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Archer JRH, Dargan PI, Hudson S, Davies S, Puchnarewicz M, Kicman AT, Ramsey J, Measham F, Wood M, Johnston A, Wood DM. Taking the Pissoir – a novel and reliable way of knowing what drugs are being used in nightclubs. JOURNAL OF SUBSTANCE USE 2013. [DOI: 10.3109/14659891.2012.740139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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102
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Lesiak AD, Musah RA, Cody RB, Domin MA, Dane AJ, Shepard JRE. Direct analysis in real time mass spectrometry (DART-MS) of "bath salt" cathinone drug mixtures. Analyst 2013; 138:3424-32. [PMID: 23636110 DOI: 10.1039/c3an00360d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Rapid and versatile direct analysis in real time mass spectrometry (DART-MS) methods were developed for detection and characterization of synthetic cathinone designer drugs, also known as "bath salts". The speed and efficiency associated with DART-MS testing of such highly unpredictable samples demonstrate the technique as an attractive alternative to conventional GC-MS and LC-MS methods. A series of isobaric and closely related synthetic cathinones, alone and in mixtures, were differentiated using high mass accuracy and in-source collision induced dissociation (CID). Crime laboratories have observed a dramatic rise in the use of these substances, which has caused sample testing backlogs, particularly since the myriad of structurally related compounds are challenging to efficiently differentiate. This challenge is compounded by the perpetual emergence of new structural variants as soon as older generation derivatives become scheduled. Because of the numerous chemical substances that fall into these categories, along with the varying composition and complexity of mixtures of these drugs, DART-MS CID has the potential to dramatically streamline sample analysis, minimize the number of sample preparation steps, and enable rapid characterization of emerging structural analogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashton D Lesiak
- Department of Chemistry, University at Albany, State University of New York (SUNY), 1400 Washington Ave., Albany, NY 12222, USA
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103
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Since 2004, a new wave of synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) known as "Spice drugs" has come under scrutiny because of their suspected link to neurological and psychiatric sequelae. These "herbal incense" or "potpourri blends" have gained popularity as a result of being more potent than natural cannabinoids, are not detected with current screening tests, and are easily modified by manufacturers to bypass legal restrictions. Unfortunately, cases of withdrawal phenomena, nausea, hypertension, and psychosis are now being reported in the medical literature. In addition, after reports in lay media of seizures and coma attributed to the consumption of the drug, anecdotal reports have emerged of similar findings in the medical literature. CASE DESCRIPTION We report on a 48-year-old man who, after consuming the herbal blend, lost consciousness and suffered several episodes of seizures. Despite a complicated ICU stay, the patient recovered well with no subsequent neurological sequelae. CONCLUSIONS The authors interpreted the history and findings consistent with the consumption of a large amount of synthetic cannabinoids leading to new-onset seizures and coma. However, at the time of admission, the lack of routine laboratory testing and treatment options delayed the diagnosis and delivery of appropriate therapy.
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104
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Arunotayanun W, Dalley JW, Huang XP, Setola V, Treble R, Iversen L, Roth BL, Gibbons S. An analysis of the synthetic tryptamines AMT and 5-MeO-DALT: emerging 'Novel Psychoactive Drugs'. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2013; 23:3411-5. [PMID: 23602445 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2013.03.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2013] [Revised: 03/18/2013] [Accepted: 03/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Novel Psychoactive Drugs (NPD) can be sold without restriction and are often synthetic analogues of controlled drugs. The tryptamines are an important class of NPD as they bind to the various serotonin (5-HT) receptor subtypes and cause psychosis and hallucinations that can lead to injury or death through misadventure. Here we report on the structure elucidation and receptor binding profiles of two widely marketed tryptamine-derived NPDs, namely alpha-methyl-tryptamine and 5-methoxy-N,N-diallyl-tryptamine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Warunya Arunotayanun
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biological Chemistry, UCL School of Pharmacy, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, UK
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105
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Herzig DA, Brooks R, Mohr C. Inferring about individual drug and schizotypy effects on cognitive functioning in polydrug using mephedrone users before and after clubbing. Hum Psychopharmacol 2013; 28:168-82. [PMID: 23532749 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2012] [Accepted: 02/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Mephedrone has been recently made illegal in Europe, but little empirical evidence is available on its impact on human cognitive functions. We investigated acute and chronic effects of mephedrone consumption on drug-sensitive cognitive measures, while also accounting for the influence of associated additional drug use and personality features. METHOD Twenty-six volunteers from the general population performed tasks measuring verbal learning, verbal fluency and cognitive flexibility before and after a potential drug-taking situation (pre-clubbing and post-clubbing at dance clubs, respectively). Participants also provided information on chronic and recent drug use, schizotypal (Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences) and depressive symptoms (Beck Depression Inventory), sleep pattern and premorbid IQ. RESULTS We found that (i) mephedrone users performed worse than non-users pre-clubbing and deteriorated from the pre-clubbing to the post-clubbing assessment; (ii) pre-clubbing cannabis and amphetamine (not mephedrone) use predicted relative cognitive attenuations; (iii) post-clubbing, depression scores predicted relative cognitive attenuations; and (iv) schizotypy was largely unrelated to cognitive functioning, apart from a negative relationship between cognitive disorganisation and verbal fluency. CONCLUSION Results suggest that polydrug use and depressive symptoms in the general population negatively affect cognition. For schizotypy, only elevated cognitive disorganisation showed potential links to a pathological cognitive profile previously reported along the psychosis dimension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela A Herzig
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.
