Structure of ratcheted ribosomes with tRNAs in hybrid states

Correlated conformational events in EF-G and the ribosome regulate translocation

In bacteria, the translocation of tRNA and mRNA with respect to the ribosome is catalyzed by the conserved GTPase elongation factor-G (EF-G). To probe the rate-determining features in this process, we imaged EF-G-catalyzed translocation from two unique structural perspectives using single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer. The data reveal that the rate at which the ribosome spontaneously achieves a transient, 'unlocked' state is closely correlated with the rate at which the tRNA-like domain IV-V element of EF-G engages the A site. After these structural transitions, translocation occurs comparatively fast, suggesting that conformational processes intrinsic to the ribosome determine the rate of translocation. Experiments conducted in the presence of non-hydrolyzable GTP analogs and specific antibiotics further reveal that allosterically linked conformational events in EF-G and the ribosome mediate rapid, directional substrate movement and EF-G release.

Single-molecule study of viomycin's inhibition mechanism on ribosome translocation

Viomycin belongs to the tuberactinomycin family of antibiotics against tuberculosis. However, its inhibition mechanism remains elusive. Although it is clear that viomycin inhibits the ribosome intersubunit ratcheting, there are contradictory reports about whether the antibiotic viomycin stabilizes the tRNA hybrid or classical state. By using a single-molecule FRET method to directly observe the tRNA dynamics relative to ribosomal protein L27, we have found that viomycin trapped the hybrid state within certain ribosome subgroups but did not significantly suppress the tRNA dynamics. The persistent fluctuation of tRNA implied that tRNA motions were decoupled from the ribosome intersubunit ratcheting. Viomycin also promoted peptidyl-tRNA fluctuation in the posttranslocation complex, implying that, in addition to acylated P-site tRNA, the decoding center also played an important role of ribosome locking after translocation. Therefore, viomycin inhibits translocation by trapping the hybrid state in the pretranslocation complex and disturbing the stability of posttranslocation complex. Our results imply that ribosome translocation is possibly a synergistic process of multiple decoupled local dynamics.

From DNA to proteins via the ribosome: structural insights into the workings of the translation machinery

Understanding protein synthesis in bacteria and humans is important for understanding the origin of many human diseases and devising treatments for them. Over the past decade, the field of structural biology has made significant advances in the visualisation of the molecular machinery involved in protein synthesis. It is now possible to discern, at least in outline, the way that interlocking ribosomal components and factors adapt their conformations throughout this process. The determination of structures in various functional contexts, along with the application of kinetic and fluorescent resonance energy transfer approaches to the problem, has given researchers the frame of reference for what remains as the greatest challenge: the complete dynamic portrait of protein synthesis in the cell.

Classic and contemporary approaches to modeling biochemical reactions

Recent interest in modeling biochemical networks raises questions about the relationship between often complex mathematical models and familiar arithmetic concepts from classical enzymology, and also about connections between modeling and experimental data. This review addresses both topics by familiarizing readers with key concepts (and terminology) in the construction, validation, and application of deterministic biochemical models, with particular emphasis on a simple enzyme-catalyzed reaction. Networks of coupled ordinary differential equations (ODEs) are the natural language for describing enzyme kinetics in a mass action approximation. We illustrate this point by showing how the familiar Briggs-Haldane formulation of Michaelis-Menten kinetics derives from the outer (or quasi-steady-state) solution of a dynamical system of ODEs describing a simple reaction under special conditions. We discuss how parameters in the Michaelis-Menten approximation and in the underlying ODE network can be estimated from experimental data, with a special emphasis on the origins of uncertainty. Finally, we extrapolate from a simple reaction to complex models of multiprotein biochemical networks. The concepts described in this review, hitherto of interest primarily to practitioners, are likely to become important for a much broader community of cellular and molecular biologists attempting to understand the promise and challenges of "systems biology" as applied to biochemical mechanisms.

