Mucormycosis in patients with haematological malignancies: a retrospective clinical study of 37 cases. GIMEMA Infection Program (Gruppo Italiano Malattie Ematologiche Maligne dell'Adulto)

The rising trend of invasive zygomycosis in patients with uncontrolled diabetes mellitus

Zygomycosis is an emerging infection worldwide. A study was conducted to understand its spectrum in the Indian scenario. All patients diagnosed for invasive zygomycosis at a tertiary care center in north India from 2000-2004, were retrospectively analyzed. A total of 178 cases (mean average of 35.6 cases/year) of zygomycosis were diagnosed. Rhino-orbito-cerebral type (54.5%) was the commonest presentation followed by cutaneous (14.6%), disseminated (9.0%), and gastrointestinal (8.4%) zygomycosis. Renal and pulmonary zygomycosis were seen in 6.7% patients each. Uncontrolled diabetes mellitus (in 73.6% of cases) was the significant risk factor in all types (Odds Ratio 1.5-8.0) except renal zygomycosis. Breach of skin was the risk factor in 46.2% patients with cutaneous zygomycosis. However, no risk factor could be detected in 11.8% patients. Antemortem diagnosis was possible in 83.7% cases. The commonest (61.5%) isolate was Rhizopus oryzae followed by Apophysomyces elegans in 27% patients. Combination of debridement surgery and amphotericin B therapy was significantly better in survival of the patients (P<0.005) than amphotericin B alone (79.6% vs. 51.7% survival). Thus, a rising trend of invasive zygomycosis was observed in patients with uncontrolled diabetes mellitus in India. Consistent diagnosis of renal zygomycosis in apparently healthy hosts and the emergence of A. elegans in India demand further study.

Diagnostic challenge of zygomycosis in compromised hosts

Rhinocerebral zygomycosis was classically associated with diabetes and diabetic ketoacidosis in the past. In recent years, hematological malignancies and immunocompromised states have become increasingly more frequent underlying conditions for patients with pulmonary and disseminated zygomycosis. In this study we identified 37 patients with a histopathologic diagnosis of zygomycosis and 21 patients with a positive culture for zygomycetes seen at the National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, during 1986-2003. Of these, 39 cases with probable or proven invasive zygomycosis were included in these studies. The major underlying diseases were immunocompromised states (74%), and diabetes mellitus (26%). The frequency of zygomycosis in immunocompromised hosts increased from 1.86 during 1986-1991 to 4.13 per 100,000 discharges during 1998-2003. Rhinocerebral involvement was the most common site (74%). An antemortem diagnosis by sinus biopsy was made in 93.1%. Immunocompromised patients were more likely to be younger than diabetics, to have an onset during hospitalization, a positive culture and a postmortem diagnosis. They were less likely than patients with diabetes to receive surgery and more likely to die in the hospital (p < 0.05). Of the 29 patients with invasive rhinocerebral zygomycosis, cerebral involvement (adjusted odds ratio [OR]: 31.7, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.4-426.8, p = 0.009) and positive cultures (adjusted OR: 23.8, 95% CI: 1.7-338.6, p = 0.019) were associated with in-hospital mortality by multivariate analysis. Hematological disease and steroid use have become the most important predisposing factors for zygomycosis. Aggressive diagnostic approaches, effective antifungal therapy and surgical debridement are essential for a successful outcome.

Mucormycosis presenting as palatal perforation

Mucormycosis is an opportunistic fungal infection that is caused by normally saprobic organism of the class Zygomycetes. The main form of mucormycosis are pulmonary and rhinocerebral. Rhinocerebral mycormycosis typically starts in the maxillary antrum, particularly in poorly controlled diabetics. Invasion of surrounding tissue can cause necrotizing ulceration of palate with a blackish slough and exposure of bone. A case of mucormycosis presenting as palatal performation is discussed in this article.

Zygomycosis: An emerging fungal infection

PURPOSE

The epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical presentation and diagnosis, and management of zygomycosis are reviewed.

