Distinct roles of class I and class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases in phagosome formation and maturation

BECN1/Beclin 1 sorts cell-surface APP/amyloid β precursor protein for lysosomal degradation

The regulation of plasma membrane (PM)-localized transmembrane protein/receptor trafficking has critical implications for cell signaling, metabolism and survival. In this study, we investigated the role of BECN1 (Beclin 1) in the degradative trafficking of PM-associated APP (amyloid β precursor protein), whose metabolism to amyloid-β, an essential event in Alzheimer disease, is dependent on divergent PM trafficking pathways. We report a novel interaction between PM-associated APP and BECN1 that recruits macroautophagy/endosomal regulatory proteins PIK3C3 and UVRAG. We found that BECN1 promotes surface APP internalization and sorting predominantly to endosomes and endolysosomes. BECN1 also promotes the targeting of a smaller fraction of internalized APP to LC3-positive phagophores, suggesting a role for BECN1-dependent PM macroautophagy in APP degradation. Furthermore, BECN1 facilitates lysosomal degradation of surface APP and reduces the secretion of APP metabolites (soluble ectodomains, sAPP). The association between APP and BECN1 is dependent on the evolutionarily conserved domain (ECD) of BECN1 (amino acids 267-337). Deletion of a BECN1 ECD subregion (amino acids 285-299) did not impair BECN1- PIK3C3 interaction, PtdIns3K function or macroautophagy, but was sufficient to impair the APP-BECN1 interaction and BECN1's effects on surface APP internalization and degradation, resulting in increased secretion of sAPPs. Interestingly, both the BECN1-APP association and BECN1-dependent APP endocytosis and degradative trafficking were negatively regulated by active AKT. Our results further implicate phosphorylation of the BECN1 Ser295 residue in the inhibition of APP degradation by AKT. Our studies reveal a novel function for BECN1 in the sorting of a plasma membrane protein for endolysosomal and macroautophagic degradation.

Role of Class III phosphoinositide 3-kinase in the brain development: possible involvement in specific learning disorders

Class III phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PIK3C3 or mammalian vacuolar protein sorting 34 homolog, Vps34) regulates vesicular trafficking, autophagy, and nutrient sensing. Recently, we reported that PIK3C3 is expressed in mouse cerebral cortex throughout the developmental process, especially at early embryonic stage. We thus examined the role of PIK3C3 in the development of the mouse cerebral cortex. Acute silencing of PIK3C3 with in utero electroporation method caused positional defects of excitatory neurons during corticogenesis. Time-lapse imaging revealed that the abnormal positioning was at least partially because of the reduced migration velocity. When PIK3C3 was silenced in cortical neurons in one hemisphere, axon extension to the contralateral hemisphere was also delayed. These aberrant phenotypes were rescued by RNAi-resistant PIK3C3. Notably, knockdown of PIK3C3 did not affect the cell cycle of neuronal progenitors and stem cells at the ventricular zone. Taken together, PIK3C3 was thought to play a crucial role in corticogenesis through the regulation of excitatory neuron migration and axon extension. Meanwhile, when we performed comparative genomic hybridization on a patient with specific learning disorders, a 107 Kb-deletion was identified on 18q12.3 (nt. 39554147-39661206) that encompasses exons 5-23 of PIK3C3. Notably, the above aberrant migration and axon growth phenotypes were not rescued by the disease-related truncation mutant (172 amino acids) lacking the C-terminal kinase domain. Thus, functional defects of PIK3C3 might impair corticogenesis and relate to the pathophysiology of specific learning disorders and other neurodevelopmental disorders. Acute knockdown of Class III phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PIK3C3) evokes migration defects of excitatory neurons during corticogenesis. PIK3C3-knockdown also disrupts axon outgrowth, but not progenitor proliferation in vivo. Involvement of PIK3C3 in neurodevelopmental disorders might be an interesting future subject since a deletion mutation in PIK3C3 was detected in a patient with specific learning disorders (SLD).

Dysferlin-mediated phosphatidylserine sorting engages macrophages in sarcolemma repair

Failure to repair the sarcolemma leads to muscle cell death, depletion of stem cells and myopathy. Hence, membrane lesions are instantly sealed by a repair patch consisting of lipids and proteins. It has remained elusive how this patch is removed to restore cell membrane integrity. Here we examine sarcolemmal repair in live zebrafish embryos by real-time imaging. Macrophages remove the patch. Phosphatidylserine (PS), an 'eat-me' signal for macrophages, is rapidly sorted from adjacent sarcolemma to the repair patch in a Dysferlin (Dysf) dependent process in zebrafish and human cells. A previously unrecognized arginine-rich motif in Dysf is crucial for PS accumulation. It carries mutations in patients presenting with limb-girdle muscular dystrophy 2B. This underscores the relevance of this sequence and uncovers a novel pathophysiological mechanism underlying this class of myopathies. Our data show that membrane repair is a multi-tiered process involving immediate, cell-intrinsic mechanisms as well as myofiber/macrophage interactions.

Ehrlichia secretes Etf-1 to induce autophagy and capture nutrients for its growth through RAB5 and class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase

Ehrlichia chaffeensis is an obligatory intracellular bacterium that causes a potentially fatal emerging zoonosis, human monocytic ehrlichiosis. E. chaffeensis has a limited capacity for biosynthesis and metabolism and thus depends mostly on host-synthesized nutrients for growth. Although the host cell cytoplasm is rich with these nutrients, as E. chaffeensis is confined within the early endosome-like membrane-bound compartment, only host nutrients that enter the compartment can be used by this bacterium. How this occurs is unknown. We found that ehrlichial replication depended on autophagy induction involving class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PtdIns3K) activity, BECN1 (Beclin 1), and ATG5 (autophagy-related 5). Ehrlichia acquired host cell preincorporated amino acids in a class III PtdIns3K-dependent manner and ehrlichial growth was enhanced by treatment with rapamycin, an autophagy inducer. Moreover, ATG5 and RAB5A/B/C were routed to ehrlichial inclusions. RAB5A/B/C siRNA knockdown, or overexpression of a RAB5-specific GTPase-activating protein or dominant-negative RAB5A inhibited ehrlichial infection, indicating the critical role of GTP-bound RAB5 during infection. Both native and ectopically expressed ehrlichial type IV secretion effector protein, Etf-1, bound RAB5 and the autophagy-initiating class III PtdIns3K complex, PIK3C3/VPS34, and BECN1, and homed to ehrlichial inclusions. Ectopically expressed Etf-1 activated class III PtdIns3K as in E. chaffeensis infection and induced autophagosome formation, cleared an aggregation-prone mutant huntingtin protein in a class III PtdIns3K-dependent manner, and enhanced ehrlichial proliferation. These data support the notion that E. chaffeensis secretes Etf-1 to induce autophagy to repurpose the host cytoplasm and capture nutrients for its growth through RAB5 and class III PtdIns3K, while avoiding autolysosomal killing.

