101
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Sang H, Miller G, Lokhandwala S, Sangewar N, Waghela SD, Bishop RP, Mwangi W. Progress Toward Development of Effective and Safe African Swine Fever Virus Vaccines. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:84. [PMID: 32154279 PMCID: PMC7047163 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2019] [Accepted: 02/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
African swine fever is a major concern due to its negative impact on pork production in affected regions. Due to lack of treatment and a safe vaccine, it has been extremely difficult to control this devastating disease. The mechanisms of virus entry, replication within the host cells, immune evasion mechanisms, correlates of protection, and antigens that are effective at inducing host immune response, are now gradually being identified. This information is required for rational design of novel disease control strategies. Pigs which recover from infection with less virulent ASFV isolates can be protected from challenge with related virulent isolates. This strongly indicates that an effective vaccine against ASFV could be developed. Nonetheless, it is clear that effective immunity depends on both antibody and cellular immune responses. This review paper summarizes the key studies that have evaluated three major approaches for development of African Swine Fever virus vaccines. Recent immunization strategies have involved development and in vivo evaluation of live attenuated virus, and recombinant protein- and DNA-based and virus-vectored subunit vaccine candidates. The limitations of challenge models for evaluating ASFV vaccine candidates are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huldah Sang
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States
| | - Gabrielle Miller
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States
| | - Shehnaz Lokhandwala
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States
| | - Neha Sangewar
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States
| | - Suryakant D. Waghela
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Richard P. Bishop
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States
| | - Waithaka Mwangi
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States
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102
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Borca MV, O'Donnell V, Holinka LG, Risatti GR, Ramirez-Medina E, Vuono EA, Shi J, Pruitt S, Rai A, Silva E, Velazquez-Salinas L, Gladue DP. Deletion of CD2-like gene from the genome of African swine fever virus strain Georgia does not attenuate virulence in swine. Sci Rep 2020; 10:494. [PMID: 31949276 PMCID: PMC6965178 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-57455-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Accepted: 12/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The CD2-like African swine fever virus (ASFV) gene 8DR, (also known as EP402R) encodes for a structural transmembrane glycoprotein that has been shown to mediate hemadsorption and be involved in host immunomodulation as well as the induction of protective immune response. In addition, several natural ASFV isolates showing decreased virulence in swine has been shown to be non-hemadsorbing suggesting an association between altered or deleted forms of 8DR and virus attenuation. Here we demonstrate that deletion of 8DR gene from the genome of ASFV Georgia2010 isolate (ASFV-G-Δ8DR) does not significantly alter the virulence of the virus. ASFV-G-Δ8DR inoculated intramuscularly or intranasally (in a range of 102 to 104 TCID50) produced a clinical disease in domestic pigs indistinguishable from that induced by the same doses of the virulent parental ASFV Georgia2010 isolate. In addition, viremia values in ASFV-G-Δ8DR do not differ from those detected in animals infected with parental virus. Therefore, deletion of 8DR gene is not associated with a noticeable decrease in virulence of the ASFV Georgia isolate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel V Borca
- Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA.
| | - Vivian O'Donnell
- Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA.,Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA
| | - Lauren G Holinka
- Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA
| | - Guillermo R Risatti
- Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA.,Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 06269, USA
| | - Elizabeth Ramirez-Medina
- Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA.,Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 06269, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Vuono
- Department of Pathology and Population Medicine, Mississippi State University, P.O. Box: 6100, Mississippi State, MS, 39762, USA
| | - Jishu Shi
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, USA
| | - Sarah Pruitt
- Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA.,Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (ORISE), Oak Ridge, TN, 37830, USA
| | - Ayushi Rai
- Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA.,Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (ORISE), Oak Ridge, TN, 37830, USA
| | - Ediane Silva
- Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA.,Department of Anatomy and Physiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, USA
| | - Lauro Velazquez-Salinas
- Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA.,Department of Anatomy and Physiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, USA
| | - Douglas P Gladue
- Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA.
