The mouse polyubiquitin gene UbC is essential for fetal liver development, cell-cycle progression and stress tolerance

Proteostasis and neurodegeneration: the roles of proteasomal degradation and autophagy

All proteins in a cell continuously turn over, each at its own rate, contributing to a cell's development, differentiation, or aging. Of course, unnecessary protein(s), or those synthesized in excess, that hamper cellular homeostasis should be discarded rapidly. Furthermore, cells that have been subjected to various environmental stresses, e.g., reactive oxygen species (ROS) and UV irradiation, may incur various types of protein damage, which vitiate normal and homeostatic functions in the cell. Thereby, the prompt elimination of impaired proteins is essential for cell viability. This housekeeping is accomplished by two major catabolic routes-proteasomal digestion and autophagy. Strict maintenance of proteostasis is particularly important in non-proliferative cells, especially neurons, and it is plausible that its failure leads to a number of the neurodegenerative diseases becoming prominent in the growing elderly population. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Ubiquitin-Proteasome System. Guest Editors: Thomas Sommer and Dieter H. Wolf.

Initial assessment of the role of CXC chemokine receptor 4 after polytrauma

CXC chemokine receptor (CXCR)-4 agonists have been shown to attenuate inflammation and organ injury in various disease models, including trauma/hemorrhage. The pathophysiological role of CXCR4 during the early response to tissue injury, however, remains unknown. Therefore, we investigated the effects of AMD3100, a drug that antagonizes binding of stromal cell-derived factor (SDF)-1α and ubiquitin to CXCR4 during the initial response to polytrauma in pigs. Fifteen minutes before polytrauma (femur fractures/lung contusion; control: sham), 350 nmol/kg AMD3100, equimolar AMD3100 and ubiquitin (350 nmol/kg each) or vehicle were administered intravenously. After a 60-min shock period, fluid resuscitation was performed for 360 min. Ubiquitin binding to peripheral blood mononuclear cells was significantly reduced after intravenous AMD3100. SDF-1α plasma levels increased transiently >10-fold with AMD3100 in all animals. In injured animals, AMD3100 increased fluid requirements to maintain hemodynamics and enhanced increases in peripheral blood granulocytes, lymphocytes and monocytes, compared with its effects in uninjured animals. Cytokine release from leukocytes in response to Toll-like receptor (TLR)-2 and TLR-4 activation was increased after in vitro AMD3100 treatment of normal whole blood and after in vivo AMD3100 administration in animals subjected to polytrauma. Coadministration of AMD3100/ubiquitin reduced lactate levels, prevented AMD3100-induced increases in fluid requirements and sensitization of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-6 release upon TLR-2/4 activation, but did not attenuate increases in leukocyte counts and SDF-1α plasma levels. Our findings suggest that CXCR4 controls leukocyte mobilization after trauma, regulates leukocyte reactivity toward inflammatory stimuli and mediates protective effects during the early phase of trauma-induced inflammation.

cAMP stimulates the ubiquitin/proteasome pathway in rat spinal cord neurons

Proteasome impairment and accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins are implicated in neurodegeneration associated with different forms of spinal cord injury. We show herein that elevating cAMP in rat spinal cord neurons increases 26S proteasome activity in a protein kinase A-dependent manner. Treating spinal cord neurons with dibutyryl-cAMP (db-cAMP) also raised the levels of various components of the UPP including proteasome subunits Rpt6 and β5, polyubiquitin shuttling factor p62/sequestosome1, E3 ligase CHIP, AAA-ATPase p97 and the ubiquitin gene ubB. Finally, db-cAMP reduced the accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins, proteasome inhibition, and neurotoxicity triggered by the endogenous product of inflammation prostaglandin J2. We propose that optimizing the effects of cAMP/PKA-signaling on the UPP could offer an effective therapeutic approach to prevent UPP-related proteotoxicity in spinal cord neurons.