Ribosome dynamics and tRNA movement by time-resolved electron cryomicroscopy

The translocation step of protein synthesis entails large-scale rearrangements of the ribosome-transfer RNA (tRNA) complex. Here we have followed tRNA movement through the ribosome during translocation by time-resolved single-particle electron cryomicroscopy (cryo-EM). Unbiased computational sorting of cryo-EM images yielded 50 distinct three-dimensional reconstructions, showing the tRNAs in classical, hybrid and various novel intermediate states that provide trajectories and kinetic information about tRNA movement through the ribosome. The structures indicate how tRNA movement is coupled with global and local conformational changes of the ribosome, in particular of the head and body of the small ribosomal subunit, and show that dynamic interactions between tRNAs and ribosomal residues confine the path of the tRNAs through the ribosome. The temperature dependence of ribosome dynamics reveals a surprisingly flat energy landscape of conformational variations at physiological temperature. The ribosome functions as a Brownian machine that couples spontaneous conformational changes driven by thermal energy to directed movement.

The role of L1 stalk-tRNA interaction in the ribosome elongation cycle

The ribosomal L1 stalk is a mobile structure implicated in directing tRNA movement during translocation through the ribosome. This article investigates three aspects of L1 stalk-tRNA interaction. First, by combining data from cryo electron microscopy, X-ray crystallography, and molecular dynamics simulations through the molecular dynamics flexible fitting method, we obtained atomic models of different tRNAs occupying the hybrid P/E state interacting with the L1 stalk. These models confirm the assignment of fluorescence resonance energy transfer states from previous single-molecule investigations of L1 stalk dynamics. Second, the models reconcile how initiator tRNA(fMet) interacts less strongly with the L1 stalk compared to elongator tRNA(Phe), as seen in previous single-molecule experiments. Third, results from a simulation of the entire ribosome in which the L1 stalk is moved from a half-closed conformation to its open conformation are found to support the hypothesis that L1 stalk opening is involved in tRNA release from the ribosome.

Ribosome structure and dynamics during translocation and termination

Protein biosynthesis, or translation, occurs on the ribosome, a large RNA-protein assembly universally conserved in all forms of life. Over the last decade, structures of the small and large ribosomal subunits and of the intact ribosome have begun to reveal the molecular details of how the ribosome works. Both cryo-electron microscopy and X-ray crystallography continue to provide fresh insights into the mechanism of translation. In this review, we describe the most recent structural models of the bacterial ribosome that shed light on the movement of messenger RNA and transfer RNA on the ribosome after each peptide bond is formed, a process termed translocation. We also discuss recent structures that reveal the molecular basis for stop codon recognition during translation termination. Finally, we review recent advances in understanding how bacteria handle errors in both translocation and termination.

Single ribosome dynamics and the mechanism of translation

Our current understanding of the mechanism of translation is based on nearly fifty years of biochemical and biophysical studies. This mechanism, which requires the ribosome to manipulate tRNA and step repetitively along the mRNA, implies movement. High-resolution structures of the ribosome and its ligands have recently described translation in atomic detail, capturing the endpoints of large-scale rearrangements of the ribosome. Direct observation of the dynamic events that underlie the mechanism of translation is challenged by ensemble averaging in bulk solutions. Single-molecule methods, which eliminate these averaging effects, have emerged as powerful tools to probe the mechanism of translation. Single-molecule fluorescence experiments have described the dynamic motion of the ribosome and tRNA. Single-molecule force measurements have directly probed the forces stabilizing ribosomal complexes. Recent developments have allowed real-time observation of ribosome movement and dynamics during translation. This review covers the contributions of single-molecule studies to our understanding of the dynamic nature of translation.

