101
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Xiao D, Yang D, Guo L, Lu W, Charpentier M, Yan B. Regulation of carboxylesterase-2 expression by p53 family proteins and enhanced anti-cancer activities among 5-fluorouracil, irinotecan and doxazolidine prodrug. Br J Pharmacol 2015; 168:1989-99. [PMID: 23373735 DOI: 10.1111/bph.12125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2012] [Revised: 11/05/2012] [Accepted: 12/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE For four decades, 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) has been a major anti-cancer medicine. This drug is increasingly used with other anti-cancer agents such as irinotecan. Irinotecan and many others such as PPD (pentyl carbamate of p-aminobenzyl carbamate of doxazolidine) require activation by carboxylesterase-2 (CES2). 5-FU, on the other hand, reportedly induces CES2 in colorectal tumour lines. The aims of this study were to determine the molecular basis for the induction and to ascertain interactive cell-killing activity between 5-FU and ester prodrugs. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Colorectal and non-colorectal lines and xenografts were treated with 5-FU and the expression of CES2 was determined. Cell-killing activity of irinotecan and PPD were determined in the presence or absence of CES2 inhibitor. Several molecular experiments were used to determine the molecular basis for the induction. KEY RESULTS Without exceptions, robust induction was detected in cell lines expressing functional p53. High-level induction was also detected in xenografts. 5-FU pretreatment significantly increased cell-killing activity of irinotecan and PPD. Molecular experiments established that the induction was achieved by both transactivation and increased mRNA stability through p53. Either p63 or p73, functionally related to p53, did not support the transactivation. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS The results in this study suggest that FOLFIRI, a common regimen combining irinotecan and 5-FU, should switch the dosing sequence, namely from 5-FU to irinotecan, to enhance hydrolytic activation of irinotecan. This modified order likely reduces the dose of anti-cancer agents, thus minimizing overall toxicity. The results also conclude that p53 family members act differently in regulating gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da Xiao
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Pharmacogenomics and Molecular Therapy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881, USA
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102
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Predicting Clearance Mechanism in Drug Discovery: Extended Clearance Classification System (ECCS). Pharm Res 2015; 32:3785-802. [DOI: 10.1007/s11095-015-1749-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2015] [Accepted: 06/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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103
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Comparison of substrate specificity among human arylacetamide deacetylase and carboxylesterases. Eur J Pharm Sci 2015; 78:47-53. [PMID: 26164127 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2015.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2015] [Revised: 06/28/2015] [Accepted: 07/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Human arylacetamide deacetylase (AADAC) is an esterase responsible for the hydrolysis of some drugs, including flutamide, indiplon, phenacetin, and rifamycins. AADAC is highly expressed in the human liver, where carboxylesterase (CES) enzymes, namely, CES1 and CES2, are also expressed. It is generally recognized that CES1 prefers compounds with a large acyl moiety and a small alcohol or amine moiety as substrates, whereas CES2 prefers compounds with a small acyl moiety and a large alcohol or amine moiety. In a comparison of the chemical structures of known AADAC substrates, AADAC most likely prefers compounds with the same characteristics as does CES2. However, the substrate specificity of human AADAC has not been fully clarified. To expand the knowledge of substrates of human AADAC, we measured its hydrolase activities toward 13 compounds, including known human CES1 and CES2 substrates, using recombinant enzymes expressed in Sf21 cells. Recombinant AADAC catalyzed the hydrolysis of fluorescein diacetate, N-monoacetyldapsone, and propanil, which possess notably small acyl moieties, and these substrates were also hydrolyzed by CES2. However, AADAC could not hydrolyze another CES2 substrate, procaine, which possesses a moderately small acyl moiety. In addition, AADAC did not hydrolyze several known CES1 substrates, including clopidogrel and oseltamivir, which have large acyl moieties and small alcohol moieties. Collectively, these results suggest that AADAC prefers compounds with smaller acyl moieties than does CES2. The role of AADAC in the hydrolysis of drugs has been clarified. For this reason, AADAC should receive attention in ADMET studies during drug development.
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104
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Chen F, Yang Y, Fang C, Zhao J, Han M, Zhu Q, Bai X, Liu M, Yang G. Effect of fluvoxamine on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of clopidogrel in rats. Xenobiotica 2015; 45:1122-8. [DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2015.1045570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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105
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Holmberg MT, Tornio A, Hyvärinen H, Neuvonen M, Neuvonen PJ, Backman JT, Niemi M. Effect of grapefruit juice on the bioactivation of prasugrel. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2015; 80:139-45. [PMID: 25557052 DOI: 10.1111/bcp.12581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2014] [Revised: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 12/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
AIMS The P2Y12 inhibitor prasugrel is a prodrug, which is activated after its initial hydrolysis partly by cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A4. Grapefruit juice, a strong inactivator of intestinal CYP3A4, greatly reduces the activation and antiplatelet effects of clopidogrel. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of grapefruit juice on prasugrel. METHODS In a randomized crossover study, seven healthy volunteers ingested 200 ml of grapefruit juice or water three times daily for 4 days. On day 3, they ingested a single 10 mg dose of prasugrel with an additional 200 ml of grapefruit juice or water. Plasma concentrations of prasugrel metabolites and the antiplatelet effect were measured. RESULTS Grapefruit juice increased the geometric mean area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC(0-∞)) of the primary, inactive metabolite of prasugrel to 164% of the control value (95% confidence interval 122-220%, P = 0.008), without a significant effect on its peak plasma concentration (C(max)). The C(max) and AUC(0-∞) of the secondary, active metabolite were decreased to 51% (95% confidence interval 32-84%, P = 0.017) and 74% of the control value (95% confidence interval 60-91%, P = 0.014) by grapefruit juice (P < 0.05). The average platelet inhibition, assessed with the VerifyNow® method at 0-24 h after prasugrel intake, was 5 percentage points (95% confidence interval 1-10 percentage points) lower in the grapefruit juice phase than in the water phase (P = 0.034). CONCLUSIONS Grapefruit juice reduces the bioactivation of prasugrel, but this has only a limited effect on the antiplatelet effect of prasugrel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikko T Holmberg
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, University of Helsinki and HUSLAB, Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Aleksi Tornio
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, University of Helsinki and HUSLAB, Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Hanna Hyvärinen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, University of Helsinki and HUSLAB, Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mikko Neuvonen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, University of Helsinki and HUSLAB, Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Pertti J Neuvonen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, University of Helsinki and HUSLAB, Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Janne T Backman
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, University of Helsinki and HUSLAB, Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mikko Niemi
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, University of Helsinki and HUSLAB, Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
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106
