CBC-ARS2 stimulates 3'-end maturation of multiple RNA families and favors cap-proximal processing

Cajal bodies and snRNPs - friends with benefits

Spliceosomal snRNPs are complex particles that proceed through a fascinating maturation pathway. Several steps of this pathway are closely linked to nuclear non-membrane structures called Cajal bodies. In this review, I summarize the last 20 y of research in this field. I primarily focus on snRNP biogenesis, specifically on the steps that involve Cajal bodies. I also evaluate the contribution of the Cajal body in snRNP quality control and discuss the role of snRNPs in Cajal body formation.

Transcriptomic comparison of Drosophila snRNP biogenesis mutants reveals mutant-specific changes in pre-mRNA processing: implications for spinal muscular atrophy

Survival motor neuron (SMN) functions in the assembly of spliceosomal small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs) that catalyze pre-mRNA splicing. Here, we used disruptions in Smn and two additional snRNP biogenesis genes, Phax and Ars2, to classify RNA processing differences as snRNP-dependent or gene-specific in Drosophila Phax and Smn mutants exhibited comparable reductions in snRNAs, and comparison of their transcriptomes uncovered shared sets of RNA processing changes. In contrast, Ars2 mutants displayed only small decreases in snRNA levels, and RNA processing changes in these mutants were generally distinct from those identified in Phax and Smn animals. Instead, RNA processing changes in Ars2 mutants support the known interaction of Ars2 protein with the cap-binding complex, as splicing changes showed a clear bias toward the first intron. Bypassing disruptions in snRNP biogenesis, direct knockdown of spliceosomal proteins caused similar changes in the splicing of snRNP-dependent events. However, these snRNP-dependent events were largely unaltered in three Smn mutants expressing missense mutations that were originally identified in human spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) patients. Hence, findings here clarify the contributions of Phax, Smn, and Ars2 to snRNP biogenesis in Drosophila, and loss-of-function mutants for these proteins reveal differences that help disentangle cause and effect in SMA model flies.

Enhancer of Rudimentary Cooperates with Conserved RNA-Processing Factors to Promote Meiotic mRNA Decay and Facultative Heterochromatin Assembly

Erh1, the fission yeast homolog of Enhancer of rudimentary, is implicated in meiotic mRNA elimination during vegetative growth, but its function is poorly understood. We show that Erh1 and the RNA-binding protein Mmi1 form a stoichiometric complex, called the Erh1-Mmi1 complex (EMC), to promote meiotic mRNA decay and facultative heterochromatin assembly. To perform these functions, EMC associates with two distinct complexes, Mtl1-Red1 core (MTREC) and CCR4-NOT. Whereas MTREC facilitates assembly of heterochromatin islands coating meiotic genes silenced by the nuclear exosome, CCR4-NOT promotes RNAi-dependent heterochromatin domain (HOOD) formation at EMC-target loci. CCR4-NOT also assembles HOODs at retrotransposons and regulated genes containing cryptic introns. We find that CCR4-NOT facilitates HOOD assembly through its association with the conserved Pir2/ARS2 protein, and also maintains rDNA integrity and silencing by promoting heterochromatin formation. Our results reveal connections among Erh1, CCR4-NOT, Pir2/ARS2, and RNAi, which target heterochromatin to regulate gene expression and protect genome integrity.

Perlman syndrome nuclease DIS3L2 controls cytoplasmic non-coding RNAs and provides surveillance pathway for maturing snRNAs