Following the intersubunit conformation of the ribosome during translation in real time

We report the direct observation of conformational rearrangements of the ribosome during multiple rounds of elongation. Using single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer, we monitored the intersubunit conformation of the ribosome in real time as it proceeds from codon to codon. During each elongation cycle, the ribosome unlocks upon peptide bond formation, then reverts to the locked state upon translocation onto the next codon. Our data reveal both the specific and cumulative effects of antibiotics on individual steps of translation and uncover the processivity of the ribosome as it elongates. Our approach interrogates the precise molecular events occurring at each codon of the mRNA within the full context of ongoing translation.

Structure and dynamics of a processive Brownian motor: the translating ribosome

There is mounting evidence indicating that protein synthesis is driven and regulated by mechanisms that direct stochastic, large-scale conformational fluctuations of the translational apparatus. This mechanistic paradigm implies that a free-energy landscape governs the conformational states that are accessible to and sampled by the translating ribosome. This scenario presents interdependent opportunities and challenges for structural and dynamic studies of protein synthesis. Indeed, the synergism between cryogenic electron microscopic and X-ray crystallographic structural studies, on the one hand, and single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer (smFRET) dynamic studies, on the other, is emerging as a powerful means for investigating the complex free-energy landscape of the translating ribosome and uncovering the mechanisms that direct the stochastic conformational fluctuations of the translational machinery. In this review, we highlight the principal insights obtained from cryogenic electron microscopic, X-ray crystallographic, and smFRET studies of the elongation stage of protein synthesis and outline the emerging themes, questions, and challenges that lie ahead in mechanistic studies of translation.

Direct observation of distinct A/P hybrid-state tRNAs in translocating ribosomes

Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) link the genetic code in the form of messenger RNA (mRNA) to protein sequence. Translocation of tRNAs through the ribosome from aminoacyl (A) site to peptidyl (P) site and from P site to exit site is catalyzed in eukaryotes by the translocase elongation factor 2 (EF-2) and in prokaryotes by its homolog EF-G. During tRNA movement one or more “hybrid” states (A/P) is occupied, but molecular details of them and of the translocation process are limited. Here we show by cryo-electron microscopy that a population of mammalian ribosomes stalled at an mRNA pseudoknot structure contains structurally distorted tRNAs in two different A/P hybrid states. In one (A/P′), the tRNA is in contact with the translocase EF-2, which induces it. In the other (A/P″), the translocase is absent. The existence of these alternative A/P intermediate states has relevance to our understanding of the mechanics and kinetics of translocation.

Elongation in translation as a dynamic interaction among the ribosome, tRNA, and elongation factors EF-G and EF-Tu

The ribosome is a complex macromolecular machine that translates the message encoded in the messenger RNA and synthesizes polypeptides by linking the individual amino acids carried by the cognate transfer RNAs (tRNAs). The protein elongation cycle, during which the tRNAs traverse the ribosome in a coordinated manner along a path of more than 100 A, is facilitated by large-scale rearrangements of the ribosome. These rearrangements go hand in hand with conformational changes of tRNA as well as elongation factors EF-Tu and EF-G - GTPases that catalyze tRNA delivery and translocation, respectively. This review focuses on the structural data related to the dynamics of the ribosomal machinery, which are the basis, in conjunction with existing biochemical, kinetic, and fluorescence resonance energy transfer data, of our knowledge of the decoding and translocation steps of protein elongation.

Learning rates and states from biophysical time series: a Bayesian approach to model selection and single-molecule FRET data

Time series data provided by single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer (smFRET) experiments offer the opportunity to infer not only model parameters describing molecular complexes, e.g., rate constants, but also information about the model itself, e.g., the number of conformational states. Resolving whether such states exist or how many of them exist requires a careful approach to the problem of model selection, here meaning discrimination among models with differing numbers of states. The most straightforward approach to model selection generalizes the common idea of maximum likelihood--selecting the most likely parameter values--to maximum evidence: selecting the most likely model. In either case, such an inference presents a tremendous computational challenge, which we here address by exploiting an approximation technique termed variational Bayesian expectation maximization. We demonstrate how this technique can be applied to temporal data such as smFRET time series; show superior statistical consistency relative to the maximum likelihood approach; compare its performance on smFRET data generated from experiments on the ribosome; and illustrate how model selection in such probabilistic or generative modeling can facilitate analysis of closely related temporal data currently prevalent in biophysics. Source code used in this analysis, including a graphical user interface, is available open source via http://vbFRET.sourceforge.net.