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106
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Norman J, Grace S, Lloyd C. Legal high groups on the internet – The creation of new organized deviant groups? DRUGS-EDUCATION PREVENTION AND POLICY 2013. [DOI: 10.3109/09687637.2013.769500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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107
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Wood DM, Dargan PI. Understanding how data triangulation identifies acute toxicity of novel psychoactive drugs. J Med Toxicol 2013; 8:300-3. [PMID: 22581465 DOI: 10.1007/s13181-012-0241-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the last decade, there has been an increase in the availability and use of novel psychoactive substances (also known as "legal highs"). There is limited information available on the potential acute toxicity (harms) associated with the use of these novel psychoactive substances. Gold standard evidence, such as animal studies or human clinical trials, is rarely available to users or healthcare professionals. However, it is possible to use triangulation of data on the acute toxicity from multiple sources to describe the overall pattern of toxicity associated with a novel psychoactive substance. In this review, we will describe these potential data sources, which include self-reported toxicity on internet discussion fora, data from sub-population user surveys, data from regional and national poisons information services and published case reports and case series. We will then describe how pattern of acute toxicity associated with the use of the cathinone mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone) was established using triangulation of these different data sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- D M Wood
- Clinical Toxicology Service, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's Health Partners, London, UK.
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108
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Fornís Espinosa I, Vidal Giné C, Caudevilla Gálligo F, Ventura Vilamala M. Nuevas drogas de síntesis: legal highs en España (2010-2012). Med Clin (Barc) 2013; 140:189-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.medcli.2012.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2012] [Revised: 06/26/2012] [Accepted: 06/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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109
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Archer JRH, Dargan PI, Hudson S, Wood DM. Analysis of anonymous pooled urine from portable urinals in central London confirms the significant use of novel psychoactive substances. QJM 2013. [PMID: 23178933 DOI: 10.1093/qjmed/hcs219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM Analysis of urine samples collected across a city centre, for the detection of novel psychoactive substances (NPS). DESIGN Cross-sectional study of anonymized urine samples used for the analysis of classical recreational drugs, NPS and metabolites. METHODS Pooled urine samples collected from portable stand-alone four-person urinals across a city centre were analysed using full-scan accurate-mass high-resolution liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. Data were processed against compound databases containing >1700 drug compounds and metabolites. RESULTS Seven established recreational drugs (3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, cocaine, cannabis, ketamine, 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine, methamphetamine and amphetamine) and six potential NPS [hordenine (all 12 urinals), cathine (11), methylhexaneamine (9), 4-methylmethcathinone (6), methiopropamine and metabolites (2) and methoxetamine and metabolites (1)] were detected. Methylhexaneamine, methiopropamine and hordenine are currently uncontrolled in the UK, whereas methoxetamine is currently subject to a Temporary Class Drug Order. Metabolites of the anabolic steroid nandrolone were found in two urinals and trenbolone metabolites and clenbuterol in one urinal. CONCLUSION Analysis of pooled urine samples collected anonymously from stand-alone urinals in a large inner city can detect the use of recreational drugs, NPS and anabolic steroids. Metabolite detection indicates actual drug use, metabolism and elimination rather than simply discarded drugs in the urinals. This technique by confirming the actual drug(s) used has the potential to be additive to currently used datasets/key indicators providing more robust information for healthcare authorities, legislative and law enforcement on the drugs actually being used.
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Affiliation(s)
- J R H Archer
- Medical Toxicology Office, 3rd Floor, Block C, South Wing, St Thomas' Hospital, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, Westminster Bridge Road, London, SE1 7EH, UK.