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Hu ZY, Edginton AN, Laizure SC, Parker RB. Physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling of impaired carboxylesterase-1 activity: effects on oseltamivir disposition. Clin Pharmacokinet 2015; 53:825-36. [PMID: 25103325 DOI: 10.1007/s40262-014-0160-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE Human carboxylesterase-1 (CES1) is an enzyme that is primarily expressed in the liver, where it plays an important role in the metabolism of many commonly used medications. Ethanol (alcohol)-mediated inhibition of CES1 and loss-of-function polymorphisms in the CES1 gene can markedly reduce this enzyme's function. Such alterations in CES1 activity may have important effects on the disposition of substrate drugs. The aim of this study is to develop a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model to predict changes in CES1 substrate drug exposure in humans with CES1 activity impaired by ethanol or loss-of-function CES1 genetic polymorphisms. METHODS The antiviral drug oseltamivir, an ethyl ester prodrug that is rapidly converted in vivo to the active metabolite oseltamivir carboxylate (OSC) by CES1 was used as a probe drug for CES1 activity. Oseltamivir PBPK models integrating in vitro and in vivo data were developed and refined. Then the changes in oseltamivir and OSC exposure in humans with CES1 impaired by ethanol or polymorphisms were simulated using a PBPK model incorporating in vitro inhibition and enzyme kinetic data. Model assumptions were verified by comparison of simulations with observed and published data. A sensitivity analysis was performed to gain a mechanistic understanding of the exposure changes of oseltamivir and OSC. RESULTS The simulated changes in oseltamivir and OSC exposures in humans with CES1 impaired by ethanol or polymorphism were similar to the observed data. The observed exposures to oseltamivir were increased by 46 and 37 % for the area under the plasma concentration-time curve from time zero to 6 h (AUC6) and from time zero to 24 h (AUC24), respectively, with co-administration of ethanol 0.6 g/kg. In contrast, only a slight change was observed in OSC exposure. The simulated data show the same trend as evidenced by greater change in exposures to oseltamivir (27 and 26 % for AUC(6) and AUC(24), [corrected] respectively) than OSC (≤6 %). CONCLUSIONS The PBPK model of impaired CES1 activity correctly predicts observed human data. This model can be extended to predict the effects of drug interactions and other factors affecting the pharmacokinetics of other CES1 substrate drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe-Yi Hu
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, College of Pharmacy, 881 Madison Ave., Room 346, Memphis, TN, 38163, USA
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107
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Tarkiainen EK, Holmberg MT, Tornio A, Neuvonen M, Neuvonen PJ, Backman JT, Niemi M. Carboxylesterase 1 c.428G>A single nucleotide variation increases the antiplatelet effects of clopidogrel by reducing its hydrolysis in humans. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2015; 97:650-8. [DOI: 10.1002/cpt.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2014] [Accepted: 02/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- EK Tarkiainen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology; University of Helsinki and HUSLAB, Helsinki University Hospital; Helsinki Finland
| | - MT Holmberg
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology; University of Helsinki and HUSLAB, Helsinki University Hospital; Helsinki Finland
| | - A Tornio
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology; University of Helsinki and HUSLAB, Helsinki University Hospital; Helsinki Finland
| | - M Neuvonen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology; University of Helsinki and HUSLAB, Helsinki University Hospital; Helsinki Finland
| | - PJ Neuvonen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology; University of Helsinki and HUSLAB, Helsinki University Hospital; Helsinki Finland
| | - JT Backman
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology; University of Helsinki and HUSLAB, Helsinki University Hospital; Helsinki Finland
| | - M Niemi
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology; University of Helsinki and HUSLAB, Helsinki University Hospital; Helsinki Finland
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108
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Rasmussen HB, Bjerre D, Linnet K, Jürgens G, Dalhoff K, Stefansson H, Hankemeier T, Kaddurah-Daouk R, Taboureau O, Brunak S, Houmann T, Jeppesen P, Pagsberg AK, Plessen K, Dyrborg J, Hansen PR, Hansen PE, Hughes T, Werge T. Individualization of treatments with drugs metabolized by CES1: combining genetics and metabolomics. Pharmacogenomics 2015; 16:649-65. [PMID: 25896426 DOI: 10.2217/pgs.15.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
CES1 is involved in the hydrolysis of ester group-containing xenobiotic and endobiotic compounds including several essential and commonly used drugs. The individual variation in the efficacy and tolerability of many drugs metabolized by CES1 is considerable. Hence, there is a large interest in individualizing the treatment with these drugs. The present review addresses the issue of individualized treatment with drugs metabolized by CES1. It describes the composition of the gene encoding CES1, reports variants of this gene with focus upon those with a potential effect on drug metabolism and provides an overview of the protein structure of this enzyme bringing notice to mechanisms involved in the regulation of enzyme activity. Subsequently, the review highlights drugs metabolized by CES1 and argues that individual differences in the pharmacokinetics of these drugs play an important role in determining drug response and tolerability suggesting prospects for individualized drug therapies. Our review also discusses endogenous substrates of CES1 and assesses the potential of using metabolomic profiling of blood to identify proxies for the hepatic activity of CES1 that predict the rate of drug metabolism. Finally, the combination of genetics and metabolomics to obtain an accurate prediction of the individual response to CES1-dependent drugs is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrik Berg Rasmussen
- Institute of Biological Psychiatry, Mental Health Centre Sct. Hans, Copenhagen University Hospital, 2 Boserupvej, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark
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109
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Chen R, Wang Y, Ning R, Hu J, Liu W, Xiong J, Wu L, Liu J, Hu G, Yang J. Decreased carboxylesterases expression and hydrolytic activity in type 2 diabetic mice through Akt/mTOR/HIF-1α/Stra13 pathway. Xenobiotica 2015; 45:782-93. [DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2015.1020353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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110
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Oda S, Fukami T, Yokoi T, Nakajima M. A comprehensive review of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase and esterases for drug development. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2015; 30:30-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dmpk.2014.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2014] [Revised: 11/24/2014] [Accepted: 12/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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111
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Wang X, Zhu HJ, Markowitz JS. Carboxylesterase 1-Mediated Drug–Drug Interactions between Clopidogrel and Simvastatin. Biol Pharm Bull 2015; 38:292-7. [DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b14-00679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xinwen Wang
- The Key Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, China Pharmaceutical University
- Department of Clinical, Social, and Administrative Sciences, University of Michigan
| | - Hao-Jie Zhu
- Department of Clinical, Social, and Administrative Sciences, University of Michigan
| | - John Seth Markowitz
- Department of Pharmacotherapy and Translational Research, and Center for Pharmacogenomics, University of Florida
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112
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Boonyuen U, Promnares K, Junkree S, Day NPJ, Imwong M. Efficient in vitro refolding and functional characterization of recombinant human liver carboxylesterase (CES1) expressed in E. coli. Protein Expr Purif 2014; 107:68-75. [PMID: 25462813 PMCID: PMC4294421 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2014.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2014] [Revised: 11/10/2014] [Accepted: 11/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Expression of recombinant human carboxylesterase I in E.coli is mainly insoluble. Refolding using a combination of 1% glycerol and 2 mM β-mercaptoethanol in Tris–HCl, pH 7.5 significantly improved solubility. Purified recombinant human CES1 is functionally active and stable. We provided efficient method to produce large amount and catalytically active CES1.