SUMMARY

The frequency of zygomycosis has been increasing over the past 10 years; infections have been identified in up to 6.8% of patients at autopsy. The most common route of transmission for Zygomycetes fungi is inhalation of spores from the environment. Patients at highest risk for infections caused by Mucorales fungi include those with profound immunosuppression or diabetes, intravenous drug abusers, premature infants, those receiving deferoxamine, and recipients of bone marrow transplants. Mucormycosis commonly presents as rhinocerebral or pulmonary disease; gastrointestinal presentations also occur. Clinical manifestations of invasive mucormycosis are tissue necrosis and subsequent thrombosis. Common features of pulmonary disease include fever, dyspnea, hemoptysis, and cavitation upon radiologic examination. The mainstays of treatment are control or reversal of the underlying disease or immunosuppression, antifungal therapy, and aggressive surgical debridement. Posaconazole, a new triazole antifungal, has been used successfully in a number of cases that did not respond to amphotericin B.

CONCLUSION

Zygomycosis appears to be on the rise in the United States. The standard treatment is a combination of amphotericin B therapy, surgical debridement, and reversal of the underlying disease or immunosuppression.

A fatal case of disseminated zygomycosis associated with the use of blood glucose self-monitoring equipment

We report a fatal case of disseminated zygomycosis due to Cunninghamella bertholletiae in a 68-year-old man with myelodysplasia and type II diabetes mellitus, receiving desferrioxamine therapy for iron overload secondary to multiple transfusions. It is thought that he acquired the infection through the use of blood glucose self-monitoring equipment.

A rare presentation of zygomycosis (mucormycosis) and review of the literature

Zygomycosis (mucormycosis) is a rare fungal infection seen most often in association with prolonged neutropenia. Intestinal zygomycosis is extremely rare and difficult to diagnose, but it is important not to miss, because early medical and surgical treatment can improve survival. This report describes a 56 year old woman who developed this infection while receiving chemotherapy for acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Medical and surgical measures proved unsuccessful because there was a delay in diagnosis and institution of appropriate treatment.

Epidemiology and outcome of zygomycosis: a review of 929 reported cases

BACKGROUND

Zygomycosis is an increasingly emerging life-threatening infection. There is no single comprehensive literature review that describes the epidemiology and outcome of this disease.

METHODS

We reviewed reports of zygomycosis in the English-language literature since 1885 and analyzed 929 eligible cases. We included in the database only those cases for which the underlying condition, the pattern of infection, the surgical and antifungal treatments, and survival were described.

RESULTS

The mean age of patients was 38.8 years; 65% were male. The prevalence and overall mortality were 36% and 44%, respectively, for diabetes; 19% and 35%, respectively, for no underlying condition; and 17% and 66%, respectively, for malignancy. The most common types of infection were sinus (39%), pulmonary (24%), and cutaneous (19%). Dissemination developed in 23% of cases. Mortality varied with the site of infection: 96% of patients with disseminated disease died, 85% with gastrointestinal infection died, and 76% with pulmonary infection died. The majority of patients with malignancy (92 [60%] of 154) had pulmonary disease, whereas the majority of patients with diabetes (222 [66%] of 337) had sinus disease. Rhinocerebral disease was seen more frequently in patients with diabetes (145 [33%] of 337), compared with patients with malignancy (6 [4%] of 154). Hematogenous dissemination to skin was rare; however, 78 (44%) of 176 cutaneous infections were complicated by deep extension or dissemination. Survival was 3% (8 of 241 patients) for cases that were not treated, 61% (324 of 532) for cases treated with amphotericin B deoxycholate, 57% (51 of 90) for cases treated with surgery alone, and 70% (328 of 470) for cases treated with antifungal therapy and surgery. By multivariate analysis, infection due to Cunninghamella species and disseminated disease were independently associated with increased rates of death (odds ratios, 2.78 and 11.2, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Outcome from zygomycosis varies as a function of the underlying condition, site of infection, and use of antifungal therapy.

Combination therapy with amphotericin B lipid complex and caspofungin acetate of disseminated zygomycosis in diabetic ketoacidotic mice

We studied the combination of amphotericin B lipid complex (ABLC) and caspofungin in mice with disseminated Rhizopus oryzae. Combination therapy improved survival compared to that of mice given monotherapy and that of untreated controls (P < 0.05) but did not improve organ clearance. In addition, prophylactic combination therapy was not more effective than prophylactic ABLC alone.

