101
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Nelson PJ, Teixeira MM. Dissection of inflammatory processes using chemokine biology: Lessons from clinical models. Immunol Lett 2012; 145:55-61. [DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2012.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2011] [Accepted: 04/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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102
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The immunopathogenesis of celiac disease reveals possible therapies beyond the gluten-free diet. Semin Immunopathol 2012; 34:581-600. [DOI: 10.1007/s00281-012-0318-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2012] [Accepted: 05/04/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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103
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Lawrance IC. Modifying T-cell trafficking to the intestinal as a potential management for inflammatory bowel disease. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2012; 21:975-84. [PMID: 22612537 DOI: 10.1517/13543784.2012.690030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IBDs) are life-long chronic relapsing incurable inflammatory conditions that usually appear in the first few decades of life. There have been marked advances in the management of these conditions, but none of the currently available therapies are a panacea as they are neither universally efficacious nor will their efficacy necessarily last. There is a desperate need for new therapies that target the immunological deficits within the immune system with low side effects and long-term efficacy. AREAS COVERED Leukocyte trafficking into the intestinal mucosa is central to the inflammatory pathogenesis in both Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) and modification of this trafficking has the ability to reduce the level of inflammation. The α4β7 integrin heterodimer is highly expressed on the CD4(+)CD45RA-memory T-cell subpopulation located within the intestine, and these play a critical part in the pathogenesis of IBD. EXPERT OPINION By modifying the integrin and chemokine interactions with their specific receptors, inhibition of α4(+) and α4β7(+) T-cell trafficking to the sites of intestinal inflammation is possible with promising outcomes in the management of IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Craig Lawrance
- University of Western Australia, Fremantle Hospital, Centre for inflammatory Bowel Diseases, WA and School of Medicine and Pharmacology, T Block, Alma Street, Fremantle, 6059 WA, Australia.
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Wijtmans M, Scholten DJ, de Esch IJ, Smit MJ, Leurs R. Therapeutic targeting of chemokine receptors by small molecules. DRUG DISCOVERY TODAY. TECHNOLOGIES 2012; 9:e227-e314. [PMID: 24063737 DOI: 10.1016/j.ddtec.2012.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
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Thomas S, Baumgart DC. Targeting leukocyte migration and adhesion in Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. Inflammopharmacology 2011; 20:1-18. [PMID: 22205271 DOI: 10.1007/s10787-011-0104-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2011] [Accepted: 11/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis are two chronic inflammatory bowel diseases. Current biologic therapies are limited to blocking tumor necrosis factor alpha. However, some patients are primary non-responders, experience a loss of response, intolerance or side effects defining the urgent unmet need for novel treatments. The rapid recruitment and inappropriate retention of leukocytes is a hallmark of chronic inflammation and a potentially promising therapeutic target. We discuss the immunological mechanisms of leukocyte homing and adhesion in the gut mucosa. The interaction of lymphocytes (CD4+ T-cells, CD8+ T-cells, T(REG), T(H)1, T(H)17, B-cells), monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells and granulocytes with endothelial and epithelial cells through integrins [α4β7 (LPAM-1), α(E)β₇ (HML1 Human Mucosal Lymphocyte Antigen 1), α₄β₁ (VLA-4), α(L)β₇, (LFA-1)] and their ligands immunoglobulin superfamily cellular adhesion molecules (CAM) (MAdCAM-1 Mucosal Addressin Cellular Adhesion Molecule 1, ICAM-1 Intercellular Cell Adhesion Molecule, VCAM-1 Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule), fibronectin as well as chemokine receptors (CCR2, CCR4, CCR5, CCR7, CCR9, CCR10, CXCR3, CX3CR1) and chemokines [CCL5, CCL25 (TECK Thymus Expressed Chemokine), CCL28, CX3CL1, CXCL10, CXCL12] in the process of gut homing is critically reviewed and summarized in scientific cartoons. Moreover, we discuss the clinical trial results of approved and investigational antibodies and small molecules including natalizumab (anti-α₄ Tysabri®, Antegren®), AJM300 (anti-α4), etrolizumab (anti-β7, rhuMAb-Beta7), vedolizumab (anti-α4β7, LDP-02, MLN-02, MLN0002), PF-00547659 (anti-MAdCAM), Alicaforsen (anti-ICAM-1), and CCX282-B (anti-CCR9, GSK-1605786, Traficet-EN™) and their risks such as PML reported for natalizumab. Hopefully, the newer gut specific drug designs discussed in this article will have an impact on both efficacy and safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saskia Thomas
