance electrochemical devices for solid oxide fuel cells.

Chemical vapor deposition-prepared sub-nanometer Zr clusters on Pd surfaces: promotion of methane dry reforming

An inverse Pd–Zr model catalyst was prepared by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) using zirconium-t-butoxide (ZTB) as an organometallic precursor.

Development of functionalized quantum dot modified poly(vinyl alcohol) membranes for fuel cell applications

Superior thermally, hydrolytically and mechanically stable heat treated functionalized quantum dot modified PVA membranes with enhanced proton conductivity are reported.

High dielectric constant and capacitance in ultrasmall (2.5 nm) SrHfO3 perovskite nanoparticles produced in a low temperature non-aqueous sol–gel route

Strontium hafnium oxide (SrHfO₃) has great potential as a high-k gate dielectric material, for use in memories, capacitors, CMOS and MOSFETs.

A High-Performing Sulfur-Tolerant and Redox-Stable Layered Perovskite Anode for Direct Hydrocarbon Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

Development of alternative ceramic oxide anode materials is a key step for direct hydrocarbon solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs). Several lanthanide based layered perovskite-structured oxides demonstrate outstanding oxygen diffusion rate, favorable electronic conductivity, and good oxygen surface exchange kinetics, owing to A-site ordered structure in which lanthanide and alkali-earth ions occupy alternate (001) layers and oxygen vacancies are mainly located in [LnO_x] planes. Here we report a nickel-free cation deficient layered perovskite, (PrBa)_0.95(Fe_0.9Mo_0.1)₂O_5 + δ (PBFM), for SOFC anode, and this anode shows an outstanding performance with high resistance against both carbon build-up and sulfur poisoning in hydrocarbon fuels. At 800 °C, the layered PBFM showed high electrical conductivity of 59.2 S cm⁻¹ in 5% H₂ and peak power densities of 1.72 and 0.54 W cm⁻² using H₂ and CH₄ as fuel, respectively. The cell exhibits a very stable performance under a constant current load of 1.0 A cm⁻². To our best knowledge, this is the highest performance of ceramic anodes operated in methane. In addition, the anode is structurally stable at various fuel and temperature conditions, suggesting that it is a feasible material candidate for high-performing SOFC anode.

Shape-Dependent Activity of Ceria for Hydrogen Electro-Oxidation in Reduced-Temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

Single crystalline ceria nanooctahedra, nanocubes, and nanorods are hydrothermally synthesized, colloidally impregnated into the porous La0.9Sr0.1Ga0.8Mg0.2O3-δ (LSGM) scaffolds, and electrochemically evaluated as the anode catalysts for reduced temperature solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs). Well-defined surface terminations are confirmed by the high-resolution transmission electron microscopy--(111) for nanooctahedra, (100) for nanocubes, and both (110) and (100) for nanorods. Temperature-programmed reduction in H2 shows the highest reducibility for nanorods, followed sequentially by nanocubes and nanooctahedra. Measurements of the anode polarization resistances and the fuel cell power densities reveal different orders of activity of ceria nanocrystals at high and low temperatures for hydrogen electro-oxidation, i.e., nanorods > nanocubes > nanooctahedra at T ≤ 450 °C and nanooctahedra > nanorods > nanocubes at T ≥ 500 °C. Such shape-dependent activities of these ceria nanocrystals have been correlated to their difference in the local structure distortions and thus in the reducibility. These findings will open up a new strategy for design of advanced catalysts for reduced-temperature SOFCs by elaborately engineering the shape of nanocrystals and thus selectively exposing the crystal facets.

3D Microstructure Effects in Ni-YSZ Anodes: Prediction of Effective Transport Properties and Optimization of Redox Stability

This study investigates the influence of microstructure on the effective ionic and electrical conductivities of Ni-YSZ (yttria-stabilized zirconia) anodes. Fine, medium, and coarse microstructures are exposed to redox cycling at 950 °C. FIB (focused ion beam)-tomography and image analysis are used to quantify the effective (connected) volume fraction (Φ_eff), constriction factor (β), and tortuosity (τ). The effective conductivity (σ_eff) is described as the product of intrinsic conductivity (σ₀) and the so-called microstructure-factor (M): σ_eff = σ₀ × M. Two different methods are used to evaluate the M-factor: (1) by prediction using a recently established relationship, M_pred = εβ^0.36/τ^5.17, and (2) by numerical simulation that provides conductivity, from which the simulated M-factor can be deduced (M_sim). Both methods give complementary and consistent information about the effective transport properties and the redox degradation mechanism. The initial microstructure has a strong influence on effective conductivities and their degradation. Finer anodes have higher initial conductivities but undergo more intensive Ni coarsening. Coarser anodes have a more stable Ni phase but exhibit lower YSZ stability due to lower sintering activity. Consequently, in order to improve redox stability, it is proposed to use mixtures of fine and coarse powders in different proportions for functional anode and current collector layers.