A fast dynamic mode of the EF-G-bound ribosome

A key intermediate in translocation is an 'unlocked state' of the pre-translocation ribosome in which the P-site tRNA adopts the P/E hybrid state, the L1 stalk domain closes and ribosomal subunits adopt a ratcheted configuration. Here, through two- and three-colour smFRET imaging from multiple structural perspectives, EF-G is shown to accelerate structural and kinetic pathways in the ribosome, leading to this transition. The EF-G-bound ribosome remains highly dynamic in nature, wherein, the unlocked state is transiently and reversibly formed. The P/E hybrid state is energetically favoured, but exchange with the classical P/P configuration persists; the L1 stalk adopts a fast dynamic mode characterized by rapid cycles of closure and opening. These data support a model in which P/E hybrid state formation, L1 stalk closure and subunit ratcheting are loosely coupled, independent processes that must converge to achieve the unlocked state. The highly dynamic nature of these motions, and their sensitivity to conformational and compositional changes in the ribosome, suggests that regulating the formation of this intermediate may present an effective avenue for translational control.

An introduction to maximum-likelihood methods in cryo-EM

The maximum-likelihood method provides a powerful approach to many problems in cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) image processing. This contribution aims to provide an accessible introduction to the underlying theory and reviews existing applications in the field. In addition, current developments to reduce computational costs and to improve the statistical description of cryo-EM images are discussed. Combined with the increasing power of modern computers and yet unexplored possibilities provided by theory, these developments are expected to turn the statistical approach into an essential image-processing tool for the electron microscopist.

Visualizing molecular machines in action: Single-particle analysis with structural variability

Many of the electron microscopy (EM) samples that are analyzed by single-particle reconstruction are flexible macromolecular assemblies that adopt multiple structural states in their functioning. Consequently, EM samples often contain a mixture of different structural states. This structural variability has long been regarded as a severe hindrance for single-particle analysis because the combination of projections from different structures into a single reconstruction may cause severe artifacts. This chapter reviews recent developments in image processing that may turn structural variability from an obstacle into an advantage. Modern algorithms now allow classifying projection images according to their underlying three-dimensional (3D) structures, so that multiple reconstructions may be obtained from a single data set. This places 3D-EM in a unique position to study the intricate dynamics of functioning molecular assemblies.

Classification of structural heterogeneity by maximum-likelihood methods

With the advent of computationally feasible approaches to maximum-likelihood (ML) image processing for cryo-electron microscopy, these methods have proven particularly useful in the classification of structurally heterogeneous single-particle data. A growing number of experimental studies have applied these algorithms to study macromolecular complexes with a wide range of structural variability, including nonstoichiometric complex formation, large conformational changes, and combinations of both. This chapter aims to share the practical experience that has been gained from the application of these novel approaches. Current insights on how to prepare the data and how to perform two- or three-dimensional classifications are discussed together with the aspects related to high-performance computing. Thereby, this chapter will hopefully be of practical use for those microscopists wishing to apply ML methods in their own investigations.

Spontaneous formation of the unlocked state of the ribosome is a multistep process

The mechanism of substrate translocation through the ribosome is central to the rapid and faithful translation of mRNA into proteins. The rate-limiting step in translocation is an unlocking process that includes the formation of an "unlocked" intermediate state, which requires the convergence of large-scale conformational events within the ribosome including tRNA hybrid states formation, closure of the ribosomal L1 stalk domain, and subunit ratcheting. Here, by imaging of the pretranslocation ribosome complex from multiple structural perspectives using two- and three-color single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer, we observe that tRNA hybrid states formation and L1 stalk closure, events central to the unlocking mechanism, are not tightly coupled. These findings reveal that the unlocked state is achieved through a stochastic-multistep process, where the extent of conformational coupling depends on the nature of tRNA substrates. These data suggest that cellular mechanisms affecting the coupling of conformational processes on the ribosome may regulate the process of translation elongation.