Porphyromonas gulae Has Virulence and Immunological Characteristics Similar to Those of the Human Periodontal Pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis

Periodontitis is a significant problem in companion animals, and yet little is known about the disease-associated microbiota. A major virulence factor for the human periodontal pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis is the lysyl- and arginyl-specific proteolytic activity of the gingipains. We screened several Porphyromonas species isolated from companion animals-P. asaccharolytica, P. circumdentaria, P. endodontalis, P. levii, P. gulae, P. macacae, P. catoniae, and P. salivosa-for Lys- and Arg-specific proteolytic activity and compared the epithelial and macrophage responses and induction of alveolar bone resorption of the protease active species to that of Porphyromonas gingivalis Only P. gulae exhibited Lys-and Arg-specific proteolytic activity. The genes encoding the gingipains (RgpA/B and Kgp) were identified in the P. gulae strain ATCC 51700 and all publicly available 12 draft genomes of P. gulae strains. P. gulae ATCC 51700 induced levels of alveolar bone resorption in an animal model of periodontitis similar to those in P. gingivalis W50 and exhibited a higher capacity for autoaggregation and binding to oral epithelial cells with induction of apoptosis. Macrophages (RAW 264.7) were found to phagocytose P. gulae ATCC 51700 and the fimbriated P. gingivalis ATCC 33277 at similar levels. In response to P. gulae ATCC 51700, macrophages secreted higher levels of cytokines than those induced by P. gingivalis ATCC 33277 but lower than those induced by P. gingivalis W50, except for the interleukin-6 response. Our results indicate that P. gulae exhibits virulence characteristics similar to those of the human periodontal pathogen P. gingivalis and therefore may play a key role in the development of periodontitis in companion animals.

Extracellular stimulation of VSIG4/complement receptor Ig suppresses intracellular bacterial infection by inducing autophagy

VSIG4/CRIg (V-set and immunoglobulin domain containing 4) is a transmembrane receptor of the immunoglobulin superfamily that is expressed specifically on macrophages and mature dendritic cells. VSIG4 signaling accelerates phagocytosis of C3-opsonized bacteria, thereby efficiently clearing pathogens within macrophages. We found that VSIG4 signaling triggered by C3-opsonized Listeria (opLM) or by agonistic anti-VSIG4 monoclonal antibody (mAb) induced macrophages to form autophagosomes. VSIG4-induced autophagosomes were selectively colocalized with the intracellular LM while starvation-induced autophagosomes were not. Consistent with these results, the frequency of autophagosomes induced by infection with opLM was lower in VSIG4-deficient bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) than in WT BMDMs. Furthermore, when VSIG4 molecules were overexpressed in HeLa cells, which are non-macrophage cells, VSIG4 triggering led to efficient uptake of LM, autophagosome formation, and killing of the infected LM. These findings suggest that VSIG4 signaling not only promotes rapid phagocytosis and killing of C3-opsonized intracellular bacteria, as previously reported, but also induces autophagosome formation, eliminating the LM that have escaped from phagosomes. We conclude that VSIG4 signaling provides an anti-immune evasion mechanism that prevents the outgrowth of intracellular bacteria in macrophages.

Components of the Engulfment Machinery Have Distinct Roles in Corpse Processing

Billions of cells die in our bodies on a daily basis and are engulfed by phagocytes. Engulfment, or phagocytosis, can be broken down into five basic steps: attraction of the phagocyte, recognition of the dying cell, internalization, phagosome maturation, and acidification. In this study, we focus on the last two steps, which can collectively be considered corpse processing, in which the engulfed material is degraded. We use the Drosophila ovarian follicle cells as a model for engulfment of apoptotic cells by epithelial cells. We show that engulfed material is processed using the canonical corpse processing pathway involving the small GTPases Rab5 and Rab7. The phagocytic receptor Draper is present on the phagocytic cup and on nascent, phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PI(3)P)- and Rab7-positive phagosomes, whereas integrins are maintained on the cell surface during engulfment. Due to the difference in subcellular localization, we investigated the role of Draper, integrins, and downstream signaling components in corpse processing. We found that some proteins were required for internalization only, while others had defects in corpse processing as well. This suggests that several of the core engulfment proteins are required for distinct steps of engulfment. We also performed double mutant analysis and found that combined loss of draper and αPS3 still resulted in a small number of engulfed vesicles. Therefore, we investigated another known engulfment receptor, Crq. We found that loss of all three receptors did not inhibit engulfment any further, suggesting that Crq does not play a role in engulfment by the follicle cells. A more complete understanding of how the engulfment and corpse processing machinery interact may enable better understanding and treatment of diseases associated with defects in engulfment by epithelial cells.

Molecular Functions of Glycoconjugates in Autophagy

Glycoconjugates, glycans, carbohydrates, and sugars: these terms encompass a class of biomolecules that are diverse in both form and function ranging from free oligosaccharides, glycoproteins, and proteoglycans, to glycolipids that make up a complex glycan code that impacts normal physiology and disease. Recent data suggest that one mechanism by which glycoconjugates impact physiology is through the regulation of the process of autophagy. Autophagy is a degradative pathway necessary for differentiation, organism development, and the maintenance of cell and tissue homeostasis. In this review, we will highlight what is known about the regulation of autophagy by glycoconjugates focusing on signaling mechanisms from the extracellular surface and the regulatory roles of intracellular glycans. Glycan signaling from the extracellular matrix converges on "master" regulators of autophagy including AMPK and mTORC1, thus impacting their localization, activity, and/or expression. Within the intracellular milieu, gangliosides are constituents of the autophagosome membrane, a subset of proteins composing the autophagic machinery are regulated by glycosylation, and oligosaccharide exposure in the cytosol triggers an autophagic response. The examples discussed provide some mechanistic insights into glycan regulation of autophagy and reveal areas for future investigation.

PtdIns(4,5)P₂ and PtdIns3P coordinate to regulate phagosomal sealing for apoptotic cell clearance

A coincidence detection mechanism regulates phagosomal sealing and couples it with phosphoinositide conversion from PtdIns(4,5)P₂ enrichment on unsealed phagosomes to PtdIns3P enrichment on fully sealed phagosomes.

Phagocytosis requires phosphoinositides (PIs) as both signaling molecules and localization cues. How PIs coordinate to control phagosomal sealing and the accompanying switch of organelle identity is unclear. In this study, we followed dynamic changes in PIs during apoptotic cell clearance in Caenorhabditis elegans. We found that phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(4,5)P₂) and phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate (PtdIns3P), which accumulate transiently on unsealed and fully sealed phagosomes, respectively, are both involved in phagosome closure. We identified PtdIns3P phosphatase MTM-1 as an effector of PtdIns(4,5)P₂ to promote phagosomal sealing. MTM-1 coordinates with the class II PI3 kinase PIKI-1 to control PtdIns3P levels on unsealed phagosomes. The SNX9 family protein LST-4 is required for sealing, and its association with unsealed phagosomes is regulated by PtdIns(4,5)P₂, PIKI-1, and MTM-1. Loss of LST-4 or its retention on phagosomes disrupts sealing and suppresses PtdIns3P accumulation, indicating close coupling of the two events. Our findings support a coincidence detection mechanism by which phagosomal sealing is regulated and coupled with conversion from PtdIns(4,5)P₂ enrichment on unsealed phagosomes to PtdIns3P enrichment on fully sealed phagosomes.

Deciphering the roles of phosphoinositide lipids in phagolysosome biogenesis

Professional phagocytes engulf microbial invaders into plasma membrane-derived phagosomes. These mature into microbicidal phagolysosomes, leading to killing of the ingested microbe. Phagosome maturation involves sequential fusion of the phagosome with early endosomes, late endosomes, and the main degradative compartments in cells, lysosomes. Some bacterial pathogens manipulate the phosphoinositide (PIP) composition of phagosome membranes and are not delivered to phagolysosomes, pointing at a role of PIPs in phagosome maturation. This hypothesis is supported by comprehensive microscopic studies. Recently, cell-free reconstitution of fusion between phagosomes and endo(lyso)somes identified phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate [PI(4)P] and phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate [PI(3)P] as key regulators of phagolysosome biogenesis. Here, we describe the emerging roles of PIPs in phagosome maturation and we present tools to study PIP involvement in phagosome trafficking using intact cells or purified compartments.