Gene expression profile differences in embryos derived from prepubertal and adult Japanese Black cattle during in vitro development

The present study was carried out to compare the gene expression profiles of in vitro-generated embryos derived from adult and prepubertal Japanese Black cattle oocytes using GeneChip Bovine Genome Array (containing 24072 probe sets representing over 23000 transcripts). Microarray experiments were performed on populations of 8- to 16-cell stage embryos and blastocysts derived from adult (24-35 months old) versus prepubertal (9-10 months old) Japanese Black cattle oocytes matured and fertilised in vitro. In total, 591 (2.4%) and 490 (2.0%) genes were differentially expressed in prepubertal and adult bovine in 8- to 16-cell and blastocyst stage embryos, respectively. Out of these, 218 and 248 genes were upregulated, while 373 and 242 were downregulated in prepubertal and adult 8- to 16-cell and blastocysts stage embryos, respectively. Gene ontology classification regarding biological process, molecular functions and cellular component revealed diversity in transcript abundances between prepubertal and adult groups in both the distinct developmental stages. Quantitative reverse transcription-PCR validated the expression differences of some selected transcripts as identified by microarray analysis. To our knowledge, this is the first report indicating the significant number of genes differentially expression (>2-fold, P<0.01) in preimplantition embryos between adult and prepubertal Japanese Black cattle during in vitro development.

Perturbation of the hematopoietic system during embryonic liver development due to disruption of polyubiquitin gene Ubc in mice

Disruption of the polyubiquitin gene Ubc leads to a defect in fetal liver development, which can be partially rescued by increasing the amount of ubiquitin. However, it is still not known why Ubc is required for fetal liver development and the nature of the defective cell types responsible for embryonic lethality have not been characterized. In this study, we assessed the cause of embryonic lethality with respect to the fetal liver hematopoietic system. We found that Ubc was highly expressed in the embryonic liver, and the proliferation capacity of fetal liver cells was reduced in Ubc^−/− embryos. Specifically, Ubc was most highly expressed in hematopoietic cells, and the proliferation capacity of hematopoietic cells was significantly impaired in Ubc^−/− embryos. While hematopoietic cell and hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) frequency was maintained in Ubc^−/− embryos, the absolute number of these cells was diminished because of reduced total liver cell number in Ubc^−/− embryos. Transplantations of fetal liver cells into lethally irradiated recipient mice by non-competitive and competitive reconstitution methods indicated that disruption of Ubc does not significantly impair the intrinsic function of fetal liver HSCs. These findings suggest that disruption of Ubc reduces the absolute number of HSCs in embryonic livers, but has no significant effect on the autonomous function of HSCs. Thus, the lethality of Ubc^−/− embryos is not the result of intrinsic HSC failure.

Ubiquitin homeostasis is critical for synaptic development and function

The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) controls protein abundance and is essential for many aspects of neuronal function. In ataxia (ax(J)) mice, profound neurological and synaptic defects result from a loss-of-function mutation in the proteasome-associated deubiquitinating enzyme Usp14, which is required for recycling ubiquitin from proteasomal substrates. Here, we show that transgenic complementation of ax(J) mice with neuronally expressed ubiquitin prevents early postnatal lethality, restores muscle mass, and corrects developmental and functional deficits resulting from the loss of Usp14, demonstrating that ubiquitin deficiency is a major cause of the neurological defects observed in the ax(J) mice. We also show that proteasome components are normally induced during the first 2 weeks of postnatal development, which coincides with dramatic alterations in polyubiquitin chain formation. These data demonstrate a critical role for ubiquitin homeostasis in synaptic development and function, and show that ubiquitin deficiency may contribute to diseases characterized by synaptic dysfunction.

Protein standard absolute quantification (PSAQ) method for the measurement of cellular ubiquitin pools

The protein ubiquitin is an important post-translational modifier that regulates a wide variety of biological processes. In cells, ubiquitin is apportioned among distinct pools, which include a variety of free and conjugated species. Although maintenance of a dynamic and complex equilibrium among ubiquitin pools is crucial for cell survival, the tools necessary to quantify each cellular ubiquitin pool have been limited. We have developed a quantitative mass spectrometry approach to measure cellular concentrations of ubiquitin species using isotope-labeled protein standards and applied it to characterize ubiquitin pools in cells and tissues. Our method is convenient, adaptable and should be a valuable tool to facilitate our understanding of this important signaling molecule.

Ubiquitin-dependent control of class II MHC localization is dispensable for antigen presentation and antibody production

Controlled localization of class II MHC molecules is essential for proper class II MHC-restricted antigen presentation and the subsequent initiation of an adaptive immune response. Ubiquitination of class II MHC molecules on cytosolic lysine (K225) of the β-chain has been shown to affect localization of the complex. We generated mice in which the endogenous β-chain locus is replaced with a GFP tagged mutant version that lacks the cytosolic lysine residue (I-A-β-K225R-EGFP). These mice have elevated levels of class II MHC as compared to I-A-β-EGFP mice, and immature bone marrow-derived dendritic cells show redistribution of class II MHC to the cell surface. Nonetheless, in these same cells efficiency of antigen presentation is unaffected in I-A-β-K225R-EGFP mice, as assayed for presentation of ovalbumin to appropriately specific T cells. The I-A-β-K225R-EGFP animals have normal CD4 T cell populations and are capable of generating antigen-specific antibody in response to model antigens and viral infection. We therefore conclude that in our experimental system modulation of trafficking by ubiquitination of residue K225 of the β-chain is not essential for the function of class II MHC products in antigen presentation or antibody production.