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110
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Wood DM, Dargan PI. Mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone): what is new in our understanding of its use and toxicity. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2012; 39:227-33. [PMID: 22564711 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2012.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2012] [Revised: 04/19/2012] [Accepted: 04/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone) is a synthetic cathinone that has been used as a recreational drug in Europe and elsewhere in the world since 2007. In addition to published scientific papers there are a number of different data sources available which provide information on the sources, availability and prevalence of use of mephedrone. Whilst there are no formal human studies to determine the acute toxicity of mephedrone, there is a range of different levels of data available which describe the acute toxicity of mephedrone. These include user Internet discussion fora, sub-population level surveys of user previous experiences of acute toxicity and individual case reports and case series of toxicity related to both self-reported and analytically confirmed mephedrone use. In this review article we describe how through the process of data triangulation using a combination of these different sources, it is possible to develop an understanding of the acute toxicity of mephedrone. This demonstrates that mephedrone has a pattern of acute toxicity that is similar to other stimulant drugs such as MDMA, amphetamine and cocaine.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Wood
- Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK.
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111
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Cardiovascular toxicity of novel psychoactive drugs: lessons from the past. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2012; 39:244-52. [PMID: 22580238 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2012.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2012] [Revised: 04/30/2012] [Accepted: 05/01/2012] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The long use of ephedrine, amphetamines, cocaine, LSD and more recently 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine (MDMA; "Ecstasy") allows us to predict with some confidence what cardiovascular risks are likely to be associated with novel psychoactive substances (NPS). Once the probably multiple biological activities of a compound are known it is possible to define the likely risks of cardiovascular toxicity. Agonists of 5-HT(2A) receptors or alpha-adrenoceptors may cause vasoconstriction and tissue ischemia. Drugs which have agonist affinity for 5-HT(2B) receptors will probably promote heart valve fibrosis leading to heart failure. Compounds that interfere with uptake of dopamine or 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) are likely to also have effects on noradrenergic neurotransmission and lead to sympathomimetic effects on the heart and vasculature. Drugs that cause dopamine release, or inhibit uptake are likely to be addictive and lead to chronic use. Other drugs (particularly the so-called empathogens) are associated with weekly usage in social settings; over time such use can lead to cardiovascular harm. Defining which of these effects NPS have is an important element of predicting the harm they may cause and informing those appointed to introduce regulations to control them.
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112
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Lindsay L, White ML. Herbal Marijuana Alternatives and Bath Salts—“Barely Legal” Toxic Highs. CLINICAL PEDIATRIC EMERGENCY MEDICINE 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cpem.2012.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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113
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114
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Affiliation(s)
- D M Wood
- Clinical Toxicology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's Health Partners and King's College London, London, UK.
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115
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McGraw M, McGraw L. Bath salts: not as harmless as they sound. J Emerg Nurs 2012; 38:582-8. [PMID: 23040164 DOI: 10.1016/j.jen.2012.07.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2011] [Revised: 07/27/2012] [Accepted: 07/28/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mark McGraw
- Critical Care TransportTeam, Christiana Care Health System, Newark, DE, USA.
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116
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Abstract
There have been increasing reports in the popular and scientific media of the use of drugs called “Bath Salts”. These drugs have nothing to do with ordinary bath salts but are synthetic ring substituted cathinones. The main drugs encountered are mephedrone, methylone and 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). Most reports involve the drug mephedrone, which has been popular in Europe but “Bath Salt” cases are also seen in North America. These drugs have sympathomimetic effects and the reported deaths have had similar histories to other stimulant drugs. This review examines the use of “Bath Salts”, particularly mephedrone and its clinical effects and toxicology, along with reported autopsy findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Milroy
- Forensic Pathologist with the Eastern Ontario Regional Forensic Pathology Unit, The Ottawa Hospital and The University of Ottawa in Ottawa, Canada
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117
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Ross EA, Reisfield GM, Watson MC, Chronister CW, Goldberger BA. Psychoactive "bath salts" intoxication with methylenedioxypyrovalerone. Am J Med 2012; 125:854-8. [PMID: 22682791 DOI: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2012.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2012] [Revised: 02/02/2012] [Accepted: 02/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Abuse of the psychoactive "designer drug" methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) has become a serious international public health concern because of the severity of its physical and behavioral toxicities. MDPV is the primary ingredient in so-called "bath salts," labeled as such to avoid criminal prosecution and has only been classified recently as a controlled substance in the United States and some other countries. However, it remains a danger because of illegal sources, including the Internet. MDPV is a synthetic, cathinone-derivative, central nervous system stimulant and is taken to produce a cocaine- or methamphetamine-like high. Administered via oral ingestion, nasal insufflation, smoking, intravenous or intramuscular methods, or the rectum, the intoxication lasts 6 to 8 hours and has high addictive potential. Overdoses are characterized by profound toxicities, causing increased attention by emergency department and law enforcement personnel. Physical manifestations range from tachycardia, hypertension, arrhythmias, hyperthermia, sweating, rhabdomyolysis, and seizures to those as severe as stroke, cerebral edema, cardiorespiratory collapse, myocardial infarction, and death. Behavioral effects include panic attacks, anxiety, agitation, severe paranoia, hallucinations, psychosis, suicidal ideation, self-mutilation, and behavior that is aggressive, violent, and self-destructive. Treatment is principally supportive and focuses on counteracting the sympathetic overstimulation, including sedation with intravenous benzodiazepines, seizure-prevention measures, intravenous fluids, close (eg, intensive care unit) monitoring, and restraints to prevent harm to self or others. Clinical presentation is often complicated by coingestion of other psychoactive substances that may alter the treatment approach. Clinicians need to be especially vigilant in that MDPV is not detected by routine drug screens and overdoses can be life-threatening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward A Ross
- Division of Nephrology, Hypertension, and Renal Transplantation, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, USA.