The exosome-independent exoribonuclease DIS3L2 is mutated in Perlman syndrome. Here, we used extensive global transcriptomic and targeted biochemical analyses to identify novel DIS3L2 substrates in human cells. We show that DIS3L2 regulates pol II transcripts, comprising selected canonical and histone-coding mRNAs, and a novel FTL_short RNA from the ferritin mRNA 5' UTR. Importantly, DIS3L2 contributes to surveillance of maturing snRNAs during their cytoplasmic processing. Among pol III transcripts, DIS3L2 particularly targets vault and Y RNAs and an Alu-like element BC200 RNA, but not Alu repeats, which are removed by exosome-associated DIS3. Using 3' RACE-Seq, we demonstrate that all novel DIS3L2 substrates are uridylated in vivo by TUT4/TUT7 poly(U) polymerases. Uridylation-dependent DIS3L2-mediated decay can be recapitulated in vitro, thus reinforcing the tight cooperation between DIS3L2 and TUTases. Together these results indicate that catalytically inactive DIS3L2, characteristic of Perlman syndrome, can lead to deregulation of its target RNAs to disturb transcriptome homeostasis.

A subset of replication-dependent histone mRNAs are expressed as polyadenylated RNAs in terminally differentiated tissues

Histone proteins are synthesized in large amounts during S-phase to package the newly replicated DNA, and are among the most stable proteins in the cell. The replication-dependent (RD)-histone mRNAs expressed during S-phase end in a conserved stem-loop rather than a polyA tail. In addition, there are replication-independent (RI)-histone genes that encode histone variants as polyadenylated mRNAs. Most variants have specific functions in chromatin, but H3.3 also serves as a replacement histone for damaged histones in long-lived terminally differentiated cells. There are no reported replacement histone genes for histones H2A, H2B or H4. We report that a subset of RD-histone genes are expressed in terminally differentiated tissues as polyadenylated mRNAs, likely serving as replacement histone genes in long-lived non-dividing cells. Expression of two genes, HIST2H2AA3 and HIST1H2BC, is conserved in mammals. They are expressed as polyadenylated mRNAs in fibroblasts differentiated in vitro, but not in serum starved fibroblasts, suggesting that their expression is part of the terminal differentiation program. There are two histone H4 genes and an H3 gene that encode mRNAs that are polyadenylated and expressed at 5- to 10-fold lower levels than the mRNAs from H2A and H2B genes, which may be replacement genes for the H3.1 and H4 proteins.

Gain-of-function reporters for analysis of mRNA 3′-end formation: Design and optimization

The concept of mRNA 3′-end formation as a static, minimally regulated housekeeping process has undergone a paradigm shift. Many recent studies have shown that accurate and efficient 3′-end formation of mRNA is highly regulated and that dysregulation of this process is a hallmark of several diseases. While there are many global analysis methods for monitoring altered mRNA processing, methods for investigating specific RNA 3′-end processing events in cells have not significantly changed. Here we describe a facile gain-of-function cellular reporter for the analysis of mRNA 3′-end formation as an alternative to approaches that are technically challenging or use radioactivity. We also offer suggestions for optimization of our approach and enhancement of its reproducibility.

Rrp6: Integrated roles in nuclear RNA metabolism and transcription termination

The yeast RNA exosome is a eukaryotic ribonuclease complex essential for RNA processing, surveillance, and turnover. It is comprised of a barrel-shaped core and cap as well as a 3'-5' ribonuclease known as Dis3 that contains both endo- and exonuclease domains. A second exonuclease, Rrp6, is added in the nucleus. Dis3 and Rrp6 have both shared and distinct roles in RNA metabolism, and this review will focus primarily on Rrp6 and the roles of the RNA exosome in the nucleus. The functions of the nuclear exosome are modulated by cofactors and interacting partners specific to each type of substrate. Generally, the cofactor TRAMP (Trf4/5-Air2/1-Mtr4 polyadenylation) complex helps unwind unstable RNAs, RNAs requiring processing such as rRNAs, tRNAs, or snRNAs or improperly processed RNAs and direct it toward the exosome. In yeast, Rrp6 interacts with Nrd1, the cap-binding complex, and RNA polymerase II to aid in nascent RNA processing, termination, and polyA tail length regulation. Recent studies have shown that proper termination and processing of short, noncoding RNAs by Rrp6 is particularly important for transcription regulation across the genome and has important implications for regulation of diverse processes at the cellular level. Loss of proper Rrp6 and exosome activity may contribute to various pathologies such as autoimmune disease, neurological disorders, and cancer. WIREs RNA 2016, 7:91-104. doi: 10.1002/wrna.1317 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