Ubiquitin is a novel substrate for human insulin-degrading enzyme

Insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE) can degrade insulin and amyloid-β, peptides involved in diabetes and Alzheimer's disease, respectively. IDE selects its substrates based on size, charge, and flexibility. From these criteria, we predict that IDE can cleave and inactivate ubiquitin (Ub). Here, we show that IDE cleaves Ub in a biphasic manner, first, by rapidly removing the two C-terminal glycines (k(cat)=2 s(-1)) followed by a slow cleavage between residues 72 and 73 (k(cat)=0.07 s(-1)), thereby producing the inactive 1-74 fragment of Ub (Ub1-74) and 1-72 fragment of Ub (Ub1-72). IDE is a ubiquitously expressed cytosolic protein, where monomeric Ub is also present. Thus, Ub degradation by IDE should be regulated. IDE is known to bind the cytoplasmic intermediate filament protein nestin with high affinity. We found that nestin potently inhibits the cleavage of Ub by IDE. In addition, Ub1-72 has a markedly increased affinity for IDE (∼90-fold). Thus, the association of IDE with cellular regulators and product inhibition by Ub1-72 can prevent inadvertent proteolysis of cellular Ub by IDE. Ub is a highly stable protein. However, IDE instead prefers to degrade peptides with high intrinsic flexibility. Indeed, we demonstrate that IDE is exquisitely sensitive to Ub stability. Mutations that only mildly destabilize Ub (ΔΔG<0.6 kcal/mol) render IDE hypersensitive to Ub with rate enhancements greater than 12-fold. The Ub-bound IDE structure and IDE mutants reveal that the interaction of the exosite with the N-terminus of Ub guides the unfolding of Ub, allowing its sequential cleavages. Together, our studies link the control of Ub clearance with IDE.

Extracellular ubiquitin: immune modulator and endogenous opponent of damage-associated molecular pattern molecules

Ubiquitin is a post-translational protein modifier and plays essential roles in all aspects of biology. Although the discovery of ubiquitin introduced this highly conserved protein as a molecule with extracellular actions, the identification of ubiquitin as the ATP-dependent proteolysis factor 1 has focused subsequent research on its important intracellular functions. Little attention has since been paid to its role outside of the cell. During recent years, multiple observations suggest that extracellular ubiquitin can modulate immune responses and that exogenous ubiquitin has therapeutic potential to attenuate exuberant inflammation and organ injury. These observations have not been integrated into a comprehensive assessment of its possible role as an endogenous immune modulator. This review recapitulates the current knowledge about extracellular ubiquitin and discusses an emerging facet of its role in biology during infectious and noninfectious inflammation. The synopsis of these data along with the recent identification of ubiquitin as a CXCR4 agonist suggest that extracellular ubiquitin may have pleiotropic roles in the immune system and functions as an endogenous opponent of DAMPs. Functions of extracellular ubiquitin could constitute an evolutionary conserved control mechanism aimed to balance the immune response and prevent exuberant inflammation. Further characterization of its mechanism of action and cellular signaling pathways is expected to provide novel insights into the regulation of the innate immune response and opportunities for therapeutic interventions.

The polyubiquitin Ubc gene modulates histone H2A monoubiquitylation in the R6/2 mouse model of Huntington's disease

Huntington's disease (HD) is an inherited neurodegenerative disease caused by the expansion of a polyglutamine tract in the protein huntingtin (htt). HD brains are characterized by the presence of ubiquitin-positive neuronal inclusion bodies, suggesting that disturbances in the distribution of cellular ubiquitin may contribute to disease pathology. The fact that several neurodegenerative diseases are caused by mutations in ubiquitin-processing enzymes and that the polyubiquitin genes are required for resistance to cellular stress led us to investigate the effect of perturbing the ubiquitin system in HD. We crossed R6/2 transgenic HD mice with heterozygous polyubiquitin Ubc knockout mice (Ubc+/-) and assessed the effect on the R6/2 neurological phenotype. Although the R6/2 phenotype was largely unaffected, surprisingly we observed some subtle improvements in various behavioural activities correlating with heterozygous Ubc knockout. Interestingly, immunoblot analysis revealed that the levels of monoubiquitylated histone H2A (uH2A), a modification associated with gene repression, were significantly increased in the brains of R6/2 mice. Furthermore, the reduction of Ubc expression in R6/2; Ubc+/- mice largely prevented this increase in uH2A levels. However, we were not able to show by the use of a limited number of quantitative RT-PCR assays that changes in the amount of uH2A in the R6/2-Ubc mice had an effect on disease-associated transcriptional abnormalities. These results suggest that the expression of aggregation-prone mutant htt causes disturbances to the ubiquitin system, which may contribute to disease due to the diverse and important roles of ubiquitin.