Rab GTPases and the Autophagy Pathway: Bacterial Targets for a Suitable Biogenesis and Trafficking of Their Own Vacuoles

Autophagy is an intracellular process that comprises degradation of damaged organelles, protein aggregates and intracellular pathogens, having an important role in controlling the fate of invading microorganisms. Intracellular pathogens are internalized by professional and non-professional phagocytes, localizing in compartments called phagosomes. To degrade the internalized microorganism, the microbial phagosome matures by fusion events with early and late endosomal compartments and lysosomes, a process that is regulated by Rab GTPases. Interestingly, in order to survive and replicate in the phagosome, some pathogens employ different strategies to manipulate vesicular traffic, inhibiting phagolysosomal biogenesis (e.g., Staphylococcus aureus and Mycobacterium tuberculosis) or surviving in acidic compartments and forming replicative vacuoles (e.g., Coxiellaburnetti and Legionella pneumophila). The bacteria described in this review often use secretion systems to control the host’s response and thus disseminate. To date, eight types of secretion systems (Type I to Type VIII) are known. Some of these systems are used by bacteria to translocate pathogenic proteins into the host cell and regulate replicative vacuole formation, apoptosis, cytokine responses, and autophagy. Herein, we have focused on how bacteria manipulate small Rab GTPases to control many of these processes. The growing knowledge in this field may facilitate the development of new treatments or contribute to the prevention of these types of bacterial infections.

Antimicrobial Mechanisms of Macrophages and the Immune Evasion Strategies of Staphylococcus aureus

Habitually professional phagocytes, including macrophages, eradicate microbial invaders from the human body without overt signs of infection. Despite this, there exist select bacteria that are professional pathogens, causing significant morbidity and mortality across the globe and Staphylococcus aureus is no exception. S. aureus is a highly successful pathogen that can infect virtually every tissue that comprises the human body causing a broad spectrum of diseases. The profound pathogenic capacity of S. aureus can be attributed, in part, to its ability to elaborate a profusion of bacterial effectors that circumvent host immunity. Macrophages are important professional phagocytes that contribute to both the innate and adaptive immune response, however from in vitro and in vivo studies, it is evident that they fail to eradicate S. aureus. This review provides an overview of the antimicrobial mechanisms employed by macrophages to combat bacteria and describes the immune evasion strategies and some representative effectors that enable S. aureus to evade macrophage-mediated killing.

Inositol Polyphosphate-4-Phosphatase Type I Negatively Regulates Phagocytosis via Dephosphorylation of Phagosomal PtdIns(3,4)P2

Phagocytosis is a highly conserved process whereby phagocytic cells engulf pathogens and apoptotic bodies. The present study focused on the role of inositol polyphosphate-4-phosphatase type I (Inpp4a) in phagocytosis. Raw264.7 cells that express shRNA against Inpp4a (shInpp4a cells) showed significantly increased phagocytic activity. The introduction of shRNA-resistant human Inpp4a abolished this increase. Macrophages from Inpp4a knockout mice showed similar increases in the phagocytic activity. Inpp4a was recruited to the phagosome membrane by a mechanism other than the direct interaction with Rab5. PtdIns(3,4)P2 increased on the phagosome of shInpp4a cells, while PtdIns(3)P significantly decreased. The results indicate that Inpp4a negatively regulates the phagocytic activity of macrophages as a member of the sequential dephosphorylation system that metabolizes phagosomal PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 to PtdIns(3)P.

B Cells and Programmed Death-Ligand 2 Signaling Are Required for Maximal Interferon-γ Recall Response by Splenic CD4⁺ Memory T Cells of Mice Vaccinated with Mycobacterium tuberculosis Ag85B

CD4+ T cells producing interferon-γ are crucial for protection against Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection and are the cornerstone of tuberculosis vaccination and immunological diagnostic assays. Since emerging evidence indicates that B cells can modulate T cell responses to M. tuberculosis infection, we investigated the contribution of B cells in regulating interferon-γ recall response by memory Thelper1 cells specific for Ag85B, a leading candidate for tuberculosis sub-unit vaccines. We found that B cells were able to maximize the reactivation of CD4+ memory T cells and the interferon-γ response against ex vivo antigen recall in spleens of mice vaccinated with Ag85B. B cell-mediated increase of interferon-γ response was particular evident for high interferon-γ producer CD4+ memory T cells, likely because those T cells were required for triggering and amplification of B cell activation. A positive-feedback loop of mutual activation between B cells, not necessarily antigen-experienced but with integral phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K) pathway and a peculiar interferon-γ-producing CD4highT cell subset was established. Programed death-ligand 2 (PD-L2), expressed both on B and the highly activated CD4high T cells, contributed to the increase of interferon-γ recall response through a PD1-independent pathway. In B cell-deficient mice, interferon-γ production and activation of Ag85B-specific CD4+ T cells were blunted against ex vivo antigen recall but these responses could be restored by adding B cells. On the other hand, B cells appeared to down-regulate interleukin-22 recall response. Our data point out that nature of antigen presenting cells determines quality and size of T cell cytokine recall responses. Thus, antigen presenting cells, including B cells, deserve to be considered for a better prediction of cytokine responses by peripheral memory T cells specific for M. tuberculosis antigens. We also invite to consider B cells, PD-L2 and PI3K as potential targets for therapeutic modulation of T cell cytokine responses for tuberculosis control.

Truncating mutation in the autophagy gene UVRAG confers oncogenic properties and chemosensitivity in colorectal cancers

Autophagy-related factors are implicated in metabolic adaptation and cancer metastasis. However, the role of autophagy factors in cancer progression and their effect in treatment response remain largely elusive. Recent studies have shown that UVRAG, a key autophagic tumour suppressor, is mutated in common human cancers. Here we demonstrate that the cancer-related UVRAG frameshift (FS), which does not result in a null mutation, is expressed as a truncated UVRAG(FS) in colorectal cancer (CRC) with microsatellite instability (MSI), and promotes tumorigenesis. UVRAG(FS) abrogates the normal functions of UVRAG, including autophagy, in a dominant-negative manner. Furthermore, expression of UVRAG(FS) can trigger CRC metastatic spread through Rac1 activation and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, independently of autophagy. Interestingly, UVRAG(FS) expression renders cells more sensitive to standard chemotherapy regimen due to a DNA repair defect. These results identify UVRAG as a new MSI target gene and provide a mechanism for UVRAG participation in CRC pathogenesis and treatment response.

Calcineurin orchestrates dimorphic transitions, antifungal drug responses and host-pathogen interactions of the pathogenic mucoralean fungus Mucor circinelloides

Calcineurin plays essential roles in virulence and growth of pathogenic fungi and is a target of the natural products FK506 and Cyclosporine A. In the pathogenic mucoralean fungus Mucor circinelloides, calcineurin mutation or inhibition confers a yeast-locked phenotype indicating that calcineurin governs the dimorphic transition. Genetic analysis in this study reveals that two calcineurin A catalytic subunits (out of three) are functionally diverged. Homology modeling illustrates modes of resistance resulting from amino substitutions in the interface between each calcineurin subunit and the inhibitory drugs. In addition, we show how the dimorphic transition orchestrated by calcineurin programs different outcomes during host-pathogen interactions. For example, when macrophages phagocytose Mucor yeast, subsequent phagosomal maturation occurs, indicating host cells respond appropriately to control the pathogen. On the other hand, upon phagocytosis of spores, macrophages fail to form mature phagosomes. Cytokine production from immune cells differs following exposure to yeast versus spores (which germinate into hyphae). Thus, the morphogenic transition can be targeted as an efficient treatment option against Mucor infection. In addition, genetic analysis (including gene disruption and mutational studies) further strengthens the understanding of calcineurin and provides a foundation to develop antifungal agents targeting calcineurin to deploy against Mucor and other pathogenic fungi.

Phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate and phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate regulate phagolysosome biogenesis

Professional phagocytic cells ingest microbial intruders by engulfing them into phagosomes, which subsequently mature into microbicidal phagolysosomes. Phagosome maturation requires sequential fusion of the phagosome with early endosomes, late endosomes, and lysosomes. Although various phosphoinositides (PIPs) have been detected on phagosomes, it remained unclear which PIPs actually govern phagosome maturation. Here, we analyzed the involvement of PIPs in fusion of phagosomes with various endocytic compartments and identified phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate [PI(4)P], phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate [PI(3)P], and the lipid kinases that generate these PIPs, as mediators of phagosome-lysosome fusion. Phagosome-early endosome fusion required PI(3)P, yet did not depend on PI(4)P. Thus, PI(3)P regulates phagosome maturation at early and late stages, whereas PI(4)P is selectively required late in the pathway.

A genome-wide association study in catfish reveals the presence of functional hubs of related genes within QTLs for columnaris disease resistance

Background

Columnaris causes severe mortalities among many different wild and cultured freshwater fish species, but understanding of host resistance is lacking. Catfish, the primary aquaculture species in the United States, serves as a great model for the analysis of host resistance against columnaris disease. Channel catfish in general is highly resistant to the disease while blue catfish is highly susceptible. F2 generation of hybrids can be produced where phenotypes and genotypes are segregating, providing a useful system for QTL analysis. To identify genes associated with columnaris resistance, we performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) using the catfish 250 K SNP array with 340 backcross progenies derived from crossing female channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) with male F1 hybrid catfish (female channel catfish I. punctatus × male blue catfish I. furcatus).

Results

A genomic region on linkage group 7 was found to be significantly associated with columnaris resistance. Within this region, five have known functions in immunity, including pik3r3b, cyld-like, adcyap1r1, adcyap1r1-like, and mast2. In addition, 3 additional suggestively associated QTL regions were identified on linkage groups 7, 12, and 14. The resistant genotypes on the QTLs of linkage groups 7 and 12 were found to be homozygous with both alleles being derived from channel catfish. The paralogs of the candidate genes in the suggestively associated QTL of linkage group 12 were found on the QTLs of linkage group 7. Many candidate genes on the four associated regions are involved in PI3K pathway that is known to be required by many bacteria for efficient entry into the host.

Conclusion

The GWAS revealed four QTLs associated with columnaris resistance in catfish. Strikingly, the candidate genes may be arranged as functional hubs; the candidate genes within the associated QTLs on linkage groups 7 and 12 are not only co-localized, but also functionally related, with many of them being involved in the PI3K signal transduction pathway, suggesting its importance for columnaris resistance.

Inpp5e increases the Rab5 association and phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate accumulation at the phagosome through an interaction with Rab20

Phosphoinositide 5'-phosphatases have been implicated in the regulation of phagocytosis. However, their precise roles in the phagocytic process are poorly understood. We prepared RAW264.7 macrophages deficient in Inpp5e (shInpp5e) to clarify the role of this lipid phosphatase. In the shInpp5e cells, the uptake of solid particles was increased and the rate of phagosome acidification was accelerated. As expected, levels of PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 and PtdIns(3,4)P2 were increased and decreased respectively, on the forming phagocytic cups of these cells. Unexpectedly, the most prominent consequence of the Inpp5e deficiency was the decreased accumulation of PtdIns3P and Rab5 on the phagosome. The expression of a constitutively active form of Rab5b in the shInpp5e cells rescued the PtdIns3P accumulation. Rab20 has been reported to regulate the activity of Rabex5, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Rab5. The association of Rab20 with the phagosome was remarkably abrogated in the shInpp5e cells. Over-expression of Rab20 increased phagosomal PtdIns3P accumulation and delayed its elimination. These results suggest that Inpp5e, through functional interactions with Rab20 on the phagosome, activates Rab5, which, in turn, increases PtdIns3P and delays phagosome acidification.

Molecular control of PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 signaling in neutrophils

Neutrophils play critical roles in innate immunity and host defense. However, excessive neutrophil accumulation or hyper-responsiveness of neutrophils can be detrimental to the host system. Thus, the response of neutrophils to inflammatory stimuli needs to be tightly controlled. Many cellular processes in neutrophils are mediated by localized formation of an inositol phospholipid, phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate (PtdIns(3,4,5)P3), at the plasma membrane. The PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 signaling pathway is negatively regulated by lipid phosphatases and inositol phosphates, which consequently play a critical role in controlling neutrophil function and would be expected to act as ideal therapeutic targets for enhancing or suppressing innate immune responses. Here, we comprehensively review current understanding about the action of lipid phosphatases and inositol phosphates in the control of neutrophil function in infection and inflammation.

Rab31 and APPL2 enhance FcγR-mediated phagocytosis through PI3K/Akt signaling in macrophages

Rab31 recruits APPL2 to regulate phagocytic cup closure and FcγR signaling pathways via production of PI(3,4,5)P₃ in macrophages. APPL2 is poised to activate macrophages and act as a counterpoint to APPL1 in FcγR-mediated PI3K/Akt signaling. New locations and roles are found for Rab31 and APPL2 by which they contribute to innate immune functions.

Membrane remodeling in the early stages of phagocytosis enables the engulfment of particles or pathogens and receptor signaling to activate innate immune responses. Members of the Rab GTPase family and their disparate effectors are recruited sequentially to regulate steps throughout phagocytosis. Rab31 (Rab22b) is known for regulating post-Golgi trafficking, and here we show in macrophages that Rab31-GTP is additionally and specifically recruited to early-stage phagosomes. At phagocytic cups, Rab31 is first recruited during the phosphoinositide transition from PI(4,5)P₂ to PI(3,4,5)P₃, and it persists on PI(3)P-enriched phagosomes. During early phagocytosis, we find that Rab31 recruits the signaling adaptor APPL2. siRNA depletion of either Rab31 or APPL2 reduces FcγR-mediated phagocytosis. Mechanistically, this corresponds with a delay in the transition to PI(3,4,5)P₃ and phagocytic cup closure. APPL2 depletion also reduced PI3K/Akt signaling and enhanced p38 signaling from FcγR. We thus conclude that Rab31/APPL2 is required for key roles in phagocytosis and prosurvival responses of macrophages. Of interest, in terms of localization and function, this Rab31/APPL2 complex is distinct from the Rab5/APPL1 complex, which is also involved in phagocytosis and signaling.