Single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer studies of RNA structure, dynamics and function

Single-molecule fluorescence microscopy experiments on RNA molecules brought to light the highly complex dynamics of key biological processes, including RNA folding, catalysis of ribozymes, ligand sensing of riboswitches and aptamers, and protein synthesis in the ribosome. By using highly advanced biophysical spectroscopy techniques in combination with sophisticated biochemical synthesis approaches, molecular dynamics of individual RNA molecules can be observed in real time and under physiological conditions in unprecedented detail that cannot be achieved with bulk experiments. Here, we review recent advances in RNA folding and functional studies of RNA and RNA-protein complexes addressed by using single-molecule Förster (fluorescence) resonance energy transfer (smFRET) technique.

GTP hydrolysis by IF2 guides progression of the ribosome into elongation

Recent structural data have revealed two distinct conformations of the ribosome during initiation. We employed single-molecule fluorescence methods to probe the dynamic relation of these ribosomal conformations in real time. In the absence of initiation factors, the ribosome assembles in two distinct conformations. The initiation factors guide progression of the ribosome to the conformation that can enter the elongation cycle. In particular, IF2 both accelerates the rate of subunit joining and actively promotes the transition to the elongation-competent conformation. Blocking GTP hydrolysis by IF2 results in 70S complexes formed in the conformation unable to enter elongation. We observe that rapid GTP hydrolysis by IF2 drives the transition to the elongation-competent conformation, thus committing the ribosome to enter the elongation cycle.

Exploring conformational modes of macromolecular assemblies by multiparticle cryo-EM

Single particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) is a technique aimed at structure determination of large macromolecular complexes in their unconstrained, physiological conditions. The power of the method has been demonstrated in selected studies where for highly symmetric molecules the resolution attained permitted backbone tracing. However, most molecular complexes appear to exhibit intrinsic conformational variability necessary to perform their functions. Therefore, it is now increasingly recognized that sample heterogeneity constitutes a major methodological challenge for cryo-EM. To overcome it dedicated experimental and particularly computational multiparticle approaches have been developed. Their applications point to the future of cryo-EM as an experimental method uniquely suited to visualize the conformational modes of large macromolecular complexes and machines.

Structures of the ribosome in intermediate states of ratcheting

Protein biosynthesis on the ribosome requires repeated cycles of ratcheting, which couples rotation of the two ribosomal subunits with respect to each other, and swiveling of the head domain of the small subunit. However, the molecular basis for how the two ribosomal subunits rearrange contacts with each other during ratcheting while remaining stably associated is not known. Here, we describe x-ray crystal structures of the intact Escherichia coli ribosome, either in the apo-form (3.5 angstrom resolution) or with one (4.0 angstrom resolution) or two (4.0 angstrom resolution) anticodon stem-loop tRNA mimics bound, that reveal intermediate states of intersubunit rotation. In the structures, the interface between the small and large ribosomal subunits rearranges in discrete steps along the ratcheting pathway. Positioning of the head domain of the small subunit is controlled by interactions with the large subunit and with the tRNA bound in the peptidyl-tRNA site. The intermediates observed here provide insight into how tRNAs move into the hybrid state of binding that precedes the final steps of mRNA and tRNA translocation.