Regulatory mechanisms involved in the control of ubiquitin homeostasis

Ubiquitin (Ub) modification plays an essential role in the regulation of various cellular processes. Ub performs a remarkable array of cellular tasks through the production of a large number of ubiquitinated proteins; such tasks require many Ubs. Ubs are expressed abundantly from several Ub encoding genes, though not in excess. Rather, Ub expression is tightly regulated through various control mechanisms. Recent studies have shown that the cellular Ub level is regulated by balanced activities of deubiquitinating enzymes and their regulators. Here, we review the current understandings of the regulatory mechanisms that control Ub expression and its metabolism and maintain Ub homeostasis.

The Angelman Syndrome protein Ube3A regulates synapse development by ubiquitinating arc

Angelman Syndrome is a debilitating neurological disorder caused by mutation of the E3 ubiquitin ligase Ube3A, a gene whose mutation has also recently been associated with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). The function of Ube3A during nervous system development and how Ube3A mutations give rise to cognitive impairment in individuals with Angleman Syndrome and ASDs are not clear. We report here that experience-driven neuronal activity induces Ube3A transcription and that Ube3A then regulates excitatory synapse development by controlling the degradation of Arc, a synaptic protein that promotes the internalization of the AMPA subtype of glutamate receptors. We find that disruption of Ube3A function in neurons leads to an increase in Arc expression and a concomitant decrease in the number of AMPA receptors at excitatory synapses. We propose that this deregulation of AMPA receptor expression at synapses may contribute to the cognitive dysfunction that occurs in Angelman Syndrome and possibly other ASDs.

Dietary quercetin alleviates diabetic symptoms and reduces streptozotocin-induced disturbance of hepatic gene expression in mice

Quercetin is a food component that may ameliorate the diabetic symptoms. We examined hepatic gene expression of BALB/c mice with streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes to elucidate the mechanism of the protective effect of dietary quercetin on diabetes-associated liver injury. We fed normal and STZ-induced diabetic mice with diets containing quercetin for 2 wk and compared the patterns of hepatic gene expression in these groups of mice using a DNA microarray. Diets containing 0.1 or 0.5% quercetin lowered the STZ-induced increase in blood glucose levels and improved plasma insulin levels. A cluster analysis of the hepatic gene expressions showed that 0.5% quercetin diet suppressed STZ-induced alteration of gene expression. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) and quantitative RT-PCR analysis showed that the quercetin diets had greatest suppressive effect on the STZ-induced elevation of expression of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21(WAF1/Cip1) (Cdkn1a). Quercetin also suppressed STZ-induced expression of Cdkn1a in the pancreas. Dietary quercetin might improve liver and pancreas functions by enabling the recovery of cell proliferation through the inhibition of Cdkn1a expression. Unexpectedly, in healthy control mice the 0.5 and 1% quercetin diets reduced the expression of ubiquitin C (Ubc), which has heat-shock element (HSE) in the promoter region, in the liver.

An inhibitor of a deubiquitinating enzyme regulates ubiquitin homeostasis

The dynamic and reversible process of ubiquitin modification controls various cellular activities. Ubiquitin exists as monomers, unanchored chains, or protein-conjugated forms, but the regulation of these interconversions remains largely unknown. Here, we identified a protein designated Rfu1 (regulator of free ubiquitin chains 1), which regulates intracellular concentrations of monomeric ubiquitins and free ubiquitin chains in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Rfu1 functions as an inhibitor of Doa4, a deubiquitinating enzyme. Rapid loss of free ubiquitin chains upon heat shock, a condition in which more proteins require ubiquitin conjugation, was mediated in part by Doa4 and Rfu1. Thus, regulation of ubiquitin homeostasis is controlled by a balance between a deubiquitinating enzyme and its inhibitor. We propose that free ubiquitin chains function as a ubiquitin reservoir that allows maintenance of monomeric ubiquitins at adequate levels under normal conditions and rapid supply for substrate conjugation under stress conditions.