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118
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Kee CL, Lai CS, Ge X, Low MY, Ciolino LA. Partial conversion of methanol to formaldehyde in the gas chromatography injection port and reactivity with amines. J Chromatogr A 2012; 1257:158-70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2012] [Revised: 07/31/2012] [Accepted: 08/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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119
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Rosenbaum CD, Carreiro SP, Babu KM. Here today, gone tomorrow…and back again? A review of herbal marijuana alternatives (K2, Spice), synthetic cathinones (bath salts), kratom, Salvia divinorum, methoxetamine, and piperazines. J Med Toxicol 2012; 8:15-32. [PMID: 22271566 DOI: 10.1007/s13181-011-0202-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite their widespread Internet availability and use, many of the new drugs of abuse remain unfamiliar to health care providers. The herbal marijuana alternatives, like K2 or Spice, are a group of herbal blends that contain a mixture of plant matter in addition to chemical grade synthetic cannabinoids. The synthetic cathinones, commonly called "bath salts," have resulted in nationwide emergency department visits for severe agitation, sympathomimetic toxicity, and death. Kratom, a plant product derived from Mitragyna speciosa Korth, has opioid-like effects, and has been used for the treatment of chronic pain and amelioration of opioid-withdrawal symptoms. Salvia divinorum is a hallucinogen with unique pharmacology that has therapeutic potential but has been banned in many states due to concerns regarding its psychiatric effects. Methoxetamine has recently become available via the Internet and is marked as "legal ketamine." Moreover, the piperazine derivatives, a class of amphetamine-like compounds that includes BZP and TMFPP, are making a resurgence as "legal Ecstasy." These psychoactives are available via the Internet, frequently legal, and often perceived as safe by the public. Unfortunately, these drugs often have adverse effects, which range from minimal to life-threatening. Health care providers must be familiar with these important new classes of drugs. This paper discusses the background, pharmacology, clinical effects, detection, and management of synthetic cannabinoid, synthetic cathinone, methoxetamine, and piperazine exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher D Rosenbaum
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Massachusetts, Worcester, MA, USA
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120
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Zuba D, Byrska B. Prevalence and co-existence of active components of 'legal highs'. Drug Test Anal 2012; 5:420-9. [PMID: 22549997 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2012] [Revised: 03/22/2012] [Accepted: 03/22/2012] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The results of a study performed on samples of 'legal highs' seized in head shops by law enforcement and health services in Poland between mid-2008 and mid-2011 are presented. In total, 449 preparations which differed in labelling, net masses, forms of distribution, etc., were analyzed. A variety of sophisticated analytical methods, including gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), liquid chromatography-quadropole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) were applied for component identification and quantification. The most common ingredients of legal highs were (in descending order): MPDV, caffeine, butylone, TFMPP, lidocaine, 4-MEC, mephedrone, pFPP, BZP, and MDPBP. The scatter of substances changed over time, and piperazines were often ousted by cathinones. Most of the preparations were composed of two or more ingredients. Cathinones and piperazines were mixed mainly within the chemical classes (77.6% and 56.1% of dual links, respectively), caffeine was mixed both with piperazines (24 products) and cathinones (22 products), whereas lidocaine only with the latter class (47 products). A great inconsistency in the qualitative and quantitative composition of products with identical labelling was shown in an example of Coco products seized after August 2010; we found 10 different single component or mixture preparations, and the content of individual ingredients varied from several to hundreds of mgs. This paper summarizes potential dangers connected with the uncontrolled sale of psychoactive substances, and indicates important issues concerning the analysis of legal highs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dariusz Zuba
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Institute of Forensic Research, Krakow, Poland.