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103
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Anette B, Anette B, Theodora CV, Klaus D, Daniel D, Vittorio G, Georgina H, Daniela K, Annick L, Aleksandra M, Simon M, Edvins O, Sasa O, Helen R, Mihaela S, Karl S, Hans‐Hermann T, Grigaliuniene V, Arvo V, Richard W, Grzegorz W, José AC, Sofie D, Andrey G, Corina I, Alexandra P, González VLC, Christian GS. Epidemiological analyses of African swine fever in the European Union (November 2018 to October 2019). EFSA J 2020. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2020.5996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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104
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Pereira de Oliveira R, Hutet E, Paboeuf F, Duhayon M, Boinas F, Perez de Leon A, Filatov S, Vial L, Le Potier MF. Comparative vector competence of the Afrotropical soft tick Ornithodoros moubata and Palearctic species, O. erraticus and O. verrucosus, for African swine fever virus strains circulating in Eurasia. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0225657. [PMID: 31774871 PMCID: PMC6881060 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0225657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF) is a lethal hemorrhagic disease in domestic pigs and wild suids caused by African swine fever virus (ASFV), which threatens the swine industry globally. In its native African enzootic foci, ASFV is naturally circulating between soft ticks of the genus Ornithodoros, especially in the O. moubata group, and wild reservoir suids, such as warthogs (Phacochoerus spp.) that are bitten by infected soft ticks inhabiting their burrows. While the ability of some Afrotropical soft ticks to transmit and maintain ASFV is well established, the vector status of Palearctic soft tick species for ASFV strains currently circulating in Eurasia remains largely unknown. For example, the Iberian soft tick O. erraticus is a known vector and reservoir of ASFV, but its ability to transmit different ASFV strains has not been assessed since ASF re-emerged in Europe in 2007. Little is known about vector competence for ASFV in other species, such as O. verrucosus, which occurs in southern parts of Eastern Europe, including Ukraine and parts of Russia, and in the Caucasus. Therefore, we conducted transmission trials with two Palearctic soft tick species, O. erraticus and O. verrucosus, and the Afrotropical species O. moubata. We tested the ability of ticks to transmit virulent ASFV strains, including one of direct African origin (Liv13/33), and three from Eurasia that had been involved in previous (OurT88/1), and the current epizooties (Georgia2007/1 and Ukr12/Zapo). Our experimental results showed that O. moubata was able to transmit the African and Eurasian ASFV strains, whereas O. erraticus and O. verrucosus failed to transmit the Eurasian ASFV strains. However, naïve pigs showed clinical signs of ASF when inoculated with homogenates of crushed O. erraticus and O. verrucosus ticks that fed on viraemic pigs, which proved the infectiousness of ASFV contained in the ticks. These results documented that O. erraticus and O. verrucosus are unlikely to be capable vectors of ASFV strains currently circulating in Eurasia. Additionally, the persistence of infection in soft ticks for several months reaffirms that the infectious status of a given tick species is only part of the data required to assess its vector competence for ASFV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rémi Pereira de Oliveira
- Swine Virology and Immunology Unit, Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (ANSES), Ploufragan, France
- UMR ASTRE Animal Santé, Territoires, Risques et Ecosystèmes, Centre de coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), Montpellier, France
- University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Evelyne Hutet
- Swine Virology and Immunology Unit, Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (ANSES), Ploufragan, France
| | - Frédéric Paboeuf
- Swine Virology and Immunology Unit, Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (ANSES), Ploufragan, France
| | - Maxime Duhayon
- UMR ASTRE Animal Santé, Territoires, Risques et Ecosystèmes, Centre de coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), Montpellier, France
| | - Fernando Boinas
- CIISA—Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Adalberto Perez de Leon
- Knipling-Bushland U.S. Livestock Insects Research Laboratory and Veterinary Pest Genomics Center, USDA-ARS, Kerrville, Texas, United States of America
| | - Serhii Filatov
- National Scientific Center Institute of Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine, NSC IECVM), Kharkiv, Ukraine
| | - Laurence Vial
- UMR ASTRE Animal Santé, Territoires, Risques et Ecosystèmes, Centre de coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), Montpellier, France
- University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Marie-Frédérique Le Potier
- Swine Virology and Immunology Unit, Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (ANSES), Ploufragan, France
- * E-mail:
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105
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Teklue T, Sun Y, Abid M, Luo Y, Qiu HJ. Current status and evolving approaches to African swine fever vaccine development. Transbound Emerg Dis 2019; 67:529-542. [PMID: 31538406 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Revised: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 09/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF) is a highly lethal haemorrhagic disease of swine caused by African swine fever virus (ASFV), a unique and genetically complex virus. The disease continues to be a huge burden to the pig industry in Africa, Europe and recently in Asia, especially China. The purpose of this review was to recapitulate the current scenarios and evolving trends in ASF vaccine development. The unavailability of an applicable ASF vaccine is partly due to the complex nature of the virus, which encodes various proteins associated with immune evasion. Moreover, the incomplete understanding of immune protection determinants of ASFV hampers the rational vaccine design. Developing an effective ASF vaccine continues to be a challenging task due to many undefined features of ASFV immunobiology. Recent attempts on DNA and live attenuated ASF vaccines have been reported with promising efficacy, and especially live attenuated vaccines have been proved to provide complete homologous protection. Single-cycle viral vaccines have been developed for various diseases such as Rift Valley fever and bluetongue, and the rational extension of these strategies could be helpful for developing single-cycle ASF vaccines. Therefore, live attenuated vaccines in short term and single-cycle vaccines in long term would be the next generation of ASF vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teshale Teklue
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China.,Tigray Agricultural Research Institute, Mekelle, Ethiopia
| | - Yuan Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Muhammad Abid
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Yuzi Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Hua-Ji Qiu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
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106
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Sánchez-Cordón PJ, Nunez A, Neimanis A, Wikström-Lassa E, Montoya M, Crooke H, Gavier-Widén D. African Swine Fever: Disease Dynamics in Wild Boar Experimentally Infected with ASFV Isolates Belonging to Genotype I and II. Viruses 2019; 11:v11090852. [PMID: 31540341 PMCID: PMC6783972 DOI: 10.3390/v11090852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2019] [Revised: 09/06/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
After the re-introduction of African swine fever virus (ASFV) genotype II isolates into Georgia in 2007, the disease spread from Eastern to Western Europe and then jumped first up to Mongolian borders and later into China in August 2018, spreading out of control and reaching different countries of Southeast Asia in 2019. From the initial incursion, along with domestic pigs, wild boar displayed a high susceptibility to ASFV and disease development. The disease established self-sustaining cycles within the wild boar population, a key fact that helped its spread and that pointed to the wild boar population as a substantial reservoir in Europe and probably also in Asia, which may hinder eradication and serve as the source for further geographic expansion. The present review gathers the most relevant information available regarding infection dynamics, disease pathogenesis and immune response that experimental infections with different ASFV isolates belonging to genotype I and II in wild boar and feral pigs have generated. Knowledge gaps in areas such as disease pathogenesis and immune response highlights the importance of focusing future studies on unravelling the early mechanisms of virus-cell interaction and innate and/or adaptive immune responses, knowledge that will contribute to the development of efficacious treatments/vaccines against ASFV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro J. Sánchez-Cordón
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, APHA-Weybridge, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +44-2085654511
| | - Alejandro Nunez
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, APHA-Weybridge, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK;
| | - Aleksija Neimanis
- Department of Pathology and Wildlife Diseases, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), 751 89 Uppsala, Sweden; (A.N.)
| | - Emil Wikström-Lassa
- Department of Pathology and Wildlife Diseases, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), 751 89 Uppsala, Sweden; (A.N.)
| | - María Montoya
- Biological Research Center (CIB-CSIC), Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Helen Crooke
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, APHA-Weybridge, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK;
| | - Dolores Gavier-Widén
- Department of Pathology and Wildlife Diseases, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), 751 89 Uppsala, Sweden; (A.N.)