Allosteric collaboration between elongation factor G and the ribosomal L1 stalk directs tRNA movements during translation

Determining the mechanism by which tRNAs rapidly and precisely transit through the ribosomal A, P, and E sites during translation remains a major goal in the study of protein synthesis. Here, we report the real-time dynamics of the L1 stalk, a structural element of the large ribosomal subunit that is implicated in directing tRNA movements during translation. Within pretranslocation ribosomal complexes, the L1 stalk exists in a dynamic equilibrium between open and closed conformations. Binding of elongation factor G (EF-G) shifts this equilibrium toward the closed conformation through one of at least two distinct kinetic mechanisms, where the identity of the P-site tRNA dictates the kinetic route that is taken. Within posttranslocation complexes, L1 stalk dynamics are dependent on the presence and identity of the E-site tRNA. Collectively, our data demonstrate that EF-G and the L1 stalk allosterically collaborate to direct tRNA translocation from the P to the E sites, and suggest a model for the release of E-site tRNA.

Bases in 16S rRNA important for subunit association, tRNA binding, and translocation

Ribosomes are the cellular machinery responsible for protein synthesis. A well-orchestrated step in the elongation cycle of protein synthesis is the precise translocation of the tRNA-mRNA complex within the ribosome. Here we report the application of a new in vitro modification-interference method for the identification of bases in 16S rRNA that are essential for translocation. Our results suggest that conserved bases U56, U723, A1306, A1319, and A1468 in 16S rRNA are important for translocation. These five bases were deleted or mutated so their role in translation could be studied. Depending on the type of mutation, we observed inhibition of growth rate, subunit association, tRNA binding, and/or translocation. Interestingly, deletion of U56 or A1319 or mutation of A1319 to C showed a lethal phenotype and were defective in protein synthesis in vitro. Further analysis showed that deletion of U56 or A1319 caused defects in 30S subunit assembly, subunit association, and tRNA binding. In contrast, the A1319C mutation showed no defects in subunit association; however, the extent of tRNA binding and translocation was significantly reduced. These results show that conserved bases located as far as 100 A from the tRNA binding sites can be important for translation.

Navigating the ribosome's metastable energy landscape

The molecular mechanisms by which tRNA molecules enter and transit the ribosome during mRNA translation remains elusive. However, recent genetic, biochemical and structural studies offer important new findings into the ordered sequence of events underpinning the translocation process that help place the molecular mechanism within reach. In particular, new structural and kinetic insights have been obtained regarding tRNA movements through 'hybrid state' configurations. These dynamic views reveal that the macromolecular ribosome particle, like many smaller proteins, has an intrinsic capacity to reversibly sample an ensemble of similarly stable native states. Such perspectives suggest that substrates, factors and environmental cues contribute to translation regulation by helping the dynamic system navigate through a highly complex and metastable energy landscape.

Translation factors direct intrinsic ribosome dynamics during translation termination and ribosome recycling

Characterizing the structural dynamics of the translating ribosome remains a major goal in the study of protein synthesis. Deacylation of peptidyl-tRNA during translation elongation triggers fluctuations of the pretranslocation ribosomal complex between two global conformational states. Elongation factor G-mediated control of the resulting dynamic conformational equilibrium helps to coordinate ribosome and tRNA movements during elongation and is thus a crucial mechanistic feature of translation. Beyond elongation, deacylation of peptidyl-tRNA also occurs during translation termination, and this deacylated tRNA persists during ribosome recycling. Here we report that specific regulation of the analogous conformational equilibrium by translation release and ribosome recycling factors has a critical role in the termination and recycling mechanisms. Our results support the view that specific regulation of the global state of the ribosome is a fundamental characteristic of all translation factors and a unifying theme throughout protein synthesis.

A structural view on the mechanism of the ribosome-catalyzed peptide bond formation

The ribosome is a large ribonucleoprotein particle that translates genetic information encoded in mRNA into specific proteins. Its highly conserved active site, the peptidyl-transferase center (PTC), is located on the large (50S) ribosomal subunit and is comprised solely of rRNA, which makes the ribosome the only natural ribozyme with polymerase activity. The last decade witnessed a rapid accumulation of atomic-resolution structural data on both ribosomal subunits as well as on the entire ribosome. This has allowed studies on the mechanism of peptide bond formation at a level of detail that surpasses that for the classical protein enzymes. A current understanding of the mechanism of the ribosome-catalyzed peptide bond formation is the focus of this review. Implications on the mechanism of peptide release are discussed as well.