Human liver carboxylesterase 1 (CES1) plays a critical role in the hydrolysis of various ester- and amide-containing molecules, including active metabolites, drugs and prodrugs. However, it has been problematic to express recombinant CES1 in bacterial expression systems due to low solubility, with the CES1 protein being mainly expressed in inclusion bodies, accompanied by insufficient purity issues. In this study, we report an efficient in vitro method for refolding recombinant CES1 from inclusion bodies. A one-step purification with an immobilized-metal affinity column was utilized to purify His-tagged recombinant CES1. Conveniently, both denaturant and imidazole can be removed while the enzyme is refolded via buffer exchange, a dilution method. We show that the refolding of recombinant CES1 was successful in Tris–HCl at pH 7.5 containing a combination of 1% glycerol and 2 mM β-mercaptoethanol, whereas a mixture of other additives (trehalose, sorbitol and sucrose) and β-mercaptoethanol failed to recover a functional protein. His-tagged recombinant CES1 retains its biological activity after refolding and can be used directly without removing the fusion tag. Altogether, our results provide an alternative method for obtaining a substantial amount of functionally active protein, which is advantageous for further investigations such as structural and functional studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Usa Boonyuen
- Department of Molecular Tropical Medicine and Genetics, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand.
| | - Kamoltip Promnares
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkla 90112, Thailand.
| | - Suwapat Junkree
- Central Equipment Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand.
| | - Nichloas P J Day
- Mahidol Oxford Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand; Centre for Tropical Medicine, Nuffield Department of Medicine, Churchill Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom.
| | - Mallika Imwong
- Department of Molecular Tropical Medicine and Genetics, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand.
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113
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Sugidachi A, Kurihara A, Tanizawa K, Inoue T. [Pharmacological, pharmacodynamics, and clinical profile of prasugrel hydrochloride (Efient(®) tablets 3.75 mg • 5 mg)]. Nihon Yakurigaku Zasshi 2014; 144:239-249. [PMID: 25381894 DOI: 10.1254/fpj.144.239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
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114
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Thomsen R, Nielsen LM, Holm NB, Rasmussen HB, Linnet K. Synthetic cannabimimetic agents metabolized by carboxylesterases. Drug Test Anal 2014; 7:565-76. [PMID: 25346527 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2014] [Revised: 09/10/2014] [Accepted: 09/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabimimetic agents are a large group of diverse compounds which act as agonists at cannabinoid receptors. Since 2004, synthetic cannabinoids have been used recreationally, although several of the compounds have been shown to cause severe toxicity in humans. In this study, the metabolism of two indazole carboxamide derivatives, AB-PINACA and AB-FUBINACA, was investigated by using human liver microsomes (HLM). For both compounds, a major metabolic pathway was the enzymatic hydrolysis of the primary amide, resulting in the major metabolites AB-PINACA-COOH and AB-FUBINACA-COOH. Other major metabolic pathways were mono-hydroxylation of the N-pentyl chain in AB-PINACA and mono-hydroxylation of the 1-amino-3-methyl-1-oxobutane moiety in AB-FUBINACA. To identify the enzyme(s) responsible for the amide hydrolysis, incubations with recombinant carboxylesterases and human serum, as well as inhibition studies in HLM and human pulmonary microsomes (HPM) were performed. Carboxylesterase 1 (CES1) was identified as the major human hepatic and pulmonary enzyme responsible for the amide hydrolysis.We employed similar studies to identify the esterase(s) involved in the previously described hydrolytic metabolism of two quinolineindole synthetic cannabinoids, PB-22 and 5F-PB-22, as well as the closely related compound, BB-22. Our investigations again revealed CES1 to be the key enzyme catalyzing these reactions. The identified major metabolites of AB-PINACA and AB-FUBINACA are likely to be useful in documenting drug usage in forensic and clinical screening. Additionally, the identification of CES1 as the main enzyme hydrolyzing these compounds improves our knowledge in the emerging field of xenobiotic metabolism by esterases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ragnar Thomsen
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederik V's vej 11, DK-2100, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Line M Nielsen
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederik V's vej 11, DK-2100, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Niels B Holm
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederik V's vej 11, DK-2100, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Henrik B Rasmussen
- Institute of Biological Psychiatry, Mental Health Centre Sct. Hans, Copenhagen University Hospital, Boserupvej 2, DK-4000, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Kristian Linnet
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederik V's vej 11, DK-2100, Copenhagen, Denmark
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115
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CES1A -816C as a genetic marker to predict greater platelet clopidogrel response in patients with percutaneous coronary intervention. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 2014; 63:178-83. [PMID: 24508947 DOI: 10.1097/fjc.0000000000000037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
This study was designed to determine whether CES1A -816A/C polymorphism could be associated with altered clopidogrel response. Recruited patients were pretreated with 300 mg clopidogrel loading dose before undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention for stenting and genotyped with CYP2C19 *2, *3, or *17, and CES1A -816A/C, respectively. Adenosine diphosphate-induced maximum platelet aggregation (MPA) was determined on day 3 after initiation of daily clopidogrel maintenance doses. The clinical primary end point was the 1-year incidence of definite stent thrombosis (ST). Multivariable linear regression revealed that the CES1A -816A/C polymorphism was independently associated with MPA measures with an absolute β value of 6.76. Of 617 patients, a subcohort of 249 patients not carrying CYP2C19 *2, *3, or *17 were categorized into 3 groups based on the -816A/C genotype. The median MPA value was lower in 125 carriers of the -816C variant than in 124 noncarriers (21.5% vs. 31.7%, P = 0.001). The 1-year definite ST occurred in 7 patients in that subcohort, and only 1 ST case was one of carriers of the -816 A/A that was associated with higher MPA values. The CES1A -816C would be used to predict greater platelet response to clopidogrel than the CES1A -816A in percutaneous coronary intervention-treated patients not carrying CYP2C19 variants.