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121
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Arbo MD, Bastos ML, Carmo HF. Piperazine compounds as drugs of abuse. Drug Alcohol Depend 2012; 122:174-85. [PMID: 22071119 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2011] [Revised: 09/29/2011] [Accepted: 10/10/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic drugs are among the most commonly abused drugs in the world. This abuse is widespread among young people, especially in the dance club and rave scenes. Over the last several years, piperazine derived drugs have appeared, mainly available via the internet, and sold as ecstasy pills or under the names of "Frenzy", "Bliss", "Charge", "Herbal ecstasy", "A2", "Legal X" and "Legal E". Although in the market piperazine designer drugs have the reputation of being safe, several experimental and epidemiological studies indicate risks for humans. Piperazine designer drugs can be divided into two classes, the benzylpiperazines such as N-benzylpiperazine (BZP) and its methylenedioxy analogue 1-(3,4-methylenedioxybenzyl)piperazine (MDBP), and the phenylpiperazines such as 1-(3-chlorophenyl)piperazine (mCPP), 1-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)piperazine (TFMPP), and 1-(4-methoxyphenyl)piperazine (MeOPP). Toxicokinetic properties, including metabolic pathways, actions and effects in animals and humans, with some hypothesis of mechanism of action, and analytical approaches for the identification of these drugs are summarized in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Arbo
- REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Portugal.
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122
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Coppola M, Mondola R. Synthetic cathinones: chemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of a new class of designer drugs of abuse marketed as "bath salts" or "plant food". Toxicol Lett 2012; 211:144-9. [PMID: 22459606 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2012.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2012] [Revised: 03/10/2012] [Accepted: 03/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In 2000s, many synthetic cathinones have received a renewed popularity as designer drugs of abuse, particularly among young people. Despite being marketed as "bath salts" or "plant food" and labeled "not for human consumption", people utilize these substances for their amphetamine or cocaine like effects. Since the time of their appearance in the recreational drug market, in several countries have been signaled numerous confirmed cases of abuse, dependence, severe intoxication and deaths related to the consumption of synthetic cathinones. The aim of this paper is to summarize the clinical, pharmacological and toxicological information about this new class of designer drugs of abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Coppola
- Department of Addiction, ASL CN2, Viale Coppino 46, 12051 Alba-CN, Italy.
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123
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Abstract
Synthetic cathinones have recently emerged and grown to be popular drugs of abuse. Their dramatic increase has resulted in part from sensationalized media attention as well as widespread availability on the Internet. They are often considered "legal highs" and sold as "bath salts" or "plant food" and labeled "not for human consumption" to circumvent drug abuse legislation. Cathinone is a naturally occurring beta-ketone amphetamine analogue found in the leaves of the Catha edulis plant. Synthetic cathinones are derivatives of this compound. Those that are being used as drugs of abuse include butylone, dimethylcathinone, ethcathinone, ethylone, 3- and 4-fluoromethcathinone, mephedrone, methedrone, methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), methylone, and pyrovalerone. Synthetic cathinones are phenylalkylamines derivatives, and are often termed "bk-amphetamines" for the beta-ketone moiety. They may possess both amphetamine-like properties and the ability to modulate serotonin, causing distinct psychoactive effects. Desired effects reported by users of synthetic cathinones include increased energy, empathy, openness, and increased libido. Cardiac, psychiatric, and neurological signs and symptoms are the most common adverse effects reported in synthetic cathinone users who require medical care. Deaths associated with use of these compounds have been reported. Exposure to and use of synthetic cathinones are becoming increasingly popular despite a lack of scientific research and understanding of the potential harms of these substances. The clinical similarities to amphetamines and MDMA specifically are predictable based on the chemical structure of this class of agents. More work is necessary to understand the mechanisms of action, toxicokinetics, toxicodynamics, metabolism, clinical and psychological effects as well as the potential for addiction and withdrawal of these agents.
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124
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Corazza O, Schifano F, Simonato P, Fergus S, Assi S, Stair J, Corkery J, Trincas G, Deluca P, Davey Z, Blaszko U, Demetrovics Z, Moskalewicz J, Enea A, di Melchiorre G, Mervo B, di Furia L, Farre M, Flesland L, Pasinetti M, Pezzolesi C, Pisarska A, Shapiro H, Siemann H, Skutle A, Enea A, di Melchiorre G, Sferrazza E, Torrens M, van der Kreeft P, Zummo D, Scherbaum N. Phenomenon of new drugs on the Internet: the case of ketamine derivative methoxetamine. Hum Psychopharmacol 2012; 27:145-9. [PMID: 22389078 DOI: 10.1002/hup.1242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
On the basis of the material available both in the scientific literature and on the web, this paper aims to provide a pharmacological, chemical and behavioural overview of the novel compound methoxetamine. This is a dissociative drug related to ketamine, with a much longer duration of action and intensity of effects. A critical discussion of the availability of information on the web of methoxetamine as a new recreational trend is here provided. Those methodological limitations, which are intrinsically associated with the analysis of online, non-peer reviewed, material, are here discussed as well. It is concluded that the online availability of information on novel psychoactive drugs, such as methoxethanine, may constitute a pressing public health challenge. Better international collaboration levels and novel forms of intervention are necessary to tackle this fast-growing phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ornella Corazza
- School of Pharmacy, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK.