Canonical Poly(A) Polymerase Activity Promotes the Decay of a Wide Variety of Mammalian Nuclear RNAs

The human nuclear poly(A)-binding protein PABPN1 has been implicated in the decay of nuclear noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs). In addition, PABPN1 promotes hyperadenylation by stimulating poly(A)-polymerases (PAPα/γ), but this activity has not previously been linked to the decay of endogenous transcripts. Moreover, the mechanisms underlying target specificity have remained elusive. Here, we inactivated PAP-dependent hyperadenylation in cells by two independent mechanisms and used an RNA-seq approach to identify endogenous targets. We observed the upregulation of various ncRNAs, including snoRNA host genes, primary miRNA transcripts, and promoter upstream antisense RNAs, confirming that hyperadenylation is broadly required for the degradation of PABPN1-targets. In addition, we found that mRNAs with retained introns are susceptible to PABPN1 and PAPα/γ-mediated decay (PPD). Transcripts are targeted for degradation due to inefficient export, which is a consequence of reduced intron number or incomplete splicing. Additional investigation showed that a genetically-encoded poly(A) tail is sufficient to drive decay, suggesting that degradation occurs independently of the canonical cleavage and polyadenylation reaction. Surprisingly, treatment with transcription inhibitors uncouples polyadenylation from decay, leading to runaway hyperadenylation of nuclear decay targets. We conclude that PPD is an important mammalian nuclear RNA decay pathway for the removal of poorly spliced and nuclear-retained transcripts.

Cells control gene expression by balancing the rates of RNA synthesis and decay. While the mechanisms of transcription regulation are extensively studied, the parameters that control nuclear RNA stability remain largely unknown. Previously, we and others reported that poly(A) tails may stimulate RNA decay in mammalian nuclei. This function is mediated by the concerted actions of the nuclear poly(A) binding protein PABPN1, poly(A) polymerase (PAP), and the nuclear exosome complex, a pathway we have named PABPN1 and PAP-mediated RNA decay (PPD). Because nearly all mRNAs possess a poly(A) tail, it remains unclear how PPD targets specific transcripts. Here, we inactivated PPD by two distinct mechanisms and examined global gene expression. We identified a number of potential target genes, including snoRNA host genes, promoter antisense RNAs, and mRNAs. Interestingly, target transcripts tend to be incompletely spliced or possess fewer introns than non-target transcripts, suggesting that efficient splicing allows normal mRNAs to escape decay. We suggest that PPD plays an important role in gene expression by limiting the accumulation of inefficiently processed RNAs. In addition, our results highlight the complex relationship between (pre-)mRNA splicing and nuclear RNA decay.

Nucleocytoplasmic Transport of RNAs and RNA-Protein Complexes

RNAs and ribonucleoprotein complexes (RNPs) play key roles in mediating and regulating gene expression. In eukaryotes, most RNAs are transcribed, processed and assembled with proteins in the nucleus and then either function in the cytoplasm or also undergo a cytoplasmic phase in their biogenesis. This compartmentalization ensures that sequential steps in gene expression and RNP production are performed in the correct order and it allows important quality control mechanisms that prevent the involvement of aberrant RNAs/RNPs in these cellular pathways. The selective exchange of RNAs/RNPs between the nucleus and cytoplasm is enabled by nuclear pore complexes, which function as gateways between these compartments. RNA/RNP transport is facilitated by a range of nuclear transport receptors and adaptors, which are specifically recruited to their cargos and mediate interactions with nucleoporins to allow directional translocation through nuclear pore complexes. While some transport factors are only responsible for the export/import of a certain class of RNA/RNP, others are multifunctional and, in the case of large RNPs, several export factors appear to work together to bring about export. Recent structural studies have revealed aspects of the mechanisms employed by transport receptors to enable specific cargo recognition, and genome-wide approaches have provided the first insights into the diverse composition of pre-mRNPs during export. Furthermore, the regulation of RNA/RNP export is emerging as an important means to modulate gene expression under stress conditions and in disease.