Introducing robustness to maximum-likelihood refinement of electron-microscopy data

An expectation-maximization algorithm for maximum-likelihood refinement of electron-microscopy images is presented that is based on fitting mixtures of multivariate t-distributions. The novel algorithm has intrinsic characteristics for providing robustness against atypical observations in the data, which is illustrated using an experimental test set with artificially generated outliers. Tests on experimental data revealed only minor differences in two-dimensional classifications, while three-dimensional classification with the new algorithm gave stronger elongation factor G density in the corresponding class of a structurally heterogeneous ribosome data set than the conventional algorithm for Gaussian mixtures.

Contribution of ribosomal residues to P-site tRNA binding

Structural studies have revealed multiple contacts between the ribosomal P site and tRNA, but how these contacts contribute to P-tRNA binding remains unclear. In this study, the effects of ribosomal mutations on the dissociation rate (k(off)) of various tRNAs from the P site were measured. Mutation of the 30S P site destabilized tRNAs to various degrees, depending on the mutation and the species of tRNA. These data support the idea that ribosome-tRNA interactions are idiosyncratically tuned to ensure stable binding of all tRNA species. Unlike deacylated elongator tRNAs, N-acetyl-aminoacyl-tRNAs and tRNA(fMet) dissociated from the P site at a similar low rate, even in the presence of various P-site mutations. These data provide evidence for a stability threshold for P-tRNA binding and suggest that ribosome-tRNA(fMet) interactions are uniquely tuned for tight binding. The effects of 16S rRNA mutation G1338U were suppressed by 50S E-site mutation C2394A, suggesting that G1338 is particularly important for stabilizing tRNA in the P/E site. Finally, mutation C2394A or the presence of an N-acetyl-aminoacyl group slowed the association rate (k(on)) of tRNA dramatically, suggesting that deacylated tRNA binds the P site of the ribosome via the E site.

Distinct functions of elongation factor G in ribosome recycling and translocation

Elongation factor G (EF-G) promotes the translocation step in bacterial protein synthesis and, together with ribosome recycling factor (RRF), the disassembly of the post-termination ribosome. Unlike translocation, ribosome disassembly strictly requires GTP hydrolysis by EF-G. Here we report that ribosome disassembly is strongly inhibited by vanadate, an analog of inorganic phosphate (Pi), indicating that Pi release is required for ribosome disassembly. In contrast, the function of EF-G in single-round translocation is not affected by vanadate, while the turnover reaction is strongly inhibited. We also show that the antibiotic fusidic acid blocks ribosome disassembly by EF-G/RRF at a 1000-fold lower concentration than required for the inhibition of EF-G turnover in vitro and close to the effective inhibitory concentration in vivo, suggesting that the antimicrobial activity of fusidic acid is primarily due to the direct inhibition of ribosome recycling. Our results indicate that conformational coupling between EF-G and the ribosome is principally different in translocation and ribosome disassembly. Pi release is not required for the mechanochemical function of EF-G in translocation, whereas the interactions between RRF and EF-G introduce tight coupling between the conformational change of EF-G induced by Pi release and ribosome disassembly.

Fidelity at the molecular level: lessons from protein synthesis

The faithful and rapid translation of genetic information into peptide sequences is an indispensable property of the ribosome. The mechanistic understanding of strategies used by the ribosome to achieve both speed and fidelity during translation results from nearly a half century of biochemical and structural studies. Emerging from these studies is the common theme that the ribosome uses local as well as remote conformational switches to govern induced-fit mechanisms that ensure accuracy in codon recognition during both tRNA selection and translation termination.