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116
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Kristensen KE, Zhu HJ, Wang X, Gislason GH, Torp-Pedersen C, Rasmussen HB, Markowitz JS, Hansen PR. Clopidogrel Bioactivation and Risk of Bleeding in Patients Cotreated With Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors After Myocardial Infarction: A Proof-of-Concept Study. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2014; 96:713-22. [DOI: 10.1038/clpt.2014.183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2014] [Accepted: 08/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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117
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Gesheff MG, Franzese CJ, Bliden KP, Contino CJ, Rafeedheen R, Tantry US, Gurbel PA. Review of pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic modeling and safety of proton pump inhibitors and aspirin. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 2014; 7:645-53. [DOI: 10.1586/17512433.2014.945428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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118
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Polasek TM, Doogue MP, Miners JO. Metabolic activation of clopidogrel: in vitro data provide conflicting evidence for the contributions of CYP2C19 and PON1. Ther Adv Drug Saf 2014; 2:253-61. [PMID: 25083217 DOI: 10.1177/2042098611422559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent report that clopidogrel efficacy may be more dependent on paraoxonase-1 (PON1) than on cytochrome P450 2C19 (CYP2C19) activity raises questions about the roles of these and other enzymes in clopidogrel activation. To provide insight into the emerging PON1 versus CYP2C19 debate, this commentary summarizes the clinical evidence on the pharmacokinetic determinants of clopidogrel efficacy. We then review the in vitro studies investigating the enzymes involved in clopidogrel activation, and comment on their strengths and limitations. There is agreement amongst in vitro studies regarding the involvement of CYP1A2 and CYP2B6 in the metabolism of clopidogrel to 2-oxo-clopidogrel. However, the evidence for other CYP enzymes in the first activation step (e.g. CYP2C19 and CYP3A4) is inconsistent and dependent on the in vitro test system and laboratory. All major drug metabolizing CYP enzymes are capable of converting 2-oxo-clopidogrel to sulfenic acid intermediates that subsequently form the active thiol metabolite. However, the extent of CYP involvement in this second step has been challenged, and new evidence suggests that CYP-independent hydrolytic cleavage of the thioester bond may be more important than oxidative metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas M Polasek
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Flinders University and Flinders Medical Centre, Sturt Road, Bedford Park, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia
| | - Matthew P Doogue
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Flinders University and Flinders Medical Centre, Adelaide, Australia
| | - John O Miners
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Flinders University and Flinders Medical Centre, Adelaide, Australia
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119
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Li YH, Song M, Hang TJ. Development of an LC-MS/MS method for determination of 2-oxo-clopidogrel in human plasma. J Pharm Anal 2014; 5:12-17. [PMID: 29403910 PMCID: PMC5761481 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpha.2014.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2014] [Revised: 06/21/2014] [Accepted: 07/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
A sensitive and selective liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometric (LC−MS/MS) method was established to determine 2-oxo-clopidogrel, a crucial intermediate metabolite in human plasma. A chromatographic separation was performed on a Sapphire C18 column following a liquid–liquid extraction sample preparation with methyl t-butyl ether. Detection was carried out on a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer operated in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) with an electrospray ionization (ESI) mode. The method was validated in terms of specificity, accuracy, precision and limit of quantification. The calibration curves ranged from 0.50 to 50.0 ng/mL with good linearity. The stability was fully validated with addition of 1,4-dithio-DL-threitol (DTT) into the plasma sample prior to and in the preparation procedure. The validated method was proved to be suitable for use in pharmacokinetic study after single oral administration of 75 mg clopidogrel tablets in human subjects, which could make contribution to intensive study of the clinical drug–drug interactions of clopidogrel and individual treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Han Li
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Min Song
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Tai-Jun Hang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
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120
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A highly selective ratiometric fluorescent probe for in vitro monitoring and cellular imaging of human carboxylesterase 1. Biosens Bioelectron 2014; 57:30-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2014.01.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2014] [Revised: 01/25/2014] [Accepted: 01/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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121
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Censori B. Front-loading with clopidogrel plus aspirin followed by dual antiplatelet therapy in the prevention of early stroke recurrence. Expert Rev Neurother 2014; 14:723-34. [DOI: 10.1586/14737175.2014.923758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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122
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Hu ZY, Laizure SC, Herring VL, Parker RB. Identification of alcohol-dependent clopidogrel metabolites using conventional liquid chromatography/triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2014; 28:1285-1292. [PMID: 24760569 PMCID: PMC4034390 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.6901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2014] [Revised: 03/16/2014] [Accepted: 03/21/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Clopidogrel (CLO) is a prodrug used to prevent ischemic events in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention or with myocardial infarction. A previous study found ethyl clopidogrel (ECLO) is formed by transesterification of CLO when incubated with alcohol in human liver microsomes. We hypothesize that ECLO will be subject to further metabolism and developed an assay to identify its metabolites. METHODS A liquid chromatography/triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) method was developed to identify metabolites of ECLO. According to the predicted metabolic pathway of ECLO, precursor-product ion pairs were used to screen the possible metabolites of ECLO in human liver S9 fractions. Subsequently, the detected metabolites were characterized by the results of product ion scan. RESULTS In the presence of alcohol, CLO was tranesterified to ECLO, which was further oxidized to form ethylated 2-oxo-clopidogrel and several ethylated thiol metabolites including the ethylated form of the H4 active metabolite. CONCLUSIONS The ECLO formed by transesterification with alcohol is subject to metabolism by CYP450 enzymes producing ethylated forms of 2-oxo-clopidogrel and the active H4 thiol metabolite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe-Yi Hu
- Correspondence to: Zhe-Yi Hu, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, College of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Pharmacy, 881 Madison Ave., Room 328, Memphis, TN 38163, USA.