Regulation of the Tumor-Suppressor Function of the Class III Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase Complex by Ubiquitin and SUMO

The occurrence of cancer is often associated with a dysfunction in one of the three central membrane-involution processes—autophagy, endocytosis or cytokinesis. Interestingly, all three pathways are controlled by the same central signaling module: the class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K-III) complex and its catalytic product, the phosphorylated lipid phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PtdIns3P). The activity of the catalytic subunit of the PI3K-III complex, the lipid-kinase VPS34, requires the presence of the membrane-targeting factor VPS15 as well as the adaptor protein Beclin 1. Furthermore, a growing list of regulatory proteins associates with VPS34 via Beclin 1. These accessory factors define distinct subunit compositions and thereby guide the PI3K-III complex to its different cellular and physiological roles. Here we discuss the regulation of the PI3K-III complex components by ubiquitination and SUMOylation. Especially Beclin 1 has emerged as a highly regulated protein, which can be modified with Lys11-, Lys48- or Lys63-linked polyubiquitin chains catalyzed by distinct E3 ligases from the RING-, HECT-, RBR- or Cullin-type. We also point out other cross-links of these ligases with autophagy in order to discuss how these data might be merged into a general concept.

PI3K signalling in inflammation

PI3Ks regulate several key events in the inflammatory response to damage and infection. There are four Class I PI3K isoforms (PI3Kα,β,γ,δ), three Class II PI3K isoforms (PI3KC2α, C2β, C2γ) and a single Class III PI3K. The four Class I isoforms synthesise the phospholipid 'PIP3'. PIP3 is a 'second messenger' used by many different cell surface receptors to control cell movement, growth, survival and differentiation. These four isoforms have overlapping functions but each is adapted to receive efficient stimulation by particular receptor sub-types. PI3Kγ is highly expressed in leukocytes and plays a particularly important role in chemokine-mediated recruitment and activation of innate immune cells at sites of inflammation. PI3Kδ is also highly expressed in leukocytes and plays a key role in antigen receptor and cytokine-mediated B and T cell development, differentiation and function. Class III PI3K synthesises the phospholipid PI3P, which regulates endosome-lysosome trafficking and the induction of autophagy, pathways involved in pathogen killing, antigen processing and immune cell survival. Much less is known about the function of Class II PI3Ks, but emerging evidence indicates they can synthesise PI3P and PI34P2 and are involved in the regulation of endocytosis. The creation of genetically-modified mice with altered PI3K signalling, together with the development of isoform-selective, small-molecule PI3K inhibitors, has allowed the evaluation of the individual roles of Class I PI3K isoforms in several mouse models of chronic inflammation. Selective inhibition of PI3Kδ, γ or β has each been shown to reduce the severity of inflammation in one or more models of autoimmune disease, respiratory disease or allergic inflammation, with dual γ/δ or β/δ inhibition generally proving more effective. The inhibition of Class I PI3Ks may therefore offer a therapeutic opportunity to treat non-resolving inflammatory pathologies in humans. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Phosphoinositides.

Macrophages phagocytose nonopsonized silica particles using a unique microtubule-dependent pathway

Cells can take up particles by both opsonized and nonopsonized pathways. Silica and latex, but not zymosan, can be taken up by the nonopsonized pathway. Uptake of silica, but not latex, is toxic to macrophages. Nonopsonized phagocytosis is characterized and found to have key differences from the complement- and antibody-opsonized pathways.

Silica inhalation leads to the development of the chronic lung disease silicosis. Macrophages are killed by uptake of nonopsonized silica particles, and this is believed to play a critical role in the etiology of silicosis. However, the mechanism of nonopsonized-particle uptake is not well understood. We compared the molecular events associated with nonopsonized- and opsonized-particle phagocytosis. Both Rac and RhoA GTPases are activated upon nonopsonized-particle exposure, whereas opsonized particles activate either Rac or RhoA. All types of particles quickly generate a PI(3,4,5)P₃ and F-actin response at the particle attachment site. After formation of a phagosome, the events related to endolysosome-to-phagosome fusion do not significantly differ between the pathways. Inhibitors of tyrosine kinases, actin polymerization, and the phosphatidylinositol cascade prevent opsonized- and nonopsonized-particle uptake similarly. Inhibition of silica particle uptake prevents silica-induced cell death. Microtubule depolymerization abolished uptake of complement-opsonized and nonopsonized particles but not Ab-opsonized particles. Of interest, regrowth of microtubules allowed uptake of new nonopsonized particles but not ones bound to cells in the absence of microtubules. Although complement-mediated uptake requires macrophages to be PMA-primed, untreated cells phagocytose nonopsonized silica and latex. Thus it appears that nonopsonized-particle uptake is accomplished by a pathway with unique characteristics.

Interferon-γ inhibits group B Streptococcus survival within human endothelial cells

Endothelial dysfunction is a major component of the pathophysiology of septicaemic group B Streptococcus (GBS) infections. Although cytokines have been shown to activate human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), the capacity of interferon (IFN)-γ to enhance the microbicidal activity of HUVECs against GBS has not been studied. We report that the viability of intracellular bacteria was reduced in HUVECs activated by IFN-γ. Enhanced fusion of lysosomes with bacteria-containing vacuoles was observed by acid phosphatase and the colocalisation of Rab-5, Rab-7 and lysosomal-associated membrane protein-1 with GBS in IFN-γ-activated HUVECs. IFN-γ resulted in an enhancement of the phagosome maturation process in HUVECs, improving the capacity to control the intracellular survival of GBS.

Crosstalk between the cGAS DNA sensor and Beclin-1 autophagy protein shapes innate antimicrobial immune responses

Robust immune responses are essential for eliminating pathogens but must be metered to avoid prolonged immune activation and potential host damage. Upon recognition of microbial DNA, the cytosolic DNA sensor cyclic GMP-AMP (cGAMP) synthetase (cGAS) produces the second messenger cGAMP to initiate the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway and subsequent interferon (IFN) production. We report that the direct interaction between cGAS and the Beclin-1 autophagy protein not only suppresses cGAMP synthesis to halt IFN production upon double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) stimulation or herpes simplex virus-1 infection, but also enhances autophagy-mediated degradation of cytosolic pathogen DNA to prevent excessive cGAS activation and persistent immune stimulation. Specifically, this interaction releases Rubicon, a negative autophagy regulator, from the Beclin-1 complex, activating phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase class III activity and thereby inducing autophagy to remove cytosolic pathogen DNA. Thus, the cGAS-Beclin-1 interaction shapes innate immune responses by regulating both cGAMP production and autophagy, resulting in well-balanced antimicrobial immune responses.

Phosphoinositides in phagocytosis and macropinocytosis

Professional phagocytes provide immunoprotection and aid in the maintenance of tissue homeostasis. They perform these tasks by recognizing, engulfing and eliminating pathogens and endogenous cell debris. Here, we examine the paramount role played by phosphoinositides in phagocytosis and macropinocytosis, two major endocytic routes that mediate the uptake of particulate and fluid matter, respectively. We analyze accumulating literature describing the molecular mechanisms whereby phosphoinositides translate environmental cues into the complex, sophisticated responses that underlie the phagocytic and macropinocytic responses. In addition, we exemplify virulence strategies involving modulation of host cell phosphoinositide signaling that are employed by bacteria to undermine immunity. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Phosphoinositides.

Phosphoinositides and engulfment

Cellular engulfment of particles, cells or solutes displaces large domains of plasma membrane into intracellular membranous vacuoles. This transfer of membrane is accompanied by major transitions of the phosphoinositide (PI) species that comprise the cytoplasmic face of membrane bilayers. Mapping of membrane PIs during engulfment reveals distinct patterns of protein and PI distributions associated with each stage of engulfment, which correspond with activities that regulate the actin cytoskeleton, membrane movements and vesicle secretion. Experimental manipulation of PI chemistry during engulfment indicates that PIs integrate organelle identity and orient signal transduction cascades within confined subdomains of membrane. These pathways are exploited by microbial pathogens to direct or redirect the engulfment process.