Mutagenesis of ARS2 Domains To Assess Possible Roles in Cell Cycle Progression and MicroRNA and Replication-Dependent Histone mRNA Biogenesis

ARS2 is a regulator of RNA polymerase II transcript processing through its role in the maturation of distinct nuclear cap-binding complex (CBC)-controlled RNA families. In this study, we examined ARS2 domain function in transcript processing. Structural modeling based on the plant ARS2 orthologue, SERRATE, revealed 2 previously uncharacterized domains in mammalian ARS2: an N-terminal domain of unknown function (DUF3546), which is also present in SERRATE, and an RNA recognition motif (RRM) that is present in metazoan ARS2 but not in plants. Both the DUF3546 and zinc finger domain (ZnF) were required for association with microRNA and replication-dependent histone mRNA. Mutations in the ZnF disrupted interaction with FLASH, a key component in histone pre-mRNA processing. Mutations targeting the Mid domain implicated it in DROSHA interaction and microRNA biogenesis. The unstructured C terminus was required for interaction with the CBC protein CBP20, while the RRM was required for cell cycle progression and for binding to FLASH. Together, our results support a bridging model in which ARS2 plays a central role in RNA recognition and processing through multiple protein and RNA interactions.

DIS3 shapes the RNA polymerase II transcriptome in humans by degrading a variety of unwanted transcripts

Human DIS3, the nuclear catalytic subunit of the exosome complex, contains exonucleolytic and endonucleolytic active domains. To identify DIS3 targets genome-wide, we combined comprehensive transcriptomic analyses of engineered HEK293 cells that expressed mutant DIS3, with Photoactivatable Ribonucleoside-Enhanced Cross-Linking and Immunoprecipitation (PAR-CLIP) experiments. In cells expressing DIS3 with both catalytic sites mutated, RNAs originating from unannotated genomic regions increased ∼2.5-fold, covering ∼70% of the genome and allowing for thousands of novel transcripts to be discovered. Previously described pervasive transcription products, such as Promoter Upstream Transcripts (PROMPTs), accumulated robustly upon DIS3 dysfunction, representing a significant fraction of PAR-CLIP reads. We have also detected relatively long putative premature RNA polymerase II termination products of protein-coding genes whose levels in DIS3 mutant cells can exceed the mature mRNAs, indicating that production of such truncated RNA is a common phenomenon. In addition, we found DIS3 to be involved in controlling the formation of paraspeckles, nuclear bodies that are organized around NEAT1 lncRNA, whose short form was overexpressed in cells with mutated DIS3. Moreover, the DIS3 mutations resulted in misregulation of expression of ∼50% of transcribed protein-coding genes, probably as a secondary effect of accumulation of various noncoding RNA species. Finally, cells expressing mutant DIS3 accumulated snoRNA precursors, which correlated with a strong PAR-CLIP signal, indicating that DIS3 is the main snoRNA-processing enzyme. EXOSC10 (RRP6) instead controls the levels of the mature snoRNAs. Overall, we show that DIS3 has a major nucleoplasmic function in shaping the human RNA polymerase II transcriptome.

NUFIP and the HSP90/R2TP chaperone bind the SMN complex and facilitate assembly of U4-specific proteins