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123
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Quantitative proteomic analysis of hepatocyte-secreted extracellular vesicles reveals candidate markers for liver toxicity. J Proteomics 2014; 103:227-40. [PMID: 24747303 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2014.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2014] [Revised: 04/01/2014] [Accepted: 04/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Extracellular vesicles have created great interest as possible source of biomarkers for different biological processes and diseases. Although the biological function of these vesicles is not fully understood, it is clear that they participate in the removal of unnecessary cellular material and act as carriers of various macromolecules and signals between the cells. In this report, we analyzed the proteome of extracellular vesicles secreted by primary hepatocytes. We used one- and two-dimensional liquid chromatography combined with data-independent mass spectrometry. Employing label-free quantitative proteomics, we detected significant changes in vesicle protein expression levels in this in vitro model after exposure to well-known liver toxins (galactosamine and Escherichia coli-derived lipopolysaccharide). The results allowed us to identify candidate markers for liver injury. We validated a number of these markers in vivo, providing the basis for the development of novel methods to evaluate drug toxicity. This report strongly supports the application of proteomics in the study of extracellular vesicles released by well-controlled in vitro cellular systems. Analysis of such systems should help to identify specific markers for various biological processes and pathological conditions. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE Identification of low invasive candidate marker for hepatotoxicity. Support to apply proteomics in the study of extracellular vesicles released by well-controlled in vitro cellular systems to identify low invasive markers for diseases.
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In vitro interaction of clopidogrel and its hydrolysate with OCT1, OCT2 and OAT1. Int J Pharm 2014; 465:5-10. [PMID: 24530383 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2014.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2013] [Revised: 11/26/2013] [Accepted: 02/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Clopidogrel (CP) is metabolized by CYPs to the active metabolite, or hydrolyzed by esterase to clopidogrel carboxylate (CPC) in liver, and CPC is partly excreted from urine. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to evaluate the interactions of CP and CPC with organic cation transporter 1 (OCT1) (in liver), and CPC with organic cation transporter 2 (OCT2) and organic anion transporter 1 (OAT1) (in kidney). Both CP and CPC inhibited the uptake of 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP(+)) and metformin, typical substrates of OCT1, in MDCK-hOCT1 cells with low IC₅₀ (0.307-14.0 μM). CPC (100 μM) reduced the uptake of MPP(+) and metformin mediated by OCT2 in MDCK-hOCT2 cells to 60.8% and 33.6% of the control, CPC (500 μM) decreased the uptake of 6-carboxyfluorescein (6-CFL) and para-aminohippuric acid (PAH), substrates of OAT1, in MDCK-hOAT1 cells to 64.6% and 79.4% of the control. CP and CPC were also found to inhibit other drugs of OCT1 substrates, such as lamivudine and amantadine, in MDCK-hOCT1 cells with the IC₅₀ of 1.97-4.15μM, except CPC on amantadine (IC₅₀>100 μM). The inhibition of CP and CPC on lamivudine uptake in primary rat hepatocytes was also confirmed with the IC₅₀ of 2.91 and 1.25μM, respectively. Additionally, CP and CPC were not substrates of OCT1 and OCT2, whereas CPC was a substrate of OAT1 with the Km of 5.61 μM. In conclusion, CP and CPC are strong inhibitors of OCT1, but weak inhibitors of OCT2 and OAT1, and CPC is a high affinity substrate of OAT1.
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125
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Rocca B, Dragani A, Pagliaccia F. Identifying determinants of variability to tailor aspirin therapy. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther 2014; 11:365-79. [DOI: 10.1586/erc.12.144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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126
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Feng L, Liu ZM, Xu L, Lv X, Ning J, Hou J, Ge GB, Cui JN, Yang L. A highly selective long-wavelength fluorescent probe for the detection of human carboxylesterase 2 and its biomedical applications. Chem Commun (Camb) 2014; 50:14519-22. [DOI: 10.1039/c4cc06642a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
A highly selective long-wavelength fluorescent probe for the detection of human carboxylesterase 2 (hCE2) has been developed and well characterized. The probe can be used for measuring the real activities of hCE2 in complex biological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals
- Dalian University of Technology
- Dalian, China
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
| | - Zhao-Ming Liu
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Dalian, China
| | - Liang Xu
- School of Chemistry
- Dalian University of Technology
- Dalian, China
| | - Xia Lv
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Dalian, China
| | - Jing Ning
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Dalian, China
| | - Jie Hou
- Dalian Medical University
- Dalian 116044, China
| | - Guang-Bo Ge
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals
- Dalian University of Technology
- Dalian, China
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
| | - Jing-Nan Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals
- Dalian University of Technology
- Dalian, China
| | - Ling Yang
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Dalian, China
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127
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Laizure SC, Parker RB, Herring VL, Hu ZY. Identification of carboxylesterase-dependent dabigatran etexilate hydrolysis. Drug Metab Dispos 2013; 42:201-6. [PMID: 24212379 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.113.054353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Dabigatran etexilate (DABE) is an oral prodrug that is rapidly converted to the active thrombin inhibitor, dabigatran (DAB), by serine esterases. The aims of the present study were to investigate the in vitro kinetics and pathway of DABE hydrolysis by human carboxylesterase enzymes, and the effect of alcohol on these transformations. The kinetics of DABE hydrolysis in two human recombinant carboxylesterase enzymes (CES1 and CES2) and in human intestinal microsomes and human liver S9 fractions were determined. The effects of alcohol (a known CES1 inhibitor) on the formation of DABE metabolites in carboxylesterase enzymes and human liver S9 fractions were also examined. The inhibitory effect of bis(4-nitrophenyl) phosphate on the carboxylesterase-mediated metabolism of DABE and the effect of alcohol on the hydrolysis of a classic carboxylesterase substrate (cocaine) were studied to validate the in vitro model. The ethyl ester of DABE was hydrolyzed exclusively by CES1 to M1 (Km 24.9 ± 2.9 μM, Vmax 676 ± 26 pmol/min per milligram protein) and the carbamate ester of DABE was exclusively hydrolyzed by CES2 to M2 (Km 5.5 ± 0.8 μM; Vmax 71.1 ± 2.4 pmol/min per milligram protein). Sequential hydrolysis of DABE in human intestinal microsomes followed by hydrolysis in human liver S9 fractions resulted in complete conversion to DAB. These results suggest that after oral administration of DABE to humans, DABE is hydrolyzed by intestinal CES2 to the intermediate M2 metabolite followed by hydrolysis of M2 to DAB in the liver by CES1. Carboxylesterase-mediated hydrolysis of DABE was not inhibited by alcohol.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Casey Laizure
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee
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128
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Chanteux H, Rosa M, Delatour C, Prakash C, Smith S, Nicolas JM. In Vitro Hydrolysis and Transesterification of CDP323, an α4β1/α4β7 Integrin Antagonist Ester Prodrug. Drug Metab Dispos 2013; 42:153-61. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.113.054049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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129
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Laizure SC, Herring V, Hu Z, Witbrodt K, Parker RB. The role of human carboxylesterases in drug metabolism: have we overlooked their importance? Pharmacotherapy 2013; 33:210-22. [PMID: 23386599 DOI: 10.1002/phar.1194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 305] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Carboxylesterases are a multigene family of mammalian enzymes widely distributed throughout the body that catalyze the hydrolysis of esters, amides, thioesters, and carbamates. In humans, two carboxylesterases, hCE1 and hCE2, are important mediators of drug metabolism. Both are expressed in the liver, but hCE1 greatly exceeds hCE2. In the intestine, only hCE2 is present and highly expressed. The most common drug substrates of these enzymes are ester prodrugs specifically designed to enhance oral bioavailability by hydrolysis to the active carboxylic acid after absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. Carboxylesterases also play an important role in the hydrolysis of some drugs to inactive metabolites. It has been widely believed that drugs undergoing hydrolysis by hCE1 and hCE2 are not subject to clinically significant alterations in their disposition, but evidence exists that genetic polymorphisms, drug-drug interactions, drug-disease interactions and other factors are important determinants of the variability in the therapeutic response to carboxylesterase-substrate drugs. The implications for drug therapy are far-reaching, as substrate drugs include numerous examples from widely prescribed therapeutic classes. Representative drugs include angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers, antiplatelet drugs, statins, antivirals, and central nervous system agents. As research interest increases in the carboxylesterases, evidence is accumulating of their important role in drug metabolism and, therefore, the outcomes of pharmacotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Casey Laizure
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee 38163, USA.