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Charité Medical Center, Virchow Hospital, Medical School of the Humboldt University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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106
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Samson CM, Jurickova I, Molden E, Schreiner W, Colliver J, Bonkowski E, Han X, Trapnell BC, Denson LA. Granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor blockade promotes ccr9(+) lymphocyte expansion in Nod2 deficient mice. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2011; 17:2443-55. [PMID: 21381154 PMCID: PMC3111853 DOI: 10.1002/ibd.21672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2011] [Accepted: 01/12/2011] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ileal involvement in Crohn's disease (CD) is associated with NOD2 mutations and granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor autoantibodies (GM-CSF Ab), and GM-CSF blockade promotes ileitis in Nod2/Card15-deficient (C15KO) mice. RALDH2-expressing dendritic cells (DC) and IL-4 promote CCR9 imprinting and small bowel homing of T lymphocytes, in conjunction with CCL25 expression by ileal epithelial cells (IEC). We hypothesized that GM-CSF neutralization promotes ileal disease by modulating expression of CCL25 by IEC and CCR9 by T lymphocytes via Nod2-dependent and independent pathways. METHODS CCL25 and CCR9 expression were determined in pediatric CD patients stratified by GM-CSF Ab. Ileitis was induced in C15KO mice via GM-CSF Ab administration followed by nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug (NSAID) exposure, and expression of CCL25, CCR9, FOXP3, intracellular cytokines, and RALDH2 was determined in IEC and immune cell populations. RESULTS The frequency of CCL25(+) IEC and CCR9(+) T lymphocytes was increased in CD patients with elevated GM-CSF Ab. In the murine model, GM-CSF blockade alone induced IEC CCL25 expression, and reduced the frequency of mesenteric lymph node (MLN) CD4(+) FOXP3(+) cells, while Card15 deficiency alone enhanced MLN DC RALDH2 expression. Both GM-CSF neutralization and Card15 deficiency were required for downregulation of MLN DC IL-10 expression; under these conditions NSAID exposure led to an expansion of IL-4(+) and IL-17(+) CCR9(+) lymphocytes in the ileum. CONCLUSIONS GM-CSF prevents ileal expansion of CCR9(+) lymphocytes via Nod2-dependent and independent pathways. CCR9 blockade may be beneficial in CD patients with elevated GM-CSF Ab.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles M. Samson
- Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center and the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH,to whom correspondence should be addressed: MLC 2010, 3333 Burnet Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45229, Tel: 513-636-4415, Fax: 513-636-5581,
| | - Ingrid Jurickova
- Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center and the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Erin Molden
- Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center and the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH
| | - William Schreiner
- Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center and the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Joshua Colliver
- Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center and the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Erin Bonkowski
- Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center and the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Xiaonan Han
- Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center and the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Bruce C. Trapnell
- Pulmonary Biology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center and the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Lee A. Denson
- Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center and the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH
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107
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Abstract
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), encompassing Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, is associated with enhanced leukocyte infiltration to the gut, which is directly linked to the clinical aspects of these disorders. Thus, leukocyte trafficking is a major target for IBD therapy. Past and emerging techniques to study leukocyte trafficking both in vitro and in vivo have expanded our knowledge of the leukocyte migration process and the role of inhibitors. Various strategies have been employed to target chemokine- and integrin-ligand interactions within the multistep adhesion cascade and the S1P/S1PR1 axis in leukocyte migration. Though there is an abundance of preclinical data demonstrating efficacy of leukocyte trafficking inhibitors, many have yet to be confirmed in clinical studies. Vigilance for toxicity and further research is required into this complex and emerging area of IBD therapy.