The Sm proteins are loaded on snRNAs by the SMN complex, but how snRNP-specific proteins are assembled remains poorly characterized. U4 snRNP and box C/D snoRNPs have structural similarities. They both contain the 15.5K and proteins with NOP domains (PRP31 for U4, NOP56/58 for snoRNPs). Biogenesis of box C/D snoRNPs involves NUFIP and the HSP90/R2TP chaperone system and here, we explore the function of this machinery in U4 RNP assembly. We show that yeast Prp31 interacts with several components of the NUFIP/R2TP machinery, and that these interactions are separable from each other. In human cells, PRP31 mutants that fail to stably associate with U4 snRNA still interact with components of the NUFIP/R2TP system, indicating that these interactions precede binding of PRP31 to U4 snRNA. Knock-down of NUFIP leads to mislocalization of PRP31 and decreased association with U4. Moreover, NUFIP is associated with the SMN complex through direct interactions with Gemin3 and Gemin6. Altogether, our data suggest a model in which the NUFIP/R2TP system is connected with the SMN complex and facilitates assembly of U4 snRNP-specific proteins.

The fission yeast MTREC complex targets CUTs and unspliced pre-mRNAs to the nuclear exosome

Cryptic unstable transcripts (CUTs) are rapidly degraded by the nuclear exosome. However, the mechanism by which they are recognized and targeted to the exosome is not fully understood. Here we report that the MTREC complex, which has recently been shown to promote degradation of meiotic mRNAs and regulatory ncRNAs, is also the major nuclear exosome targeting complex for CUTs and unspliced pre-mRNAs in Schizosaccharomyces pombe. The MTREC complex specifically binds to CUTs, meiotic mRNAs and unspliced pre-mRNA transcripts and targets these RNAs for degradation by the nuclear exosome, while the TRAMP complex has only a minor role in this process. The MTREC complex physically interacts with the nuclear exosome and with various RNA-binding and RNA-processing complexes, coupling RNA processing to the RNA degradation machinery. Our study reveals the central role of the evolutionarily conserved MTREC complex in RNA quality control, and in the recognition and elimination of CUTs.

RBM7 subunit of the NEXT complex binds U-rich sequences and targets 3'-end extended forms of snRNAs

The Nuclear Exosome Targeting (NEXT) complex is a key cofactor of the mammalian nuclear exosome in the removal of Promoter Upstream Transcripts (PROMPTs) and potentially aberrant forms of other noncoding RNAs, such as snRNAs. NEXT is composed of three subunits SKIV2L2, ZCCHC8 and RBM7. We have recently identified the NEXT complex in our screen for oligo(U) RNA-binding factors. Here, we demonstrate that NEXT displays preference for U-rich pyrimidine sequences and this RNA binding is mediated by the RNA recognition motif (RRM) of the RBM7 subunit. We solved the structure of RBM7 RRM and identified two phenylalanine residues that are critical for interaction with RNA. Furthermore, we showed that these residues are required for the NEXT interaction with snRNAs in vivo. Finally, we show that depletion of components of the NEXT complex alone or together with exosome nucleases resulted in the accumulation of mature as well as extended forms of snRNAs. Thus, our data suggest a new scenario in which the NEXT complex is involved in the surveillance of snRNAs and/or biogenesis of snRNPs.

p38MAPK/MK2-mediated phosphorylation of RBM7 regulates the human nuclear exosome targeting complex

The nuclear exosome targeting complex (NEXT) directs a major 3'-5' exonuclease, the RNA exosome, for degradation of nuclear noncoding (nc) RNAs. We identified the RNA-binding component of the NEXT complex, RBM7, as a substrate of p38(MAPK)/MK2-mediated phosphorylation at residue S136. As a result of this phosphorylation, RBM7 displays a strongly decreased RNA-binding capacity, while inhibition of p38(MAPK) or mutation of S136A in RBM7 increases its RNA association. Interestingly, promoter-upstream transcripts (PROMPTs), such as proRBM39, proEXT1, proDNAJB4, accumulated upon stress stimulation in a p38(MAPK)/MK2-dependent manner, a process inhibited by overexpression of RBM7(S136A). While there are no stress-dependent changes in RNA-polymerase II (RNAPII) occupation of PROMPT regions representing unchanged transcription, stability of PROMPTs is increased. Hence, we propose that phosphorylation of RBM7 by the p38(MAPK)/MK2 axis increases nuclear ncRNA stability by blocking their RBM7-binding and subsequent RNA exosome targeting to allow stress-dependent modulations of the noncoding transcriptome.