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130
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Thomsen R, Rasmussen HB, Linnet K. In Vitro Drug Metabolism by Human Carboxylesterase 1: Focus on Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors. Drug Metab Dispos 2013; 42:126-33. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.113.053512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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131
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Contributions of Intestine and Plasma to the Presystemic Bioconversion of Vicagrel, an Acetate of Clopidogrel. Pharm Res 2013; 31:238-51. [DOI: 10.1007/s11095-013-1158-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2013] [Accepted: 07/22/2013] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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132
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Abstract
Antiplatelet therapy with aspirin and a platelet P2Y12 receptor antagonist reduces thrombotic and ischemic events after percutaneous coronary intervention and acute coronary syndrome. The platelet inhibitory effect of the thienopyridine clopidogrel varies widely among individuals, and high on-treatment platelet reactivity has been associated with a substantial hazard for post-PCI cardiovascular events, including stent thrombosis. The clinical availability of ex vivo methods to measure the antiplatelet effect of P2Y12 antagonists raises the possibility that incorporating platelet function testing into clinical practice could facilitate a stratified and efficient approach to antiplatelet therapy following PCI, although data from definitive randomized trials supporting a routine approach are currently lacking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew R Harper
- Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
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133
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Bahar FG, Imai T. Aspirin Hydrolysis in Human and Experimental Animal Plasma and the Effect of Metal Cations on Hydrolase Activities. Drug Metab Dispos 2013; 41:1450-6. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.113.051805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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134
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Bliden KP, Baker BA, Nolin TD, Jeong YH, Bailey WL, Tantry US, Gurbel PA. Thienopyridine efficacy and cigarette smoking status. Am Heart J 2013; 165:693-703. [PMID: 23622905 DOI: 10.1016/j.ahj.2012.12.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2012] [Accepted: 12/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Dual antiplatelet therapy with aspirin and a P2Y12 receptor blocker is an established regimen to reduce the risk of ischemic event occurrence in patients with high-risk cardiovascular (CV) disease. Cigarette smoking is an important cardiovascular risk factor. However, several investigators have reported what may be termed a "new" "smoker's paradox", whereby clopidogrel-treated nonsmokers appear to have either less or no CV-event reduction when compared to the substantial CV-event reduction in clopidogrel-treated smokers based on several large-scale trials. This "smoker's paradox" observed in multiple clinical outcome studies is also supported by emerging "real-world" data that also suggest clopidogrel nonsmokers do not fare as well as smokers treated with clopidogrel. In support of the new "smoker's paradox", pharmacodynamic studies have also shown that smoking status influences clopidogrel responsiveness in healthy volunteers, acute coronary syndrome patients, and patients treated with percutaneous coronary intervention. Finally, there is a substantial, albeit not entirely consistent, body of pharmacodynamic and clinical outcome data supporting a reduced antiplatelet effect of clopidogrel in non-smokers as compared to smokers. The clinical relevance of this interaction has never been demonstrated in a prospective trial. The focus of this review is to critically evaluate the reported interaction between cigarette smoking status and thienopyridine efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin P Bliden
- Sinai Center for Thrombosis Research, Baltimore, MD 21215, USA
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135
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Abstract
Pediatric patients with a variety of congenital and acquired cardiac conditions receive antithrombotic therapy. Many of the indications are empirical, and have either not been proven in controlled studies or are extrapolated from adult studies. This article reviews the current available literature regarding the use of anti-platelet drugs in the pediatric cardiac population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sweta Mohanty
- Department of Pediatric Cardiology, Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre, Kochi, Kerala, India
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136
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Inoue NR, Hall A, Lai WG, Williams ET. Reversible Inhibition of Human Carboxylesterases by Acyl Glucuronides. Drug Metab Dispos 2013; 41:698-703. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.112.050252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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137
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Hatfield MJ, Tsurkan LG, Hyatt JL, Edwards CC, Lemoff A, Jeffries C, Yan B, Potter PM. Modulation of esterified drug metabolism by tanshinones from Salvia miltiorrhiza ("Danshen"). JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2013; 76:36-44. [PMID: 23286284 PMCID: PMC3556224 DOI: 10.1021/np300628a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The roots of Salvia miltiorrhiza ("Danshen") are used in traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of numerous ailments including cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and ischemic stroke. Extracts of S. miltiorrhiza roots in the formulation "Compound Danshen Dripping Pill" are undergoing clinical trials in the United States. To date, the active components of this material have not been conclusively identified. We have determined that S. miltiorrhiza roots contain potent human carboxylesterase (CE) inhibitors, due to the presence of tanshinones. K(i) values in the nM range were determined for inhibition of both the liver and intestinal CEs. As CEs hydrolyze clinically used drugs, the ability of tanshinones and S. miltiorrhiza root extracts to modulate the metabolism of the anticancer prodrug irinotecan (CPT-11) was assessed. Our results indicate that marked inhibition of human CEs occurs following incubation with both pure compounds and crude material and that drug hydrolysis is significantly reduced. Consequently, a reduction in the cytotoxicity of irinotecan is observed following dosing with either purified tanshinones or S. miltiorrhiza root extracts. It is concluded that remedies containing tanshinones should be avoided when individuals are taking esterified agents and that patients should be warned of the potential drug-drug interaction that may occur with this material.