Neutrophils at work

In this Review we discuss data demonstrating recently recognized aspects of neutrophil homeostasis in the steady state, granulopoiesis in 'emergency' conditions and interactions of neutrophils with the adaptive immune system. We explore in vivo observations of the recruitment of neutrophils from blood to tissues in models of blood-borne infections versus bacterial invasion through epithelial linings. We examine data on novel aspects of the activation of NADPH oxidase and the heterogeneity of phagosomes and, finally, consider the importance of two neutrophil-derived biological agents: neutrophil extracellular traps and ectosomes.

Mycobacteria entry and trafficking into endothelial cells

Endothelial cells are susceptible to infection by mycobacteria, but the endocytic mechanisms that mycobacteria exploit to enter host cells and their mechanisms of intracellular transport are completely unknown. Using pharmacological inhibitors, we determined that the internalization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), Mycobacterium smegmatis (MSM), and Mycobacterium abscessus (MAB) is dependent on the cytoskeleton and is differentially inhibited by cytochalasin D, nocodazole, cycloheximide, wortmannin, and amiloride. Using confocal microscopy, we investigated their endosomal trafficking by analyzing Rab5, Rab7, LAMP-1, and cathepsin D. Our results suggest that MSM exploits macropinocytosis to enter endothelial cells and that the vacuoles containing these bacteria fuse with lysosomes. Conversely, the entry of MTB seems to depend on more than one endocytic route, and the observation that only a subset of the intracellular bacilli was associated with phagolysosomes suggests that these bacteria are able to inhibit endosomal maturation to persist intracellularly. The route of entry for MAB depends mainly on microtubules, which suggests that MAB uses a different trafficking pathway. However, MAB is also able to inhibit endosomal maturation and can replicate intracellularly. Together, these findings provide the first evidence that mycobacteria modulate proteins of host endothelial cells to enter and persist within these cells.

VipD is a Rab5-activated phospholipase A1 that protects Legionella pneumophila from endosomal fusion

A crucial step in the elimination of invading microbes by macrophages is phagosomal maturation through heterotypic endosomal fusion. This process is controlled by the guanine nucleotide binding protein Rab5, which assembles protein microdomains that include the tethering protein early endosomal antigen (EEA) 1 and the phosphatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase hVps34, which generates PI(3)P, a phospholipid required for membrane association of EEA1 and other fusion factors. During infection of macrophages, the pathogen Legionella pneumophila bypasses the microbicidal endosomal compartment by an unknown mechanism. Here, we show that the effector protein VipD from L. pneumophila exhibits phospholipase A1 activity that is activated only upon binding to endosomal Rab5 or Rab22. Within mammalian cells, VipD localizes to endosomes and catalyzes the removal of PI(3)P from endosomal membranes. EEA1 and other transport and fusion factors are consequently depleted from endosomes, rendering them fusion-incompetent. During host cell infection, VipD reduces exposure of L. pneumophila to the endosomal compartment and protects their surrounding vacuoles from acquiring Rab5. Thus, by catalyzing PI(3)P depletion in a Rab5-dependent manner, VipD alters the protein composition of endosomes thereby blocking fusion with Legionella-containing vacuoles.

A genomewide overexpression screen identifies genes involved in the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathway in the human protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica

Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite that causes amoebic dysentery and liver abscess. E. histolytica relies on motility, phagocytosis, host cell adhesion, and proteolysis of extracellular matrix for virulence. In eukaryotic cells, these processes are mediated in part by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling. Thus, PI3K may be critical for virulence. We utilized a functional genomics approach to identify genes whose products may operate in the PI3K pathway in E. histolytica. We treated a population of trophozoites that were overexpressing genes from a cDNA library with a near-lethal dose of the PI3K inhibitor wortmannin. This screen was based on the rationale that survivors would be overexpressing gene products that directly or indirectly function in the PI3K pathway. We sequenced the overexpressed genes in survivors and identified a cDNA encoding a Rap GTPase, a protein previously shown to participate in the PI3K pathway. This supports the validity of our approach. Genes encoding a coactosin-like protein, EhCoactosin, and a serine-rich E. histolytica protein (SREHP) were also identified. Cells overexpressing EhCoactosin or SREHP were also less sensitive to a second PI3K inhibitor, LY294002. This corroborates the link between these proteins and PI3K. Finally, a mutant cell line with an increased level of phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-triphosphate, the product of PI3K activity, exhibited increased expression of SREHP and EhCoactosin. This further supports the functional connection between these proteins and PI3K in E. histolytica. To our knowledge, this is the first forward-genetics screen adapted to reveal genes participating in a signal transduction pathway in this pathogen.

Identification of an immune-regulated phagosomal Rab cascade in macrophages

Interferon-γ (IFN-γ) has been shown to regulate phagosome trafficking and function in macrophages, but the molecular mechanisms involved are poorly understood. Here, we identify Rab20 as part of the machinery by which IFN-γ controls phagosome maturation. We found that IFN-γ stimulates the association of Rab20 with early phagosomes in macrophages. By using imaging of single phagosomes in live cells, we found that Rab20 induces an early delay in phagosome maturation and extends the time for which Rab5a and phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PI3P) remain associated with phagosomes. Moreover, Rab20 depletion in macrophages abrogates the delay in phagosome maturation induced by IFN-γ. Finally, we demonstrate that Rab20 interacts with the Rab5a guanine nucleotide exchange factor Rabex-5 (also known as RABGEF1) and that Rab20 knockdown impairs the IFN-γ-dependent recruitment of Rabex-5 and Rab5a into phagosomes. Taken together, here, we uncover Rab20 as a key player in the Rab cascade by which IFN-γ induces a delay in phagosome maturation in macrophages.

Sorting through the roles of beclin 1 in microglia and neurodegeneration

Beclin 1 has a well-established role in regulating autophagy, a cellular degradation pathway. Although the yeast ortholog of beclin 1 (Atg6/Vps30) was discovered to also regulate vacuolar protein sorting nearly 30 years ago, the varied functions of beclin 1 in mammalian cells are only beginning to be sorted out. We recently described a role for beclin 1 in regulating recycling of phagocytic receptors in microglia, a function analogous to that of its yeast ortholog. Microglia lacking beclin 1 have a reduced phagocytic capacity, which impairs clearance of amyloid β (Aβ) in a mouse model of Alzheimer's Disease (AD). Here we summarize these findings and discuss the implications for beclin 1-regulated receptor recycling in neurodegenerative disease.

Skeletal muscle autophagy: a new metabolic regulator

Autophagy classically functions as a physiological process to degrade cytoplasmic components, protein aggregates, and/or organelles, as a mechanism for nutrient breakdown, and as a regulator of cellular architecture. Proper autophagic flux is vital for both functional skeletal muscle, which controls the support and movement of the skeleton, and muscle metabolism. The role of autophagy as a metabolic regulator in muscle has been previously studied; however, the underlying molecular mechanisms that control autophagy in skeletal muscle have only recently begun to emerge. We review recent literature on the molecular pathways controlling skeletal muscle autophagy and discuss how they connect autophagy to metabolic regulation. We also focus on the implications these studies hold for understanding metabolic and muscle-wasting diseases.