Invasive colonic mucormycosis in early induction therapy of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Fungal infections occur in patients who are severely immunocompromised with profound and prolonged neutropenia. We report a patient of acute lymphoblastic leukemia who developed nonspecific abdominal symptoms within two days after the onset of neutropenia in the early induction phase of chemotherapy, which was later found to be due to intestinal mucormycosis and resulted in a fatal outcome.

Fatal strokes in patients with rhino-orbito-cerebral mucormycosis and associated vasculopathy

Within a 10-y period, fatal strokes occurred during parenteral administration of amphotericin B and surgical debridement of paranasal sinuses in 6 pathologically verified cases of rhino-orbito-cerebral mucormycosis (ROCM). All patients had unnoticed type-2 diabetes mellitus without ketoacidosis. They presented with unilateral orbital cellulitis and cavernous sinus syndrome. Fatal malignant cerebral infarctions occurred in the carotid system in 5 patients, and in the basilar artery or its major branches in 2 patients. Accelerated thrombotic occlusion of the cavernous portion of the carotid artery or the basilar artery was likely to be due to mucormycosis associated-vasculopathy and diabetic vasculopathy. One patient died of massive subarachnoid hemorrhage following rupture of the mycotic aneurysm. Despite parenteral administration of amphotericin B, fatal outcome of ROCM in patients with unnoticed diabetes mellitus occurs due to mucormycosis-associated malignant strokes. To improve outcome, a combination of early radical debridement, ocular exenteration, parenteral and local administration of amphotericin B, and decompression craniotomy should be considered.

Lipid-based amphotericin in pulmonary zygomycosis: safety and efficacy of high exposure in a renal allograft recipient

Zygomycosis is associated with a high mortality in immunosuppressed patients. Treatment typically includes surgical resection and administration of intravenous amphotericin B. Success of treatment may require withdrawal of immunosuppression, with risk of graft loss. We report the successful treatment of invasive pulmonary zygomycosis, following initial surgical resection, using very high doses of lipid-based amphotericin B without withdrawal of immunosuppression. The patient received daily doses up to 10 mg/kg/day (51 g cumulatively) of lipid-based amphotericin B along with a brief course of intrapleural amphotericin. Despite immunosuppression not being withdrawn, the patient's kidney allograft function remained stable. We conclude that high doses of lipid-based amphotericin B can be safe and effective as part of the treatment regimen for pulmonary zygomycosis.

Posaconazole: a potent, extended-spectrum triazole anti-fungal for the treatment of serious fungal infections

Posaconazole is a potent, extended-spectrum, investigational triazole anti-fungal that is highly active in pre-clinical in vitro and in vivo models against a wide array of yeasts and moulds, including Aspergillus, Fusarium and Zygomycetes, which are often refractory to polyenes and older azoles. In humans, orally administered posaconazole is absorbed under fed or fasted conditions; however, absorption is significantly improved when it is coadministered with food or liquid nutritional supplements and when the daily dose is divided (into two or four daily doses). Unlike newer azoles, posaconazole is not extensively metabolised by cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes and is primarily excreted as parent compound in the faeces. Posaconazole is a CYP3A4 inhibitor, but it does not inhibit the activity of other CYP enzymes. Therefore, in comparison with other azole anti-fungal drugs, posaconazole may have the potential for fewer drug interactions. The pharmacokinetics of posaconazole are not influenced by age, gender or race. Dose adjustments for renal or hepatic impairment do not appear to be indicated based on results from single-dose studies. Preliminary efficacy data from clinical trials are promising. As salvage therapy, posaconazole elicited complete or partial responses in 44 to 75% of patients (N = 97) with invasive fungal infections who were intolerant of, or who had disease refractory to, amphotericin B or itraconazole. In an analysis of patients with aspergillosis, a 42% success rate was observed in the posaconazole arm (n = 107) compared with a 26% success rate in the control arm (n = 86). Importantly, Kaplan-Meier analysis demonstrated a survival benefit in posaconazole-treated patients. Moreover, posaconazole yielded complete or partial responses in 71% of patients with zygomycosis (N = 24). Posaconazole appears to be well tolerated over long-term administration (>1 year) and may represent an important addition to the anti-fungal armamentarium.