The human nuclear exosome targeting complex is loaded onto newly synthesized RNA to direct early ribonucleolysis

The RNA exosome complex constitutes the major nuclear eukaryotic 3'-5' exonuclease. Outside of nucleoli, the human nucleoplasmic exosome is directed to some of its substrates by the nuclear exosome targeting (NEXT) complex. How NEXT targets RNA has remained elusive. Using an in vivo crosslinking approach, we report global RNA binding sites of RBM7, a key component of NEXT. RBM7 associates broadly with RNA polymerase II-derived RNA, including pre-mRNA and short-lived exosome substrates such as promoter upstream transcripts (PROMPTs), enhancer RNAs (eRNAs), and 3'-extended products from snRNA and replication-dependent histone genes. Within pre-mRNA, RBM7 accumulates at the 3' ends of introns, and pulse-labeling experiments demonstrate that RBM7/NEXT defines an early exosome-targeting pathway for 3'-extended snoRNAs derived from such introns. We propose that RBM7 is generally loaded onto newly synthesized RNA to accommodate exosome action in case of available unprotected RNA 3' ends.

Post-transcriptional regulation of meiotic genes by a nuclear RNA silencing complex

RNA is a central component of gene-silencing pathways that regulate diverse cellular processes. In the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, an RNA-based mechanism represses meiotic gene expression during vegetative growth. This pathway depends on the zinc finger protein Red1, which is required to degrade meiotic mRNAs as well as to target histone H3 lysine 9 (H3K9) methylation, a repressive chromatin mark, to a subset of meiotic genes. However, the mechanism of Red1 function is unknown. Here we use affinity purification and mass spectrometry to identify a Red1-containing nuclear RNA silencing (NURS) complex. In addition to Red1, this complex includes the Mtl1, Red5, Ars2, Rmn1, and Iss10 proteins and associates with several other complexes that are involved in either signaling or mediating RNA silencing. By analyzing the effects of gene knockouts and inducible knockdown alleles, we show that NURS subunits regulate RNA degradation and H3K9 methylation at meiotic genes. We also identify roles for individual NURS subunits in interactions with Mmi1, an RNA-binding protein that marks meiotic RNAs for destruction, and the nuclear exosome RNA degradation complex. Finally, we show that the levels of H3K9 methylation at meiotic genes are not sufficient to restrict RNA polymerase II access or repress gene expression during vegetative growth. Our results demonstrate that Red1 partners with other proteins to silence meiotic gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. Conservation of a NURS-like complex in human cells suggests that this pathway plays an ancient and fundamental role in RNA silencing.

A Sub-Element in PRE enhances nuclear export of intronless mRNAs by recruiting the TREX complex via ZC3H18

Viral RNA elements that facilitate mRNA export are useful tools for identifying cellular RNA export factors. Here we show that hepatitis B virus post-transcriptional element (PRE) is one such element, and using PRE several new cellular mRNA export factors were identified. We found that PRE drastically enhances the cytoplasmic accumulation of cDNA transcripts independent of any viral protein. Systematic deletion analysis revealed the existence of a 116 nt functional Sub-Element of PRE (SEP1). The RNP that forms on the SEP1 RNA was affinity purified, in which TREX components as well as several other proteins were identified. TREX components and the SEP1-associating protein ZC3H18 are required for SEP1-mediated mRNA export. Significantly, ZC3H18 directly binds to the SEP1 RNA, interacts with TREX and is required for stable association of TREX with the SEP1-containing mRNA. Requirements for SEP1-mediated mRNA export are similar to those for splicing-dependent mRNA export. Consistent with these similarities, several SEP1-interacting proteins, including ZC3H18, ARS2, Acinus and Brr2, are required for efficient nuclear export of polyA RNAs. Together, our data indicate that SEP1 enhances mRNA export by recruiting TREX via ZC3H18. The new mRNA export factors that we identified might be involved in cap- and splicing-dependent TREX recruitment to cellular mRNAs.