Interactions between Mytilus galloprovincialis hemocytes and the bivalve pathogens Vibrio aestuarianus 01/032 and Vibrio splendidus LGP32

Marine bivalves can accumulate large numbers of bacteria, in particular Vibrio species, whose persistence in bivalve tissues largely depends on their sensitivity to the bactericidal activity of circulating hemocytes and hemolymph soluble factors. The interactions between vibrios and hemolymph have been investigated, in particular in bivalve species susceptible to infection by certain Vibrio spp. and strains. In this work, the effects of two bivalve pathogens, Vibrio splendidus LGP32 (V.s.) and Vibrio aestuarianus 01/032 (V.a.), isolated from oyster mortality outbreaks, on the hemocytes of Mytilus galloprovincialis were investigated. In vitro, V.s., but not V.a., induced a dramatic decrease in lysosomal membrane stability-LMS in the hemocytes; both vibrios induced a moderate lysozyme release, with V.s. > V.a.. The V.s.-induced decrease in LMS was mediated by activation of PI-3Kinase, as shown by use of different kinase inhibitors. TEM analysis showed rapid internalization of both vibrios; however, V.s. lead to cellular and lysosomal damage and was able to survive within the hemocytes, whereas significant killing of V.a. was observed. In vivo, in mussels challenged with either vibrio and sampled at 6, 24 and 96 h post-injection, transient decreases in hemocyte LMS and progressive increases in serum lysozyme activity were observed, with V.s. > V.a.. Moreover, whereas V.a. was efficiently cleared from hemolymph, V.s. showed significant growth, that was maximal at 24 h p.i. when lowest LMS values were recorded in the hemocytes. Both vibrios also induced significant decreases in LMS in the digestive gland, again with V.s. > V.a.. The results indicate distinct interactions between mussel hemocytes and the two vibrio strains tested. The effects of V.s. may be due to the capacity of this strain to interfere with the signaling pathways involved in hemocyte function, thus escaping the bactericidal activity of the host cell, as observed for certain mammalian pathogens. Although V.s. is considered not pathogenic to Mytilus, this vibrio strain can affect the lysosomal function at the cellular and tissue level, thus leading to stressful conditions.

Microglial beclin 1 regulates retromer trafficking and phagocytosis and is impaired in Alzheimer's disease

Phagocytosis controls CNS homeostasis by facilitating the removal of unwanted cellular debris. Accordingly, impairments in different receptors or proteins involved in phagocytosis result in enhanced inflammation and neurodegeneration. While various studies have identified extrinsic factors that modulate phagocytosis in health and disease, key intracellular regulators are less understood. Here we show that the autophagy protein beclin 1 is required for efficient phagocytosis in vitro and in mouse brains. Furthermore, we show that beclin 1-mediated impairments in phagocytosis are associated with dysfunctional recruitment of retromer to phagosomal membranes, reduced retromer levels, and impaired recycling of phagocytic receptors CD36 and Trem2. Interestingly, microglia isolated from human Alzheimer's disease (AD) brains show significantly reduced beclin 1 and retromer protein levels. These findings position beclin 1 as a link between autophagy, retromer trafficking, and receptor-mediated phagocytosis and provide insight into mechanisms by which phagocytosis is regulated and how it may become impaired in AD.

Coxiella burnetii exploits host cAMP-dependent protein kinase signalling to promote macrophage survival

Intracellular bacterial pathogens often subvert apoptosis signalling to regulate survival of their host cell, allowing propagation of the bacterial population. Coxiella burnetii, the intracellular agent of human Q fever, inhibits host cell apoptosis through several mechanisms, including prevention of mitochondrial cytochrome c release, triggering of an anti-apoptotic transcriptional programme, and activation of pro-survival kinases. To control host cell survival, C. burnetii delivers effector proteins to the eukaryotic cytosol using a specialized Dot/Icm type IV secretion system (T4SS). Effectors are predicted to regulate activity of pro-survival host signalling proteins, such as Akt and cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), to control infection. Here, we show that host PKA activity is required for C. burnetii inhibition of macrophage apoptosis. PKA is activated during infection and inhibits activity of the pro-apoptotic protein Bad via phosphorylation. Bad is also phosphorylated at an Akt-specific residue, indicating C. burnetii uses two kinases to fully inactivate Bad. Additionally, Bad and the tethering protein 14-3-3β colocalize at the C. burnetii parasitophorous vacuole (PV) membrane during infection, an event predicted to alter Bad promotion of apoptosis. Inhibiting PKA activity prevents Bad recruitment to the PV, but the protein is retained at the membrane during induction of apoptosis. Finally, PKA regulatory subunit I (RI) traffics to the PV membrane in a T4SS-dependent manner, suggesting a C. burnetii effector(s) regulates PKA-dependent activities. This study is the first to demonstrate subversion of host PKA activity by an intracellular bacterial pathogen to prevent apoptosis and survive within macrophages.

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus K7 modulates Rubicon-mediated inhibition of autophagosome maturation

Autophagy is an important innate safeguard mechanism for protecting an organism against invasion by pathogens. We have previously discovered that Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) evades this host defense through tight suppression of autophagy by targeting multiple steps of autophagy signal transduction. Here, we report that KSHV K7 protein interacts with Rubicon autophagy protein and inhibits the autophagosome maturation step by blocking Vps34 enzymatic activity, further highlighting how KSHV deregulates autophagy-mediated host immunity for its life cycle.

Cross talk between the Akt and p38α pathways in macrophages downstream of Toll-like receptor signaling

The stimulation of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) on macrophages by pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) results in the activation of intracellular signaling pathways that are required for initiating a host immune response. Both phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-Akt and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways are activated rapidly in response to TLR activation and are required to coordinate effective host responses to pathogen invasion. In this study, we analyzed the role of the p38-dependent kinases MK2/3 in the activation of Akt and show that lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced phosphorylation of Akt on Thr308 and Ser473 requires p38α and MK2/3. In cells treated with p38 inhibitors or an MK2/3 inhibitor, phosphorylation of Akt on Ser473 and Thr308 is reduced and Akt activity is inhibited. Furthermore, BMDMs deficient in MK2/3 display greatly reduced phosphorylation of Ser473 and Thr308 following TLR stimulation. However, MK2/3 do not directly phosphorylate Akt in macrophages but act upstream of PDK1 and mTORC2 to regulate Akt phosphorylation. Akt is recruited to phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate (PIP3) in the membrane, where it is activated by PDK1 and mTORC2. Analysis of lipid levels in MK2/3-deficient bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) revealed a role for MK2/3 in regulating Akt activity by affecting availability of PIP3 at the membrane. These data describe a novel role for p38α-MK2/3 in regulating TLR-induced Akt activation in macrophages.

Proteomic and systems biology analysis of the monocyte response to Coxiella burnetii infection

Coxiella burnetii is an obligate intracellular bacterial pathogen and the causative agent of Q fever. Chronic Q fever can produce debilitating fatigue and C. burnetii is considered a significant bioterror threat. C. burnetii occupies the monocyte phagolysosome and although prior work has explained features of the host-pathogen interaction, many aspects are still poorly understood. We have conducted a proteomic investigation of human Monomac I cells infected with the Nine Mile Phase II strain of C. burnetii and used the results as a framework for a systems biology model of the host response. Our principal methodology was multiplex differential 2D gel electrophoresis using ZDyes, a new generation of covalently linked fluorescent protein detection dyes under development at Montana State University. The 2D gel analysis facilitated the detection of changes in posttranslational modifications on intact proteins in response to infection. The systems model created from our data a framework for the design of experiments to seek a deeper understanding of the host-pathogen interactions.