Negative thermal expansion in functional materials: controllable thermal expansion by chemical modifications

Negative thermal expansion (NTE) is an intriguing physical property of solids, which is a consequence of a complex interplay among the lattice, phonons, and electrons. Interestingly, a large number of NTE materials have been found in various types of functional materials. In the last two decades good progress has been achieved to discover new phenomena and mechanisms of NTE. In the present review article, NTE is reviewed in functional materials of ferroelectrics, magnetics, multiferroics, superconductors, temperature-induced electron configuration change and so on. Zero thermal expansion (ZTE) of functional materials is emphasized due to the importance for practical applications. The NTE functional materials present a general physical picture to reveal a strong coupling role between physical properties and NTE. There is a general nature of NTE for both ferroelectrics and magnetics, in which NTE is determined by either ferroelectric order or magnetic one. In NTE functional materials, a multi-way to control thermal expansion can be established through the coupling roles of ferroelectricity-NTE, magnetism-NTE, change of electron configuration-NTE, open-framework-NTE, and so on. Chemical modification has been proved to be an effective method to control thermal expansion. Finally, challenges and questions are discussed for the development of NTE materials. There remains a challenge to discover a "perfect" NTE material for each specific application for chemists. The future studies on NTE functional materials will definitely promote the development of NTE materials.

A-site-deficiency facilitated in situ growth of bimetallic Ni-Fe nano-alloys: a novel coking-tolerant fuel cell anode catalyst

To date, most investigations of Ni-Fe bimetallic catalysts for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) have focused on materials with micro-scale particle sizes, which severely restrict their catalytic activity. In this study, we fabricated a Ni- and/or Fe-doped A-site-deficient LaSrCrO3 perovskite (A-LSC) bimetallic anode material on which the in situ exsolution of uniformly dispersed nano Ni, Fe and Ni-Fe alloy with an average particle size of 25 to 30 nm was facilitated by the introduction of A-site deficiency under a reducing atmosphere. The dopants were shown to significantly enhance the electrical conductivity of the material by many orders of magnitude. Further characterization of the bimetallic material showed that the addition of Fe changed the reduction behavior and increased the amount of oxygen vacancies in the material. Fuel cell performance tests demonstrated that the prepared bimetallic anode catalyst with a highly catalytically active nano Ni-Fe alloy promoted the electrochemical performance in 5000 ppm H2S-syngas and improved the carbon deposition resistance compared to a monometallic anode catalyst.

Shape-selective oriented cerium oxide nanocrystals permit assessment of the effect of the exposed facets on catalytic activity and oxygen storage capacity

The catalytic performance of a range of nanocrystalline CeO2 samples, prepared to have different morphologies, was measured using two accepted indicators; oxygen storage and diesel soot combustion. The same powders were characterized in detail by HR-TEM, XRD, XPS, and Raman methods. The study demonstrates that activity is determined by the relative fraction of the active crystallographic planes, not by the specific surface area of the powders. The physical study is a step toward quantitative evaluation of the relative contribution to activity of the different facets. The synthetic protocol permits fabrication of CeO2 nanostructures with preferentially grown active planes, and therefore has potential in developing catalytic applications and in nanocompositing.

Layered oxygen-deficient double perovskite as an efficient and stable anode for direct hydrocarbon solid oxide fuel cells

Different layered perovskite-related oxides are known to exhibit important electronic, magnetic and electrochemical properties. Owing to their excellent mixed-ionic and electronic conductivity and fast oxygen kinetics, cation layered double perovskite oxides such as PrBaCo2O5 in particular have exhibited excellent properties as solid oxide fuel cell oxygen electrodes. Here, we show for the first time that related layered materials can be used as high-performance fuel electrodes. Good redox stability with tolerance to coking and sulphur contamination from hydrocarbon fuels is demonstrated for the layered perovskite anode PrBaMn2O5+δ (PBMO). The PBMO anode is fabricated by in situ annealing of Pr0.5Ba0.5MnO3-δ in fuel conditions and actual fuel cell operation is demonstrated. At 800 °C, layered PBMO shows high electrical conductivity of 8.16 S cm(-1) in 5% H2 and demonstrates peak power densities of 1.7 and 1.3 W cm(-2) at 850 °C using humidified hydrogen and propane fuels, respectively.

Study of ion dynamics in lanthanum aluminate probed by conductivity spectroscopy

Conductivity Spectra of LaAlO₃.