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125
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Murray DB, Potts S, Haxton C, Jackson G, Sandilands EA, Ramsey J, Puchnarewicz M, Holt DW, Johnston A, Nicholas Bateman D, Dear JW. ‘Ivory wave’ toxicity in recreational drug users; integration of clinical and poisons information services to manage legal high poisoning. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2012; 50:108-13. [DOI: 10.3109/15563650.2011.647992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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126
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Ayres TC, Bond JW. A chemical analysis examining the pharmacology of novel psychoactive substances freely available over the internet and their impact on public (ill)health. Legal highs or illegal highs? BMJ Open 2012; 2:bmjopen-2012-000977. [PMID: 22855623 PMCID: PMC4400654 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2012-000977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Public Health England aims to improve the nation's health and acknowledges that unhealthy lifestyles, which include drug use, undermine society's health and well-being. Recreational drug use has changed to include a range of substances sold as 'research chemicals' but known by users as 'legal highs' (legal alternatives to the most popular illicit recreational drugs), which are of an unknown toxicity to humans and often include prohibited substances controlled under the Misuse of Drugs Act (1971). Consequently, the long-term effects on users' health and inconsistent, often illegal ingredients, mean that this group of drugs presents a serious risk to public health both now and in the future. Therefore, the aim of this study was to ascertain what is in legal highs, their legality and safety, while considering the potential impact, these synthetic substances might be having on public health. DESIGN A total of 22 products were purchased from five different internet sites, 18 months after the UK ban on substituted cathinones, like mephedrone, was introduced in April 2010. Each substance was screened to determine its active ingredients using accepted analytical techniques. SETTING The research was conducted in Leicestershire but has implications for the provision of primary and secondary healthcare throughout the UK. RESULTS Two products, both sold as NRG-2 from different internet suppliers, were found to contain the banned substituted cathinones 4-methylethcathinone (4-MEC) and 4-methylmethcathinone (4-MMC), the latter being present in much smaller quantities. Although sold as research chemicals and labelled 'not for human consumption', they are thinly disguised 'legal highs', available online in quantities that vary from 1 g to 1 kg. CONCLUSIONS Despite amendments to legislation, prohibited class B substances are still readily available in large quantities over the internet. The findings suggest that these prohibited substances are being manufactured or imported into the UK on a large scale, which has serious implications for public health and clinicians who are ill equipped to deal with this newly emerging problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tammy C Ayres
- Department of Criminology, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
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127
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Acute toxicity associated with the recreational use of the ketamine derivative methoxetamine. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2011; 68:853-6. [DOI: 10.1007/s00228-011-1199-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2011] [Accepted: 12/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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128
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Striebel JM, Pierre JM. Acute psychotic sequelae of "bath salts". Schizophr Res 2011; 133:259-60. [PMID: 21940149 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2011.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2011] [Revised: 08/31/2011] [Accepted: 09/02/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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129
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Davies S, Lee T, Ramsey J, Dargan PI, Wood DM. Risk of caffeine toxicity associated with the use of 'legal highs' (novel psychoactive substances). Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2011; 68:435-9. [PMID: 22037564 DOI: 10.1007/s00228-011-1144-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2011] [Accepted: 10/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Caffeine has desired stimulant effects similar to but weaker than both classical recreational drugs and novel psychoactive substances. This study was undertaken to determine the caffeine content of a sample of novel psychoactive substances, and we discuss the implications for the management of acute recreational drug toxicity. METHODS Six novel psychoactive products ('legal highs') that were not declared to contain caffeine were purchased from different Internet suppliers; one additional product was supplied by the UK police force. Analysis of these products was undertaken using infrared spectroscopy (IR), gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS) to identify the active ingredient(s) and measure the caffeine content of the product. RESULTS All seven products, which weighed approximately 1 g each, contained only caffeine as the active pharmacological compound. There was significant variation in the percentage caffeine content (<2 to 96%), with four powders containing very significant caffeine contents of 87-96%. CONCLUSION This study shows that individuals are at risk of significant caffeine toxicity related to the high caffeine content of some novel psychoactive substances. Clinicians, including clinical pharmacologists, need to be aware of this to ensure that the management of acute recreational drug toxicity is appropriate and that over-correction of any hypokalaemia does not occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susannah Davies
- Analytical Services International Ltd, St George's, University of London, London, UK
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130
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Wood DM, Puchnarewicz M, Johnston A, Dargan PI. A case series of individuals with analytically confirmed acute diphenyl-2-pyrrolidinemethanol (D2PM) toxicity. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2011; 68:349-53. [DOI: 10.1007/s00228-011-1142-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2011] [Accepted: 10/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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131
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132
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Kelly JP. Cathinone derivatives: A review of their chemistry, pharmacology and toxicology. Drug Test Anal 2011; 3:439-53. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 240] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2010] [Revised: 05/19/2011] [Accepted: 05/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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133