Secreted acid phosphatase (SapM) of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is indispensable for arresting phagosomal maturation and growth of the pathogen in guinea pig tissues

Tuberculosis (TB) is responsible for nearly 1.4 million deaths globally every year and continues to remain a serious threat to human health. The problem is further complicated by the growing incidence of multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) and extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB), emphasizing the need for the development of new drugs against this disease. Phagosomal maturation arrest is an important strategy employed by Mycobacterium tuberculosis to evade the host immune system. Secretory acid phosphatase (SapM) of M.tuberculosis is known to dephosphorylate phosphotidylinositol 3-phosphate (PI3P) present on phagosomes. However, there have been divergent reports on the involvement of SapM in phagosomal maturation arrest in mycobacteria. This study was aimed at reascertaining the involvement of SapM in phagosomal maturation arrest in M.tuberculosis. Further, for the first time, we have also studied whether SapM is essential for the pathogenesis of M.tuberculosis. By deleting the sapM gene of M.tuberculosis, we demonstrate that MtbΔsapM is defective in the arrest of phagosomal maturation as well as for growth in human THP-1 macrophages. We further show that MtbΔsapM is severely attenuated for growth in the lungs and spleen of guinea pigs and has a significantly reduced ability to cause pathological damage in the host when compared with the parental strain. Also, the guinea pigs infected with MtbΔsapM exhibited a significantly enhanced survival when compared with M.tuberculosis infected animals. The importance of SapM in phagosomal maturation arrest as well as in the pathogenesis of M.tuberculosis establishes it as an attractive target for the development of new therapeutic molecules against tuberculosis.

Phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate, a lipid that regulates membrane dynamics, protein sorting and cell signalling

Phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PtdIns3P) is generated on the cytosolic leaflet of cellular membranes, primarily by phosphorylation of phosphatidylinositol by class II and class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases. The bulk of this lipid is found on the limiting and intraluminal membranes of endosomes, but it can also be detected in domains of phagosomes, autophagosome precursors, cytokinetic bridges, the plasma membrane and the nucleus. PtdIns3P controls cellular functions through recruitment of specific protein effectors, many of which contain FYVE or PX domains. Cellular processes known to be controlled by PtdIns3P and its effectors include endosomal fusion, sorting and motility, autophagy, cytokinesis, regulated exocytosis and signal transduction. Here we discuss how Ptdins3P is generated on specific cellular membranes, how its localizations and functions can be studied, and how its effectors serve to control cellular functions.

Diacylglycerol kinases terminate diacylglycerol signaling during the respiratory burst leading to heterogeneous phagosomal NADPH oxidase activation

It is commonly assumed that all phagosomes have identical molecular composition. This assumption has remained largely unchallenged due to a paucity of methods to distinguish individual phagosomes. We devised an assay that extends the utility of nitro blue tetrazolium for detection and quantification of NAPDH oxidase (NOX) activity in individual phagosomes. Implementation of this assay revealed that in murine macrophages there is heterogeneity in the ability of individual phagosomes to generate superoxide, both between and within cells. To elucidate the molecular basis of the variability in NOX activation, we employed genetically encoded fluorescent biosensors to evaluate the uniformity in the distribution of phospholipid mediators of the oxidative response. Despite variability in superoxide generation, the distribution of phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate, phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate, and phosphatidic acid was nearly identical in all phagosomes. In contrast, diacylglycerol (DAG) was not generated uniformly across the phagosomal population, varying in a manner that directly mirrored superoxide production. Modulation of DAG levels suggested that NOX activation is precluded when phagosomes fail to reach a critical DAG concentration. In particular, forced expression of diacylglycerol kinase β abrogated DAG accumulation at the phagosome, leading to impaired respiratory burst. Conversely, pharmacological inhibition of DAG kinases or expression of an inactive diacylglycerol kinase β mutant increased the proportion of DAG-positive phagosomes, concomitantly potentiating phagosomal NOX activity. Our data suggest that diacylglycerol kinases limit the extent of NADPH oxidase activation, curtailing the production of potentially harmful reactive oxygen species. The resulting heterogeneity in phagosome responsiveness could enable the survival of a fraction of invading microorganisms.

Dormant Mycobacterium tuberculosis fails to block phagosome maturation and shows unexpected capacity to stimulate specific human T lymphocytes

Dormancy is defined as a stable but reversible nonreplicating state of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is currently thought that dormant M. tuberculosis (D-Mtb) is responsible for latent tuberculosis (TB) infection. Recently, D-Mtb was also shown in sputa of patients with active TB, but the capacity of D-Mtb to stimulate specific immune responses was not investigated. We observed that purified protein derivative-specific human CD4(+) T lymphocytes recognize mycobacterial Ags more efficiently when macrophages are infected with D-Mtb instead of replicating M. tuberculosis (R-Mtb). The different Ag recognition occurs even when the two forms of mycobacteria equally infect and stimulate macrophages, which secrete the same cytokine pattern and express MHC class I and II molecules at the same levels. However, D-Mtb but not R-Mtb colocalizes with mature phagolysosome marker LAMP-1 and with vacuolar proton ATPase in macrophages. D-Mtb, unlike R-Mtb, is unable to interfere with phagosome pH and does not inhibit the proteolytic efficiency of macrophages. We show that D-Mtb downmodulates the gene Rv3875 encoding for ESAT-6, which is required by R-Mtb to block phagosome maturation together with Rv3310 gene product SapM, previously shown to be downregulated in D-Mtb. Thus, our results indicate that D-Mtb cannot escape MHC class II Ag-processing pathway because it lacks the expression of genes required to block the phagosome maturation. Data suggest that switching to dormancy not only represents a mechanism of survival in latent TB infection, but also a M. tuberculosis strategy to modulate the immune response in different stages of TB.

PI 3-kinase independent role for AKT in F-actin regulation during outer segment phagocytosis by RPE cells

Daily phagocytosis of photoreceptor outer segment fragments (POS) by the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is essential for vision. RPE cells use an uptake machinery that is highly similar to the one macrophages use to phagocytose apoptotic cells. In both forms of phagocytosis, particle binding induces phagocyte signaling that is required for F-actin assembly and re-arrangement beneath bound particles. Macrophage binding of apoptotic cells stimulates PI3 kinases (PI3K) and AKT kinases (AKT), which may be downstream of PI3K, and PI3K inhibition decreases engulfment. Here, we used specific inhibitory agents to investigate whether and how PI3K and AKT contribute to RPE phagocytosis. Either PI3K or AKT inhibition eliminated AKT activation by RPE cells in response to POS and increased the numbers of POS bound by RPE cells. Analyzing the quality of bound POS, we found a higher fraction of POS associated with F-actin phagocytic cups and myosin II in RPE receiving AKT inhibitor. In these cells, individual POS also recruited more F-actin and myosin II than POS in control cells. In contrast, PI3K inhibition did not alter frequency of phagocytic cups but individual cups contained less F-actin (but similar levels of myosin II) compared to control cups. Annexin AII, another phagocytic cup protein of RPE cells, associated with bound POS regardless of inhibitor treatment. POS engulfment proceeded normally if cells already carried surface-bound POS when receiving inhibitors. However, PI3K inhibition during POS binding blocked subsequent POS engulfment. In striking contrast, AKT inhibition had no effect on POS engulfment. Taken together, these results suggest distinct regulatory roles of PI3K and AKT during POS phagocytosis by RPE cells.