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108
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Peterson S, Poposki JA, Nagarkar DR, Chustz RT, Peters AT, Suh LA, Carter R, Norton J, Harris KE, Grammer LC, Tan BK, Chandra RK, Conley DB, Kern RC, Schleimer RP, Kato A. Increased expression of CC chemokine ligand 18 in patients with chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2011; 129:119-27.e1-9. [PMID: 21943944 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2011.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2011] [Revised: 08/02/2011] [Accepted: 08/25/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps (CRSwNP) is associated with T(H)2-dominant inflammation, including eosinophilia, which is in contrast to chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) without nasal polyps (NPs). CC chemokine ligand 18 (CCL18)/pulmonary and activation-regulated chemokine is known to recruit naive T cells, B cells, and immature dendritic cells, as well as to activate fibroblasts. CCL18 is thought to be involved in T(H)2-related inflammatory diseases, including asthma and atopic dermatitis. OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to investigate the expression of CCL18 in patients with CRS. METHODS Using NP tissue and uncinate tissue (UT) from control subjects and patients with CRS, we examined the expression of CCL18 mRNA using real-time PCR and measured CCL18 protein using ELISA, Western blotting, and immunofluorescence. RESULTS Compared with UT tissue from control subjects, CCL18 mRNA levels were significantly increased in NPs (P < .001) and UT (P < .05) from patients with CRSwNP but not in UT from patients with CRS without NPs. Similarly, CCL18 protein levels were increased in NPs and UT from patients with CRSwNP, and levels were even higher in patients with Samter's triad. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed CCL18 expression in inflammatory cells, and CCL18(+) cell numbers were significantly increased in NPs. Immunofluorescence data showed colocalization of CCL18 in CD68(+)/CD163(+)/macrophage mannose receptor-positive M2 macrophages and tryptase-positive mast cells in NPs. Levels of CCL18 correlated with markers of M2 macrophages but not with tryptase levels, suggesting that M2 macrophages are major CCL18-producing cells in NPs. CONCLUSION Overproduction of CCL18 might contribute to the pathogenesis of CRSwNP through its known activities, which include recruitment of lymphocytes and dendritic cells, activation of fibroblasts, and initiation of local inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Peterson
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Ill 60611, USA
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Hu Y, Zhang L, Wu R, Han R, Jia Y, Jiang Z, Cheng M, Gan J, Tao X, Zhang Q. Specific killing of CCR9 high-expressing acute T lymphocytic leukemia cells by CCL25 fused with PE38 toxin. Leuk Res 2011; 35:1254-60. [PMID: 21295855 DOI: 10.1016/j.leukres.2011.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2010] [Revised: 01/14/2011] [Accepted: 01/15/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
We have previously demonstrated that CCR9 plays a pivotal role in drug resistance and invasion in human acute T-lymphocytic leukemia (T-ALL). In this study, we investigated whether the MOLT4 cells, which naturally express CCR9 at high levels, can be successfully killed by the specific ligand, CCL25 fused to Pseudomonas exotoxin 38 (PE38) toxin. Our results demonstrated that CCL25-PE38 was able to specifically kill MOLT4 cells via apoptosis induction, and suppress the growth of CCR9(+) tumors. This work shows that CCR9 high-expressing human T-ALL cells can be successfully killed by delivering PE38 toxin fused to the ligand CCL25.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Hu
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Science, Wuhan University, Wuchang, Wuhan, China
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110
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Abstract
It has been 10 years since the role of a chemokine receptor, CXCR4, in breast cancer metastasis was first documented. Since then, the field of chemokines and cancer has grown significantly, so it is timely to review the progress, analyse the studies to date and identify future challenges facing this field. Metastasis is the major factor that limits survival in most patients with cancer. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanisms that control the metastatic behaviour of tumour cells is pivotal for treating cancer successfully. Substantial experimental and clinical evidence supports the conclusion that molecular mechanisms control organ-specific metastasis. One of the most important mechanisms operating in metastasis involves homeostatic chemokines and their receptors. Here, we review this field and propose a model of 'cellular highways' to explain the effects of homeostatic chemokines on cancer cells and how they influence metastasis.
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111
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Abstract
Coeliac disease is a widespread, lifelong disorder for which dietary control represents the only accepted form of therapy. There is an unmet need for nondietary therapies to treat this condition. Most ongoing and emerging drug-discovery programmes are based on the understanding that coeliac disease is caused by an inappropriate T-cell-mediated immune response to dietary gluten proteins. Recent genome-wide association studies lend further support to this pathogenic model. The central role of human leucocyte antigen genes has been validated, and a number of new risk loci have been identified, most of which are related to the biology of T cells and antigen-presenting cells. Here, we review the status of potential nondietary therapies under consideration for coeliac disease. We conclude that future development of novel therapies will be aided considerably by the identification of new, preferably noninvasive, surrogate markers for coeliac disease activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- L M Sollid
- Centre for Immune Regulation, Institute of Immunology, University of Oslo and Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.