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138
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Elsinghorst PW. Quantitative determination of clopidogrel and its metabolites in biological samples: a mini-review. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2013; 917-918:48-52. [PMID: 23369880 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2012.12.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2012] [Revised: 12/19/2012] [Accepted: 12/20/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Clopidogrel has been applied in antiplatelet therapy since 1998 and is the thienopyridine with the largest clinical experience. By 2011, clopidogrel (Plavix(®)) was the second top-selling drug in the world. Following complete patent expiry in 2012/2013 its use is expected to grow even further from generics entering the market. Prefaced by a brief description of clopidogrel metabolism, this review analyzes analytical methods addressing the quantification of clopidogrel and its metabolites in biological samples. Techniques that have been applied to analyze human plasma or serum are predominantly LC-MS and LC-MS/MS. The lowest level of clopidogrel quantification that has been achieved is 5pg/mL, the shortest runtime is 1.5min and almost 100% recovery has been reported using solid-phase extraction for sample preparation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul W Elsinghorst
- University of Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I, An der Immenburg 4, D-53121 Bonn, Germany.
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139
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Fareed J, Jeske W, Thethi I. Metabolic differences of current thienopyridine antiplatelet agents. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2013; 9:307-17. [DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2013.749238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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140
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Zhu HJ, Wang X, Gawronski BE, Brinda BJ, Angiolillo DJ, Markowitz JS. Carboxylesterase 1 as a Determinant of Clopidogrel Metabolism and Activation. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2012; 344:665-72. [DOI: 10.1124/jpet.112.201640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
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141
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Xiao D, Shi D, Yang D, Barthel B, Koch TH, Yan B. Carboxylesterase-2 is a highly sensitive target of the antiobesity agent orlistat with profound implications in the activation of anticancer prodrugs. Biochem Pharmacol 2012; 85:439-47. [PMID: 23228697 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2012.11.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2012] [Revised: 11/30/2012] [Accepted: 11/30/2012] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Orlistat has been the most used anti-obesity drug and the mechanism of its action is to reduce lipid absorption by inhibiting gastrointestinal lipases. These enzymes, like carboxylesterases (CESs), structurally belong to the α/β hydrolase fold superfamily. Lipases and CESs are functionally related as well. Some CESs (e.g., human CES1) have been shown to hydrolyze lipids. This study was designed to test the hypothesis that orlistat inhibits CESs with higher potency toward CES1 than CES2, a carboxylesterase with little lipase activity. Liver microsomes and recombinant CESs were tested for the inhibition of the hydrolysis of standard substrates and the anticancer prodrugs pentyl carbamate of p-aminobenzyl carbamate of doxazolidine (PPD) and irinotecan. Contrary to the hypothesis, orlistat at 1 nM inhibited CES2 activity by 75% but no inhibition on CES1, placing CES2 one of the most sensitive targets of orlistat. The inhibition varied among some CES2 polymorphic variants. Pretreatment with orlistat reduced the cell killing activity of PPD. Certain mouse but not rat CESs were also highly sensitive. CES2 is responsible for the hydrolysis of many common drugs and abundantly expressed in the gastrointestinal track and liver. Inhibition of this carboxylesterase probably presents a major source for altered therapeutic activity of these medicines if co-administered with orlistat. In addition, orlistat has been linked to various types of organ toxicities, and this study provides an alternative target potentially involved in these toxicological responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da Xiao
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Center for Pharmacogenomics and Molecular Therapy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881, USA
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142
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Pharmacokinetic interactions of clopidogrel with quercetin, telmisartan, and cyclosporine A in rats and dogs. Arch Pharm Res 2012; 35:1831-7. [DOI: 10.1007/s12272-012-1017-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2012] [Revised: 08/13/2012] [Accepted: 08/24/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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143
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Inhibition of human carboxylesterases hCE1 and hiCE by cholinesterase inhibitors. Chem Biol Interact 2012; 203:226-30. [PMID: 23123248 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2012.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2012] [Revised: 10/02/2012] [Accepted: 10/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Carboxylesterases (CEs) are ubiquitously expressed proteins that are responsible for the detoxification of xenobiotics. They tend to be expressed in tissues likely to be exposed to such agents (e.g., lung and gut epithelia, liver) and can hydrolyze numerous agents, including many clinically used drugs. Due to the considerable structural similarity between cholinesterases (ChE) and CEs, we have assessed the ability of a series of ChE inhibitors to modulate the activity of the human liver (hCE1) and the human intestinal CE (hiCE) isoforms. We observed inhibition of hCE1 and hiCE by carbamate-containing small molecules, including those used for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. For example, rivastigmine resulted in greater than 95% inhibition of hiCE that was irreversible under the conditions used. Hence, the administration of esterified drugs, in combination with these carbamates, may inadvertently result in decreased hydrolysis of the former, thereby limiting their efficacy. Therefore drug:drug interactions should be carefully evaluated in individuals receiving ChE inhibitors.