[Foudroyant rhinocerebral zygomycosis]

We present a fatal case of rhino-orbital-cerebral zygomycosis in an 81-year old immunocompromised patient with a 18-year history of multiple myeloma. The patient initially presented with symptoms of an orbital complication, loss of vision after acute sinusitis and agranulocytosis. Endonasal sinus surgery with orbital decompression was performed. Within days a rapid visero-cerebral progression of necrosis developed finally causing the patient's death. Invasive fungal infections are generally characterized by diagnostic difficulties in the early stage and exhibit an extremely high mortality. Definitive diagnosis of rhino-orbital-cerebral zygomycosis caused by Rhizopus microsporus was made by histology, culture and polymerase chain reaction. Early diagnosis and treatment are imperative for the management of patients afflicted with this devastating and life-threatening fungal infection.

Disseminated mucormycosis in a patient with acute myeloblastic leukemia misdiagnosed as infection by Enterococcus faecium

Mucormycosis is a rare complication in cancer patients. This report presents the case of a acute myeloblastic leukemia patient who developed an ascending paralysis due to disseminated mucormycosis. The presentation was unusual because the early symptoms were fever and pain, and the disease was misdiagnosed because of a concomitant infection by Enterococcus faecium.

Mucormycosis and entomophthoramycosis: a review of the clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment

The class Zygomycetes is divided into two orders, Mucorales and Entomophthorales. These two orders produce dramatically different infections. Genera from the order Mucorales (Rhizopus, Mucor, Rhizomucor, Absidia, Apophysomyces, Cunninghamella and Saksenaea) cause an angioinvasive infection called mucormycosis. Mucormycosis presents with rhino-orbito-cerebral, pulmonary, disseminated, cutaneous, or gastrointestinal involvement. Immunocompromising states such as haematological malignancy, bone marrow or peripheral blood stem cell transplantation, neutropenia, solid organ transplantation, diabetes mellitus with or without ketoacidosis, corticosteroids, and deferoxamine therapy for iron overload predispose patients to infection. Mucormycosis in immunocompetent hosts is rare, and is often related to trauma. Mortality rates can approach 100% depending on the patient's underlying disease and form of mucormycosis. Early diagnosis, along with treatment of the underlying medical condition, surgery, and an amphotericin B product are needed for a successful outcome. Genera from the order Entomophthorales produce a chronic subcutaneous infection called entomophthoramycosis in immunocompetent patients. This infection occurs in tropical and subtropical climates. The genus Basidiobolus typically produces a chronic subcutaneous infection of the thigh, buttock, and/or trunk. Rarely, it has been reported to involve the gastrointestinal tract. The genus Conidiobolus causes a chronic infection of the nasal submucosa and subcutaneous tissue of the nose and face. This paper will review the clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment of mucormycosis and entomophthoramycosis.

PCR-RFLP detection and species identification of fungal pathogens in patients with febrile neutropenia

OBJECTIVE

To assess the usefulness of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays in the diagnosis of fungal infections in immunocompromised patients.

METHODS

A rapid and sensitive PCR-based assay for the detection and identification of fungal pathogens was designed and applicability of this method was investigated in a group of children with cancer and febrile neutropenia (FN).

RESULTS

The ITS2 sequences and adjacent regions of 40 fungal pathogens were analyzed and primers for detection of all analyzed fungal species were designed. Amplification product length polymorphism (APLP) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) generated genus- or species-specific patterns. The sensitivity of the method was approximately three cells of Candida albicans per 1 mL of blood. The results were available within 8 h after sample collection. The method was tested on 53 blood samples and one lung biopsy sample from 24 children with cancer and febrile neutropenia (FN). The PCR assay detected fungal DNA in 25 clinical samples from ten patients. Blood cultures were positive in only five samples, while another two blood-culture negative patients had positive cultures from throat swabs. The remaining 14 patients were both culture- and PCR-negative. Culture-isolated strains matched completely those obtained by PCR-APLP-RFLP identification. The identity of fungal species was confirmed by direct sequencing of amplified products.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that PCR-APLP-RFLP assays can be useful in the diagnosis of fungal infections in immunocompromised patients.