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Box 7028, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
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107
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Gallardo C, Fernández-Pinero J, Arias M. African swine fever (ASF) diagnosis, an essential tool in the epidemiological investigation. Virus Res 2019; 271:197676. [PMID: 31362027 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2019.197676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2019] [Revised: 07/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Since there is no vaccine available, prevention, control, and eradication of African swine fever (ASF) is based on the implementation of appropriated surveillance and strict sanitary measures. Success of surveillance activities depends on the availability of the most appropriate diagnostic tests. Although a number of good validated ASF diagnostic techniques are available, the interpretation of the ASF diagnostic results can be complex. The reasons lie in the complexity of the epidemiology with different scenarios, as well as in the characteristics of the viruses circulating giving rise to a wide range of clinical forms of ASF. This review provides guidance for an accurate interpretation of ASF diagnostic results linked to the different clinical presentations ranging from per-acute to chronic disease, including apparently asymptomatic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Gallardo
- European Union Reference Laboratory for African Swine Fever (EURL), Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal, INIA-CISA, Valdeolmos, 28130, Madrid, Spain.
| | - J Fernández-Pinero
- European Union Reference Laboratory for African Swine Fever (EURL), Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal, INIA-CISA, Valdeolmos, 28130, Madrid, Spain
| | - M Arias
- European Union Reference Laboratory for African Swine Fever (EURL), Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal, INIA-CISA, Valdeolmos, 28130, Madrid, Spain
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108
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Barasona JA, Gallardo C, Cadenas-Fernández E, Jurado C, Rivera B, Rodríguez-Bertos A, Arias M, Sánchez-Vizcaíno JM. First Oral Vaccination of Eurasian Wild Boar Against African Swine Fever Virus Genotype II. Front Vet Sci 2019; 6:137. [PMID: 31106218 PMCID: PMC6498142 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF), the most significant threat to the pig industry worldwide, has spread to more than 55 countries on three continents, and it affects more than 77% of the world swine population. In the European Union, wild boar (Sus scrofa) is the most severely affected host. The main reasons for the unprecedented and constant spread of ASF in Europe are the trade activities, the continuous movement of infected-wild boar populations among regions and the lack of vaccine to prevent ASF infection. In this study, we demonstrate that oral immunization of wild boar with a non-hemadsorbing, attenuated ASF virus of genotype II isolated in Latvia in 2017 (Lv17/WB/Rie1) conferred 92% protection against challenge with a virulent ASF virus isolate (Arm07). This is, to our knowledge, the first report of a promising vaccine against ASF virus in wild boar by oral administration. Further studies should assess the safety of repeated administration and overdose, characterize long-term shedding and verify the genetic stability of the vaccine virus to confirm if Lv17/WB/Rie1 could be used for free-ranging wild boar in ASF control programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose A Barasona
- Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary, VISAVET Health Surveillance Centre, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carmina Gallardo
- European Union Reference Laboratory for ASF, Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (INIA-CISA), Madrid, Spain
| | - Estefanía Cadenas-Fernández
- Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary, VISAVET Health Surveillance Centre, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Cristina Jurado
- Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary, VISAVET Health Surveillance Centre, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Belén Rivera
- Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary, VISAVET Health Surveillance Centre, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Antonio Rodríguez-Bertos
- Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary, VISAVET Health Surveillance Centre, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Marisa Arias
- European Union Reference Laboratory for ASF, Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (INIA-CISA), Madrid, Spain
| | - Jose M Sánchez-Vizcaíno
- Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary, VISAVET Health Surveillance Centre, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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109
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Sánchez EG, Pérez-Núñez D, Revilla Y. Development of vaccines against African swine fever virus. Virus Res 2019; 265:150-155. [PMID: 30922809 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2019.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2018] [Revised: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
An outbreak in the Caucasus in 2007 initiated the spread of ASFV through Russia and Eastern Europe, subsequently affecting Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, the Baltic States, the Czech Republic, Moldova, Romania and Bulgaria. The declaration of outbreaks in China and Central Europe in August 2018, definitely confirms the serious threat that the extension of ASF represents for the global swine industry and the environment. Despite the efforts of several groups to generate a vaccine against ASFV, currently only control and eradication measures are available based mainly on the early detection and implementation of strict sanitary procedures, including the mass slaughter of animals, both domestic and wild boar. However, the rapid spread of the disease shows that these actions are clearly insufficient to control the current pandemic situation, and the development of a vaccine is urgently required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena G Sánchez
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Yolanda Revilla
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain.
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