Linear polyubiquitination: a new regulator of NF-kappaB activation

The ubiquitin-conjugation system regulates a vast range of biological phenomena by affecting protein function mostly through polyubiquitin conjugation. The type of polyubiquitin chain that is generated seems to determine how conjugated proteins are regulated, as they are recognized specifically by proteins that contain chain-specific ubiquitin-binding motifs. An enzyme complex that catalyses the formation of newly described linear polyubiquitin chains--known as linear ubiquitin chain-assembly complex (LUBAC)--has recently been characterized, as has a particular ubiquitin-binding domain that specifically recognizes linear chains. Both have been shown to have crucial roles in the canonical nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB)-activation pathway. The ubiquitin system is intimately involved in regulating the NF-kappaB pathway, and the regulatory roles of K63-linked chains have been studied extensively. However, the role of linear chains in this process is only now emerging. This article discusses the possible mechanisms underlying linear polyubiquitin-mediated activation of NF-kappaB, and the different roles that K63-linked and linear chains have in NF-kappaB activation. Future directions for linear polyubiquitin research are also discussed.

Reverse the curse--the role of deubiquitination in cell cycle control

Reversible protein ubiquitination is a crucial mechanism regulating the progression through the eukaryotic cell cycle. Ubiquitin-dependent signaling is terminated by specific deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs), which now are known to be integral components of the core cell cycle machinery and cell cycle checkpoints. The importance of DUBs for cell cycle control is underscored by their frequent misregulation in cancer. Here, we discuss the role of deubiquitinating enzymes in controlling proliferation.

Hypothalamic neurodegeneration and adult-onset obesity in mice lacking the Ubb polyubiquitin gene

Nearly all neurodegenerative diseases are associated with abnormal accumulation of ubiquitin (Ub) conjugates within neuronal inclusion bodies. To directly test the hypothesis that depletion of cellular Ub is sufficient to cause neurodegeneration, we have disrupted Ubb, one of four genes that supply Ub in the mouse. Here, we report that loss of Ubb led to a progressive degenerative disorder affecting neurons within the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus. This neurodegenerative cytopathology was accompanied by impaired hypothalamic control of energy balance and adult-onset obesity. Ubb was highly expressed in vulnerable hypothalamic neurons and total Ub levels were selectively reduced in the hypothalamus of Ubb-null mice. These findings demonstrate that maintenance of adequate supplies of cellular Ub is essential for neuronal survival and establish that decreased Ub availability is sufficient to cause neuronal dysfunction and death.

Mechanisms, biology and inhibitors of deubiquitinating enzymes

The addition of ubiquitin (Ub) and ubiquitin-like (Ubl) modifiers to proteins serves to modulate function and is a key step in protein degradation, epigenetic modification and intracellular localization. Deubiquitinating enzymes and Ubl-specific proteases, the proteins responsible for the removal of Ub and Ubls, act as an additional level of control over the ubiquitin-proteasome system. Their conservation and widespread occurrence in eukaryotes, prokaryotes and viruses shows that these proteases constitute an essential class of enzymes. Here, we discuss how chemical tools, including activity-based probes and suicide inhibitors, have enabled (i) discovery of deubiquitinating enzymes, (ii) their functional profiling, crystallographic characterization and mechanistic classification and (iii) development of molecules for therapeutic purposes.

The mouse polyubiquitin gene Ubb is essential for meiotic progression

Ubiquitin is encoded in mice by two polyubiquitin genes, Ubb and Ubc, that are considered to be stress inducible and two constitutively expressed monoubiquitin (Uba) genes. Here we report that targeted disruption of Ubb results in male and female infertility due to failure of germ cells to progress through meiosis I and hypogonadism. In the absence of Ubb, spermatocytes and oocytes arrest during meiotic prophase, before metaphase of the first meiotic division. Although cellular ubiquitin levels are believed to be maintained by a combination of functional redundancy among the four ubiquitin genes, stress inducibility of the two polyubiquitin genes, and ubiquitin recycling by proteasome-associated isopeptidases, our results indicate that ubiquitin is required for and consumed during meiotic progression. The striking similarity of the meiotic phenotype in Ubb(-/-) germ cells to the sporulation defect in fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe) lacking a polyubiquitin gene suggests that a meiotic role of the polyubiquitin gene has been conserved throughout eukaryotic evolution.