Treatment of fungal infections in hematology and oncology--guidelines of the Infectious Diseases Working Party (AGIHO) of the German Society of Hematology and Oncology (DGHO)

The Infectious Diseases Working Party of the German Society of Haematology and Oncology presents their guidelines for the treatment of fungal infections in patients with hematological and oncological malignancies. These guidelines are evidence-based, considering study results, case reports and expert opinions, using the evidence criteria of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA). The recommendations for major fungal complications in this setting are summarized here. The primary choice of therapy for chronic candidiasis should be fluconazole, reserving caspofungin or amphotericin B (AmB) for use in case of progression of the Candida infection. Patients with candidemia (except C. krusei or C. glabrata) who are in a clinically stable condition without previous azole prophylaxis should receive fluconazole, otherwise AmB or caspofungin. Voriconazole is recommended for the first-line treatment of invasive aspergillosis. The benefit of a combination of AmB and 5-flucytosine has not been demonstrated except in patients with cryptococcal meningitis. Mucormycosis is relatively rare. The drug therapy of choice consists of AmB, desoxycholate or liposomal formulation, in the highest tolerable dosage. Additional surgical intervention has been shown to achieve a lower fatality rate than with antifungal therapy alone. The role of interventional strategies, cytokines/G-CSF, and granulocyte transfusions in invasive fungal infections are further reviewed. These guidelines offer actual standards and discussions on the treatment of oropharyngeal and esophageal candidiasis, invasive candidiasis, cryptococcosis and mould infections.

Mucormycosis in systemic lupus erythematosus

OBJECTIVE

To describe a case of mucormycosis in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and to review other patients reported in the English literature.

METHOD

A Medline search for articles about mucormycosis in SLE published between 1970 and 2002 was performed by using the key words "lupus," "mucormycosis," "zygomycosis," "Mucorales," "Rhizopus," and "Mucor." Cases were pooled for analysis, and the mycology, diagnosis, treatment, and outcome of mucormycosis in SLE was reviewed.

RESULTS

Eight cases of mucormycosis in SLE were identified (female:male = 7:1). The mean age at the time of infection was 31.8 +/- 7.6 years and the mean duration of SLE was 6.3 +/- 3.9 years. All except 1 patient had active lupus and all were receiving high-dose corticosteroids. Concomitant cytotoxic agents were used in 4 patients. Additional predisposing factors for opportunistic infection included hypocomplementemia, nephrotic syndrome, uremia, leukopenia, and diabetes mellitus. The disseminated form of mucormycosis was the most common presentation and the diagnosis often was made only at autopsy (63%). For cases with positive culture results, Rhizopus was the causative species. In 4 patients, manifestations of the fungal infection mimicked those of active SLE. The overall mortality of mucormycosis was very high (88%) and, in most cases, was probably a function of delayed diagnosis and treatment. The cutaneous form appeared to have the best prognosis with combined medical and surgical treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Mucormycosis is a rare but usually fatal fungal infection in SLE. Judicious use of immunosuppressive agents, a high index of suspicion, early diagnosis, and combination treatment with amphotericin B and surgical debridement may improve the prognosis of this serious infection.

Zygomycosis

Zygomycosis, an uncommon but frequently fatal mycosis caused by fungi of the class Zygomycetes, develops most commonly as an opportunistic disease. Successful therapy involves a combined approach based on early diagnosis, prompt institution of medical therapy, and extensive surgical debridement of all devitalized tissue. Given the rarity of this condition, novel therapeutic strategies have been limited and only tested on an individual basis. The use of high-dose lipid formulations of amphotericin B, prompt reversal of the underlying predisposing condition, and hyperbaric oxygen are the most common strategies that have shown potential value in the treatment of zygomycosis.