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Dargan PI, Hudson S, Ramsey J, Wood DM. The impact of changes in UK classification of the synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists in ‘Spice’. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2011; 22:274-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2011.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2010] [Revised: 11/29/2010] [Accepted: 02/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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134
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Kikura-Hanajiri R, Uchiyama N, Goda Y. Survey of current trends in the abuse of psychotropic substances and plants in Japan. Leg Med (Tokyo) 2011; 13:109-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.legalmed.2011.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2011] [Accepted: 02/02/2011] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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135
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Schifano F, Albanese A, Fergus S, Stair JL, Deluca P, Corazza O, Davey Z, Corkery J, Siemann H, Scherbaum N, Farre' M, Torrens M, Demetrovics Z, Ghodse AH. Mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone; 'meow meow'): chemical, pharmacological and clinical issues. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2011; 214:593-602. [PMID: 21072502 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-010-2070-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 252] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2010] [Accepted: 10/23/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recently, those substances deriving from the active ingredient of the Khat plant, cathinone, have been rising in popularity. Indeed, 4-methylmethcathinone (mephedrone; 'meow meow' and others) has been seen by some as a cheaper alternative to other classified recreational drugs. AIMS We aimed here at providing a state-of-the-art review on mephedrone history and prevalence of misuse, chemistry, pharmacology, legal status, product market appearance, clinical/management and related fatalities. METHODS Because of the limited evidence, some of the information here presented has been obtained from user reports/drug user-orientated web sites. The most common routes for mephedrone recreational use include insufflation and oral ingestion. It elicits stimulant and empathogenic effects similar to amphetamine, methylamphetamine, cocaine and MDMA. Due to its sympathomimetic actions, mephedrone may be associated with a number of both physical and psychopathological side effects. Recent preliminary analysis of recent UK data carried out in 48 related cases have provided positive results for the presence of mephedrone at postmortem. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Within the UK, diffusion of mephedrone may have been associated with an unprecedented combination of a particularly aggressive online marketing policy and a decreasing availability/purity of both ecstasy and cocaine. Mephedrone has been recently classified in both the UK and in a number of other countries as a measure to control its availability. Following this, a few other research psychoactives have recently entered the online market as yet unregulated substances that may substitute for mephedrone. Only international collaborative efforts may be able to tackle the phenomenon of the regular offer of novel psychoactive drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrizio Schifano
- School of Pharmacy, College Lane Campus, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Herftordshire, AL10 9AB, UK.
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136
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Wood DM, Davies S, Cummins A, Button J, Holt DW, Ramsey J, Dargan PI. Energy-1 ('NRG-1'): don't believe what the newspapers say about it being legal. BMJ Case Rep 2011; 2011:2011/jan29_1/bcr0720103184. [PMID: 22714604 DOI: 10.1136/bcr.07.2010.3184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
A 31-year-old man purchased the legal high Energy-1 (NRG-1) over the internet; this was advertised as containing the compound naphthylpyrovalerone (NPV), which at the time was currently legally available in the UK. He ingested 1 g of this substance and developed a prolonged high associated with palpitations, sweating and insomnia. Analysis of both the powder and serum samples from the patient demonstrated that he ingested two classified recreational drugs β-keto-N-methylbenzodioxolylpropylamine (butylone) and methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) rather than the legal substance NPV. Users of legal highs need to be aware that legal highs purchased over the internet may contain illegal substances and therefore they may be liable for prosecution if found in possession of these substances. Future educational campaigns aimed at recreational drug and legal high users should include reference to the potential legal implications of buying these substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Wood
- Clinical Toxicology Service, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's Health Partners, London, UK.
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137
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Brandt SD, Freeman S, Sumnall HR, Measham F, Cole J. Analysis of NRG 'legal highs' in the UK: identification and formation of novel cathinones. Drug Test Anal 2010; 3:569-75. [PMID: 21960541 DOI: 10.1002/dta.204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2010] [Revised: 09/02/2010] [Accepted: 09/03/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
A large number of cathinone derivatives have shown a wide range of bioactive properties, attracting great interest from communities associated with pharmaceutical research. Some of these derivatives have gained popularity as so-called recreational 'legal highs' due to their availability on the Internet and high street shops. A previous study described the qualitative analysis of 24 'legal high' Energy-1 (NRG-1) and NRG-2 products obtained from 18 websites following the ban on mephedrone and derivatives in April 2010. The majority of these products contained a mixture of cathinones just carrying a new label. Here, three additional cathinone products have been detected; two from an NRG-1 sample and one from an NRG-3 sample. This report describes their identification. NRG-1 sample 1 consisted of a mixture of 4 cathinones namely 4-fluoromethcathinone (1), 1-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-(methylamino)pentan-1-one (pentylone, 2), 3,4-methylenedioxy-α-pyrrolidinobutyrophenone (MDPBP, 3) and 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV, 4). The sample labelled as NRG-3 (mislabelled with the chemical structure of mephedrone) consisted of a mixture of 4-methyl-α-pyrrolidinopropiophenone (MPPP, 5) and (2), whereas the remaining NRG-1 sample 2 (also mislabelled with the chemical structure of mephedrone) consisted of a mixture of (2) and (3). Qualitative analyses were carried out by GC-(EI/CI)-MS, NMR spectroscopy and confirmation by preparation of standards. The preparation of brominated precursors carrying the 3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl nucleus revealed extensive α,α-dibromination: the mass spectral and NMR data of these intermediates are also presented and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon D Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, UK.