Recent mechanistic insights into eukaryotic ribosomes

Ribosomes are supramolecular ribonucleoprotein particles that synthesize proteins in all cells. Protein synthesis proceeds through four major phases: initiation, elongation, termination, and ribosome recycling. In each phase, a number of phase-specific translation factors cooperate with the ribosome. Whereas elongation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes involve similar factors and proceed by similar mechanisms, mechanisms of initiation, termination, and ribosome recycling, as well as the factors involved, appear quite different. Here, we summarize recent progress in deciphering molecular mechanisms of eukaryotic translation. Comparisons with prokaryotic translation are included, emphasizing emerging patterns of common design.

Maximum likelihood refinement of electron microscopy data with normalization errors

Commonly employed data models for maximum likelihood refinement of electron microscopy images behave poorly in the presence of normalization errors. Small variations in background mean or signal brightness are relatively common in cryo-electron microscopy data, and varying signal-to-noise ratios or artifacts in the images interfere with standard normalization procedures. In this paper, a statistical data model that accounts for normalization errors is presented, and a corresponding algorithm for maximum likelihood classification of structurally heterogeneous projection data is derived. The extended data model has general relevance, since similar algorithms may be derived for other maximum likelihood approaches in the field. The potentials of this approach are illustrated for two structurally heterogeneous data sets: 70S E.coli ribosomes and human RNA polymerase II complexes. In both cases, maximum likelihood classification based on the conventional data model failed, whereas the new approach was capable of revealing previously unobserved conformations.

Ribosomal translocation: one step closer to the molecular mechanism

Protein synthesis occurs in ribosomes, the targets of numerous antibiotics. How these large and complex machines read and move along mRNA have proven to be challenging questions. In this Review, we focus on translocation, the last step of the elongation cycle in which movement of tRNA and mRNA is catalyzed by elongation factor G. Translocation entails large-scale movements of the tRNAs and conformational changes in the ribosome that require numerous tertiary contacts to be disrupted and reformed. We highlight recent progress toward elucidating the molecular basis of translocation and how various antibiotics influence tRNA-mRNA movement.

Single-molecule observations of ribosome function

Single-molecule investigations promise to greatly advance our understanding of basic and regulated ribosome functions during the process of translation. Here, recent progress towards directly imaging the elemental translation elongation steps using fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based imaging methods is discussed, which provide striking evidence of the highly dynamic nature of the ribosome. In this view, global rates and fidelities of protein synthesis reactions may be regulated by interactions of the ribosome with mRNA, tRNA, translation factors and potentially many other cellular ligands that modify intrinsic conformational equilibria in the translating particle. Future investigations probing this model must aim to visualize translation processes from multiple structural and kinetic perspectives simultaneously, to provide direct correlations between factor binding and conformational events.

Following movement of the L1 stalk between three functional states in single ribosomes

The L1 stalk is a mobile domain of the large ribosomal subunit E site that interacts with the elbow of deacylated tRNA during protein synthesis. Here, by using single-molecule FRET, we follow the real-time dynamics of the L1 stalk and observe its movement relative to the body of the large subunit between at least 3 distinct conformational states: open, half-closed, and fully closed. Pretranslocation ribosomes undergo spontaneous fluctuations between the open and fully closed states. In contrast, posttranslocation ribosomes containing peptidyl-tRNA and deacylated tRNA in the classical P/P and E/E states, respectively, are fixed in the half-closed conformation. In ribosomes with a vacant E site, the L1 stalk is observed either in the fully closed or fully open conformation. Several lines of evidence show that the L1 stalk can move independently of intersubunit rotation. Our findings support a model in which the mobility of the L1 stalk facilitates binding, movement, and release of deacylated tRNA by remodeling the structure of the 50S subunit E site between 3 distinct conformations, corresponding to the E/E vacant, P/E hybrid, and classical states.

The ribosome returned

Since the mid-1990s, insights obtained from electron microscopy and X-ray crystallography have transformed our understanding of how the most important ribozyme in the cell, the ribosome, catalyzes protein synthesis. This review provides a brief account of how this structural revolution came to pass, and the impact it has had on our understanding of how the ribosome decodes messenger RNAs.