[Risk factor for invasive zygomycosis in patients with hematologic malignancies]

Zygomycosis (mucormycosis) is a relatively uncommon infection in immunocompromised patients most often diagnosed in patients with haematological malignancies and neutropenia. Postmortem series demonstrate a high mortality rate up to 80%. Pulmonary involvement mimicking the more frequently diagnosed invasive aspergillosis is the typical clinical presentation. Other risk factors for the development of zygomycosis that have been described in other patient populations include diabetic ketoacidosis, iron overload, use of deferoxamine and steroids. If these factors are also associated with zygomycosis in patients with haematological malignancies has not been described. In a retrospective case-control study including 13 patients with zygomycosis and 13 control patients with the same underlying diseases, without zygomycosis we determined the frequency of various risk factors. Patients with zygomycosis experienced a longer period of neutropenia (17 vs. 13 days) and lymphopenia (23 vs. 20 days). A relapse of their underlying disease was diagnosed more frequently in patients with zygomycosis (7/13 vs. 3/13) as were a diagnosis of diabetes mellitus (6/13 vs. 3/13) and a cardiovascular disease (6/13 vs. 1/13). The previous use of steroids was more frequent in patients with zygomycosis (8/13 vs. 4/13) as was a systemic antifungal prophylaxis with itraconazole (9/13 vs. 4/13). Knowledge of these risk factors may be of benefit in diagnosing and monitoring zygomycosis in patients with haematological malignancies.

A case of zygomycosis and invasive candidiasis involving the epiglottis and tongue in an immunocompromised patient

Invasive fungal infections are associated with high morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised patients. We describe an unusual case of concomitant invasive candidiasis and zygomycosis of the tongue and epiglottis that occurred in a young patient with neutropenia during chemotherapy for acute myelogenous leukemia and was successfully treated medically.

Rhinocerebral mucormycosis in a boy with recurrent acute lymphoblastic leukemia: long-term survival with systemic antifungal treatment

Rhinocerebral mucormycosis is rare in hematologic malignancies and usually leads to death within weeks. In contrast, chronic rhinocerebral mucormycosis takes a slowly progressive course and has not been reported in hematologic malignancies in children so far. The authors report the long-term survival of a boy with rhinocerebral mucormycosis in a relapse of acute lymphoblastic leukemia after allogeneic cord blood transplantation. The disease started acutely but took a chronic course thereafter. No surgical debridement was performed because of extensive involvement of the sinuses, orbits, and cerebrum. His long-term survival of 15 months is attributed to the long-range administration of liposomal amphotericin B, early neutrophil recovery, and slow progression of the relapsing acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with malignant haematological diseases: 10 years' experience of infection in GIMEMA centres

A retrospective survey was conducted over a 10-year period (1990-99) among 52 haematology divisions in order to evaluate the clinical and laboratory characteristics and outcome of patients with proven Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) complicating haematological diseases. The study included 55 patients (18 with non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, 10 with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia, eight with acute myeloid leukaemia, five with chronic myeloid leukaemia, four with chronic lymphocytic leukaemia, four with multiple myeloma, three with myelodysplastic syndrome, two with myelofibrosis and one with thalassemia) who developed PCP. Among these, 18 (33%) underwent stem cell transplantation; only two received an oral prophylaxis with trimethroprim/sulphamethoxazole. Twelve patients (22%) developed PCP despite protective isolation in a laminar airflow room. The most frequent symptoms were: fever (86%), dyspnoea (78%), non-productive cough (71%), thoracic pain (14%) and chills (5%); a severe hypoxaemia was present in 39 patients (71%). Chest radiography or computerized tomography showed interstitial infiltrates in 34 patients (62%), alveolar infiltrates in 12 patients (22%), and alveolar-interstitial infiltrates in nine patients (16%). Bronchoalveolar lavage was diagnostic in 47/48 patients, induced sputum in 9/18 patients and lung biopsy in 3/8 patients. The diagnosis was made in two patients at autopsy. All patients except one started a specific treatment (52 patients trimethroprim/sulphamethoxazole, one pentamidine and one dapsone). Sixteen patients (29%) died of PCP within 30 d of diagnosis. Multivariate analysis showed that prolonged steroid treatment (P < 0.006) and a radiological picture of diffuse lung involvement (P < 0.003) were negative diagnostic factors.