SMN control of RNP assembly: from post-transcriptional gene regulation to motor neuron disease

At the post-transcriptional level, expression of protein-coding genes is controlled by a series of RNA regulatory events including nuclear processing of primary transcripts, transport of mature mRNAs to specific cellular compartments, translation and ultimately, turnover. These processes are orchestrated through the dynamic association of mRNAs with RNA binding proteins and ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes. Accurate formation of RNPs in vivo is fundamentally important to cellular development and function, and its impairment often leads to human disease. The survival motor neuron (SMN) protein is key to this biological paradigm: SMN is essential for the biogenesis of various RNPs that function in mRNA processing, and genetic mutations leading to SMN deficiency cause the neurodegenerative disease spinal muscular atrophy. Here we review the expanding role of SMN in the regulation of gene expression through its multiple functions in RNP assembly. We discuss advances in our understanding of SMN activity as a chaperone of RNPs and how disruption of SMN-dependent RNA pathways can cause motor neuron disease.

A day in the life of the spliceosome

One of the most amazing findings in molecular biology was the discovery that eukaryotic genes are discontinuous, with coding DNA being interrupted by stretches of non-coding sequence. The subsequent realization that the intervening regions are removed from pre-mRNA transcripts via the activity of a common set of small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs), which assemble together with associated proteins into a complex known as the spliceosome, was equally surprising. How do cells coordinate the assembly of this molecular machine? And how does the spliceosome accurately recognize exons and introns to carry out the splicing reaction? Insights into these questions have been gained by studying the life cycle of spliceosomal snRNAs from their transcription, nuclear export and re-import to their dynamic assembly into the spliceosome. This assembly process can also affect the regulation of alternative splicing and has implications for human disease.

Structure and function of pre-mRNA 5'-end capping quality control and 3'-end processing

Messenger RNA precursors (pre-mRNAs) are produced as the nascent transcripts of RNA polymerase II (Pol II) in eukaryotes and must undergo extensive maturational processing, including 5′-end capping, splicing, and 3′-end cleavage and polyadenylation. This review will summarize the structural and functional information reported over the past few years on the large machinery required for the 3′-end processing of most pre-mRNAs, as well as the distinct machinery for the 3′-end processing of replication-dependent histone pre-mRNAs, which have provided great insights into the proteins and their subcomplexes in these machineries. Structural and biochemical studies have also led to the identification of a new class of enzymes (the DXO family enzymes) with activity toward intermediates of the 5′-end capping pathway. Functional studies demonstrate that these enzymes are part of a novel quality surveillance mechanism for pre-mRNA 5′-end capping. Incompletely capped pre-mRNAs are produced in yeast and human cells, in contrast to the general belief in the field that capping always proceeds to completion, and incomplete capping leads to defects in splicing and 3′-end cleavage in human cells. The DXO family enzymes are required for the detection and degradation of these defective RNAs.

The human cap-binding complex is functionally connected to the nuclear RNA exosome

Nuclear processing and quality control of eukaryotic RNA is mediated by the RNA exosome, which is regulated by accessory factors. However, the mechanism of exosome recruitment to its ribonucleoprotein (RNP) targets remains poorly understood. Here we disclose a physical link between the human exosome and the cap-binding complex (CBC). The CBC associates with the ARS2 protein to form CBC-ARS2 (CBCA), and then further connects together with the ZC3H18 protein to the nuclear exosome targeting (NEXT) complex, forming CBC-NEXT (CBCN). RNA immunoprecipitation using CBCN factors as well as the analysis of combinatorial depletion of CBCN and exosome components underscore the functional relevance of CBC-exosome bridging at the level of target RNA. Specifically, CBCA suppresses read-through products of several RNA families by promoting their transcriptional termination. We suggest that the RNP 5′cap links transcription termination to exosomal RNA degradation via CBCN.