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144
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145
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Jeong YH, Tantry US, Gurbel PA. Importance of potent P2Y(12) receptor blockade in acute myocardial infarction: focus on prasugrel. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2012; 13:1771-96. [PMID: 22783896 DOI: 10.1517/14656566.2012.704909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Prasugrel therapy is recommended in patients with acute coronary syndromes (ACS) undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). AREAS COVERED This article reviews the efficacy and safety profile of prasugrel, cost considerations, and its role in clinical practice based on published data. The authors searched PubMed and Ovid databases for English language clinical trial articles involving the use of prasugrel in human subjects and patients, published through June 2012. The keyword "prasugrel" was used. The review focuses on clinical trials, but other articles including Food and Drug Administration documents are also reviewed. EXPERT OPINION Prasugrel has a more rapid and greater pharmacodynamic (PD) effect than clopidogrel. No significant drug - drug interactions have been reported. In a large-scale randomized clinical trial, prasugrel was associated with better protection against ischemic event occurrence compared to clopidogrel, but more bleeding in ACS patients undergoing PCI. Adverse outcomes outweighed the benefit of prasugrel in certain subgroups, including patients over the age of 75, those weighing less than 60 kg, and patients with a prior history of stroke or transient ischemic attack. In subsequent PD studies, prasugrel therapy showed suboptimal platelet inhibition in selected patients. In addition, "hyper-responsiveness" to prasugrel may increase the risk of serious bleeding in high-risk patients. More detailed studies are warranted to explore antiplatelet regimens tailored to optimally limit ischemic and bleeding event occurrences. A Phase-III TRILOGY trial (NCT00699998) will indicate the clinical efficacy and safety of prasugrel in patients with non-ST-segment elevation ACS, who are medically managed without coronary revascularization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young-Hoon Jeong
- Sinai Center for Thrombosis Research, Cardiac Catherization Laboratories, 2401 W. Belvedere Ave, Baltimore, MD 21215, USA
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146
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Antioxidant sulforaphane and sensitizer trinitrobenzene sulfonate induce carboxylesterase-1 through a novel element transactivated by nuclear factor-E2 related factor-2. Biochem Pharmacol 2012; 84:864-71. [PMID: 22776248 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2012.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2012] [Revised: 06/23/2012] [Accepted: 06/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Carboxylesterase-1 (CES1), the most versatile human carboxylesterase, plays critical roles in drug metabolism and lipid mobilization. This enzyme is highly induced by antioxidants and sensitizers in various cell lines. These compounds are known to activate nuclear factor-E2 related factor-2 (Nrf2) by reacting to kelch-like ECH-associated protein-1 (Keap1). The aims of this study were to determine whether antioxidant sulforaphane (SFN) and sensitizer trinitrobenzene sulfonate (TNBS) target Keap1 similarly and whether they use the same element for CES1 induction. Cells over-expressing Keap1 were treated with TNBS or SFN and the formation of disulfide bonds among Keap1 molecules were determined. SFN promoted intramolecular disulfide formation whereas TNBS promoted intermolecular disulfide formation of Keap1. Two elements, sensitizing/antioxidant response element (S/ARE) and ARE4, were identified to support Nrf2 in the regulated expression of CES1A1. Both elements were bound by Nrf2, however, the S/ARE element supported, whereas the ARE4 element repressed Nrf2 transactivation. The repression required higher amounts of Nrf2, suggesting that the transactivation through the S/ARE element dominates the trans-repression through the ARE4 element under normal antioxidative condition. These findings conclude that compounds, although triggering the Keap1-Nrf2 pathway, may differ in the mode of reacting with Keap1. These findings also conclude that both positive and negative Nrf2 elements exist even within the same gene, and such opposing mechanisms provide fine-tuning in transcriptional regulation by the Keap1-Nrf2 pathway. High levels of CES1 are linked to lipid retention. Excessive induction of CES1 by antioxidants and sensitizers likely provides a mechanism for potential detrimental effect on human health.
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147
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Floyd CN, Passacquale G, Ferro A. Comparative Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Platelet Adenosine Diphosphate Receptor Antagonists and their Clinical Implications. Clin Pharmacokinet 2012; 51:429-42. [DOI: 10.2165/11630740-000000000-00000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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148
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Xiao D, Chen YT, Yang D, Yan B. Age-related inducibility of carboxylesterases by the antiepileptic agent phenobarbital and implications in drug metabolism and lipid accumulation. Biochem Pharmacol 2012; 84:232-9. [PMID: 22513142 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2012.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2012] [Revised: 04/01/2012] [Accepted: 04/03/2012] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
Abstract
Carboxylesterases (CES) constitute a class of hydrolytic enzymes that play critical roles in drug metabolism and lipid mobilization. Previous studies with a large number of human liver samples have suggested that the inducibility of carboxylesterases is inversely related with age. To directly test this possibility, neonatal (10 days of age) and adult mice were treated with the antiepileptic agent phenobarbital. The expression and hydrolytic activity were determined on six major carboxylesterases including ces1d, the ortholog of human CES1. Without exception, all carboxylesterases tested were induced to a greater extent in neonatal than adult mice. The induction was detected at mRNA, protein and catalytic levels. Ces1d was greatly induced and found to rapidly hydrolyze the antiplatelet agent clopidogrel and support the accumulation of neutral lipids. Phenobarbital represents a large number of therapeutic agents that induce drug metabolizing enzymes and transporters in a species-conserved manner. The higher inducibility of carboxylesterases in the developmental age likely represents a general phenomenon cross species including human. Consequently, individuals in the developmental age may experience greater drug-drug interactions. The greater induction of ces1d also provides a molecular explanation to the clinical observation that children on antiepileptic drugs increase plasma lipids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da Xiao
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Center for Pharmacogenomics and Molecular Therapy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881, USA
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149
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Ohbuchi M, Noguchi K, Kawamura A, Usui T. Different effects of proton pump inhibitors and famotidine on the clopidogrel metabolic activation by recombinant CYP2B6, CYP2C19 and CYP3A4. Xenobiotica 2012; 42:633-40. [PMID: 22313038 DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2011.653655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Inhibitory potential of proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) and famotidine, an H(2) receptor antagonist, on the metabolic activation of clopidogrel was evaluated using recombinant CYP2B6, CYP2C19 and CYP3A4. Formation of the active metabolite from an intermediate metabolite, 2-oxo-clopidogrel, was investigated by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and three peaks corresponding to the pharmacologically active metabolite and its stereoisomers were detected. Omeprazole potently inhibited clopidogrel activation by CYP2C19 with an IC(50) of 12.8 μmol/L and more weakly inhibited that by CYP2B6 and CYP3A4. IC(50) of omeprazole for CYP2C19 and CYP3A4 was decreased about two- and three-fold, respectively, by 30-min preincubation with NADPH. Lansoprazole, esomeprazole, pantoprazole, rabeprazole and rabeprazole thioether, a major metabolite, also inhibited metabolic activation by CYP2C19, with an IC(50) of 4.3, 8.9, 48.3, 36.2 and 30.5 μmol/L, respectively. In contrast, famotidine showed no more than 20% inhibition of clopidogrel activation by CYP2B6, CYP2C19 and CYP3A4 at up to 100 μmol/L and had no time-dependent CYP2C19 and CYP3A4 inhibition. These results provide direct evidence that PPIs inhibit clopidogrel metabolic activation and suggest that CYP2C19 inhibition is the main cause of drug-drug interaction between clopidogrel and omeprazole. Famotidine is considered as a safe anti-acid agent for patients taking clopidogrel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masato Ohbuchi
- Drug Metabolism Research Laboratories, Drug Discovery Research, Astellas Pharma Inc., Osaka, Japan.
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150
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Sato Y, Miyashita A, Iwatsubo T, Usui T. Conclusive Identification of the Oxybutynin-Hydrolyzing Enzyme in Human Liver. Drug Metab Dispos 2012; 40:902-6. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.111.043208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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