Molecular cloning of an extracellular aspartic proteinase from Rhizopus microsporus and evidence for its expression during infection

An extracellular aspartic proteinase (Rmap) from Rhizopus microsporus var. rhizopodiformis was detected in the culture supernatant of a fungal isolate from a case of rhinocerebral mucormycosis (case HA). The proteinase was purified to near homogeneity by ion exchange and affinity chromatography on pepstatin agarose. Based on its N-terminus the RMAP gene was cloned and found to code for 388 amino acids. The preproenzyme has an aminoterminal leader sequence of 65 amino acids, whereas the mature enzyme consists of 323 amino acids. The deduced amino-acid sequence of the preproenzyme was 82% homologous to an extracellular aspartic proteinase of Rhizopus niveus. Low stringency Southern blot analysis of R. microsporus DNA suggested the presence of other homologous genes. Expression of Rmap in Pichia pastoris was achieved, and the recombinant enzyme was active in the yeast culture supernatant. Both enzyme preparations exhibited a similar optimum of activity in the pH 2.5 region. Furthermore, Rmap was shown to activate bovine blood coagulation factor X at slightly acidic pH in vitro. Expression of the proteinase during mycosis was proven by a specific immune response of patient HA.

Treatment of documented and suspected neutropenia-associated invasive fungal infections

Factors such as the intensification of anti-tumor regimens have enhanced both the depth and length of neutropenia and endorsed severe deficiencies in other immune systems. As a result, the risk of fungal infections has increased substantially. Clinicians should be aware of the possibility to enable a timely diagnosis because many of the problems in the management of invasive fungal infections during neutropenia are as much the consequence of diagnostic short-comings as of lack of therapeutic options. About 7% of all febrile episodes during neutropenia can ultimately be attributed to fungi, Candida and Aspergillus species being the paramount pathogens. Although the data in favor of prophylactic use of antifungals are not convincing, prophylaxis is still recommended in an attempt to protect particularly high-risk patients. Fluconazole still appears a suitable agent in recipients of a bone marrow transplant. Given the paucity of data, reappraisal of the value of empirical antifungal therapy is warranted. Amphotericin B with or without 5-flucytosine is considered the standard therapy for acute candidiasis with fluconazole as an alternative. Amphotericin B is also first-line therapy for invasive aspergillosis in neutropenic patients; lipid-based formulations are recommended for patients who develop nephrotoxity. Recovery of the granulocytes and other immune systems has shown to be of critical importance in the management of all invasive fungal infections.

Successful treatment of rhinocerebral zygomycosis using liposomal nystatin

We describe a case of successful treatment of rhinocerebral mucormycosis in a patient with multiple myeloma. Therapeutic strategies used included liposomal amphotericin, hyperbaric oxygen, GM-CSF and liposomal nystatin.

Case report. Rhinocerebral zygomycosis

A case of rhinocerebral zygomycosis treated with liposomal amphotericin B is described.

Fatal invasive cerebral Absidia corymbifera infection following bone marrow transplantation

A 56-year-old dairy farmer received a fully HLA matched unrelated donor marrow transplant for high risk CML in chronic phase. His early post-transplant course was complicated by a series of massive intracerebral bleeds and by sepsis related to a malignant otitis externa. The microbial pathogen isolated from ear swabs was found to be Absidia corymbifera, but CT scan at the time showed no intracerebral extension. Despite neutrophil engraftment and aggressive antifungal management he succumbed. Autopsy revealed invasion of Absidia into the brain from the ear. We speculate that colonisation by Absidia resulted from occupational exposure.

Case report. Mixed systemic mycosis with fatal outcome in a patient with acute myeloblastic leukaemia

Fungal infections represent an increasing problem in immunocompromised patients. The majority of cases are caused by one single fungal pathogen and infections with more than one fungus are very rare. Here we describe a case of combined infection with Aspergillus and a zygomycete species, involving the lungs, spleen and the brain and leading to fatal outcome in spite of early antimycotic therapy.