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138
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Vardakou I, Pistos C, Spiliopoulou C. Drugs for youth via Internet and the example of mephedrone. Toxicol Lett 2010; 201:191-5. [PMID: 21187132 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2010.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2010] [Revised: 12/13/2010] [Accepted: 12/16/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Recently a new class of "designer drugs" has emerged on the drugs abuse market, known as "legal highs". Such drugs are legal to use and possess, and legal to supply. Mephedrone, a central nervous system stimulant, is the most widely experienced "legal high". This review presents any available information about psychoactive properties, safety profile, clinical data, and legislation of the new "legal high" and emphasizes the role of Internet with mephedrone's expansion. Available data were collected by various literature search engines and World Wide Web. All valuable information about psychoactive properties, safety profile and clinical data for mephedrone and its use as "legal high" were managed to spot and summarise. Internet plays a significant role for the distribution of "legal highs", becoming one of the major "drug market". Adolescents and young adults who are curious about drugs may search on the Internet and thereby become exposed to thousands of sites that expound upon the positive effects of drugs and downplay or deny any negative effects. Use of mephedrone is mainly a youth phenomenon. The hazardous side-effects are strong desire to re-dose, uncomfortable changes in body temperature and heart rate, hallucinations and psychosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Vardakou
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 75 Mikras Asias Str., Athens 115 27, Greece
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139
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Wood DM, Davies S, Greene SL, Button J, Holt DW, Ramsey J, Dargan PI. Case series of individuals with analytically confirmed acute mephedrone toxicity. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2010; 48:924-7. [DOI: 10.3109/15563650.2010.531021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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140
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Ramsey J, Dargan PI, Smyllie M, Davies S, Button J, Holt DW, Wood DM. Buying 'legal' recreational drugs does not mean that you are not breaking the law. QJM 2010; 103:777-83. [PMID: 20675395 DOI: 10.1093/qjmed/hcq132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recreational drug use in the UK is common; sources of recreational drugs are changing, with increasing purchase of legal highs from the Internet. Previous studies have shown that there is not consistency of active ingredient(s) in legal highs purchased from the Internet. AIM The aim of this study was to determine the impact of the 16 April 2010 change to the Misuse of Drugs Act (1971) on the content of 'legal highs' purchased over the Internet and supplied within the UK. METHODS Legal highs were purchased from a number of different Internet suppliers and the active ingredients determined by analysis undertaken within a Home Office approved and licensed laboratory set in a UK academic institution. The active ingredient(s) detected on screening were then compared to the UK legislation in force at the time of purchase to determine whether each individual 'legal' high was in fact legal or not. RESULTS All 18 products purchased prior to the change in the UK legislation contained active ingredients that were legal under the Misuse of Drugs Act (1971) in force at that time. Six products were purchased and analysed after the changes to the UK Misuse of Drugs Act (1971) on the 16 April 2010. Five of the products contained information, either on the Internet site or the packaging, stating that the product contained legal substances; the final product did not specify the active ingredient and so purchasers would be unable to determine if this was truly a legal product. Five of the six products contained an active ingredient that is a Class B drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act (1971); the other product contained an unlicensed medicine not controlled under the Misuse of Drugs Act (1971). CONCLUSION We have shown in this study that some drugs sold as 'legal' highs contain drugs that are controlled under the Misuse of Drugs Act (1971). Under current UK legislation, individuals purchasing legal highs that contained controlled drugs would be subject to the same penalties as if they had knowingly purchased a controlled drug. Dissemination of information on the harm associated with the use of legal highs should also inform individuals that they may be purchasing controlled substances and the potential legal consequences of this.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Ramsey
- TICTAC Communications Ltd, St George's, University of London, London, UK
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141
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142
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Brandt SD, Wootton RCR, De Paoli G, Freeman S. The naphyrone story: The Alpha or Beta-naphthyl Isomer? Drug Test Anal 2010; 2:496-502. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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