Acute isolated cerebral mucormycosis in a patient with high grade non-Hodgkins lymphoma

A 57-year-old female in complete remission of grade IV non-Hodgkin lymphoma whilst on intensive chemotherapy, suddenly developed unilateral hemispheric stroke with a fatal outcome in 3 days. She was apyrexial and had received antifungal prophylaxis during her treatment. Post-mortem examination showed complete thrombosis of the internal carotid artery leading to infarction in the territory of the middle and anterior cerebral arteries. Microscopic examination of the brain showed involvement of intra-cranial vessel walls and brain parenchyma by mucormyces, with no evidence of systemic mucormycosis. Isolated cerebral mucormycosis is a rare occurrence, more commonly found in intravenous drug abusers, but can occur in patients with haematological malignancy.

Zygomycosis in the 1990s in a tertiary-care cancer center

Twenty-four patients with cancer met predetermined criteria for a diagnosis of zygomycosis over a 10-year period at our institution. All had hematologic malignancy, and most had either neutropenia or steroid use as a risk factor. Pulmonary involvement mimicking invasive aspergillosis was the most common presentation, and dissemination was seen in 58% of patients on whom autopsies were performed. Three-fourths of the patients with pulmonary zygomycosis had pathogenic microorganisms other than zygomycetes isolated from respiratory specimens. The sensitivity of cultures in detecting zygomycetes from respiratory specimens was low. A culture positive for zygomycetes was typically a preterminal finding in the fatal, acute cases. Two-thirds of the patients died. Favorable outcome seemed to correlate with lack of pulmonary involvement, surgical debridement, neutrophil recovery, and a cumulative total amphotericin B dose of 2000 mg. Therapy with high-dose amphotericin B, combined with aggressive surgery and immune reconstitution, offers the best chance for survival of cancer patients with zygomycosis.

Resection of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in immunocompromised patients

BACKGROUND

Immunocompromised patients are prone to develop invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA). Relapse and high mortality rates are seen in those patients who receive subsequent immunotoxic therapy. Standard antifungal regimens often fail to completely eradicate IPA, which then warrants an aggressive surgical approach.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective chart review of 13 immunocompromised patients who were considered to have IPA and who underwent surgery between 1988 and 1998.

RESULTS

Twelve patients had a hematological malignancy and one patient had breast cancer. The diagnosis of IPA was based on a chest computed tomographic scan in all patients. A preoperative diagnosis of aspergillosis was made in three patients, and mucormycosis in one patient, by bronchoalveolar lavage. Before surgery, seven patients received chemotherapy, one patient underwent bone marrow transplantation, and five patients received a combination of chemotherapy and bone marrow transplantation. Symptoms included cough (54%), fever (54%), hemoptysis (30%), and shortness of breath (8%). Three patients (23%) were asymptomatic. The mean preoperative absolute neutrophil count was 4881 cells/microl. Seventeen thoracic operations were performed, i.e., 12 wedge resections, 4 lobectomies, and 1 pneumonectomy. One patient also underwent nephrectomy for invasive aspergillosis and one patient underwent craniotomy to resect an aspergillus brain mass. Surgical pathology revealed IPA in 13 (76%), invasive mucormycosis in 2 (15%), aspergilloma in 1, and diffuse alveolar hemorrhage in 1. Postoperative complications included the following: operative bleeding requiring transfusion, three patients; prolonged air leak, two patients; death because of hepatic/renal failure, one patient; and death because of overwhelming multisystem aspergillosis, one patient. Seven (54%) patients underwent further immunotoxic treatment with no aspergillosis recurrence. After a mean follow-up of 12 months, five (38%) patients are alive and seven (54%) have died without evidence of aspergillosis and/or mucormycosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Surgical resection, in combination with antifungal agents, is a safe and effective form of therapy for invasive mycoses. It prevents recurrence and allows for subsequent cytotoxic therapies.

Supportive care in hematological malignancies: hematopoietic growth factors, infections, transfusion therapy

This article focuses on a selected number of topics among recent developments in the supportive care of hematological malignancies. The first section focuses on the role of hematopoietic growth factors, such as granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, thrombopoietin, interleukin-11, and keratinocyte growth factor. The following sections discuss the management of fungal and viral infections as well as changes in the current policies of platelet transfusion. The focus of this review is on the clinical utility and economic feasibility of the published findings.