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112
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Garin A, Proudfoot AEI. Chemokines as targets for therapy. Exp Cell Res 2011; 317:602-12. [PMID: 21376173 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2010.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2010] [Accepted: 12/23/2010] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Garin
- Merck Serono S.A., 9 Chemin des Mines, 1202 Geneva, Switzerland
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113
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Wermers JD, McNamee EN, Wurbel MA, Jedlicka P, Rivera-Nieves J. The chemokine receptor CCR9 is required for the T-cell-mediated regulation of chronic ileitis in mice. Gastroenterology 2011; 140:1526-35.e3. [PMID: 21300065 PMCID: PMC3086928 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2011.01.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2010] [Revised: 12/24/2010] [Accepted: 01/20/2011] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS A balance between effector and regulatory T-cell (Treg) responses is required to maintain intestinal homeostasis. To regulate immunity, T cells migrate to the intestine using a combination of adhesion molecules and chemokine receptors. However, it is not known whether the migration pathways of effector cells and Tregs are distinct or shared. We sought to determine whether interaction between the chemokine receptor 9 (CCR9) and its ligand, chemokine ligand 25 (CCL25), allows effectors or Tregs to localize to chronically inflamed small intestine. METHODS By using a mouse model that develops Crohn's-like ileitis (tumor necrosis factor Δadenosine uracyl-rich element [TNFΔARE] mice) we examined the role of CCL25-CCR9 interactions for effector and Treg traffic using flow cytometry, quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction, immunohistochemistry, immunoneutralization, and proliferation analyses. RESULTS In TNFΔARE mice, expression of CCL25 and the frequency of CCR9-expressing lymphocytes increased during late-stage disease. In the absence of CCR9, TNFΔARE mice developed exacerbated disease, compared with their CCR9-sufficient counterparts, which coincided with a deficiency of CD4(+)/CD25(+)/forkhead box P3(+) and CD8(+)/CD103(+) Tregs within the intestinal lamina propria and mesenteric lymph nodes. Furthermore, the CD8(+)/CCR9(+) subset decreased the proliferation of CD4(+) T cells in vitro. Administration of a monoclonal antibody against CCR9 to TNFΔARE mice exacerbated ileitis in vivo, confirming the regulatory role of CD8(+)/CCR9(+) cells. CONCLUSIONS Signaling of the chemokine CCL25 through its receptor CCR9 induces Tregs to migrate to the intestine. These findings raise concerns about the development of reagents to disrupt this pathway for the treatment of patients with Crohn's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua D. Wermers
- Mucosal Inflammation Program, Department of Internal Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Eoin N. McNamee
- Mucosal Inflammation Program, Department of Internal Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Marc-André Wurbel
- Children's Hospital, Division of Gastroenterology/Nutrition, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Paul Jedlicka
- Department of Pathology, University of Colorado, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Jesús Rivera-Nieves
- Mucosal Inflammation Program, Department of Internal Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045
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114
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Villablanca EJ, Cassani B, von Andrian UH, Mora JR. Blocking lymphocyte localization to the gastrointestinal mucosa as a therapeutic strategy for inflammatory bowel diseases. Gastroenterology 2011; 140:1776-84. [PMID: 21530744 PMCID: PMC3102304 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2011.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2010] [Revised: 02/03/2011] [Accepted: 02/07/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Lymphocyte migration (homing) to specific tissues has an important role during protective and pathological immune responses, including inflammatory bowel diseases. Lymphocytes use integrin α4β7 and the chemokine receptor CCR9 to localize to the gastrointestinal mucosa; their respective ligands, mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule-1 and CCL25, are displayed on endothelial cells in intestinal postcapillary venules. Although gastrointestinal-homing receptors are required for lymphocyte migration to the intestine in the noninflamed steady state, their role during inflammation is a matter of debate. Reagents designed to block interactions between these receptors and their ligands have had variable degrees of success in animal models of inflammatory bowel diseases and patients. We discuss the mechanisms involved in lymphocyte localization to the intestinal mucosa and how they can be applied to therapy for inflammatory bowel diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo J. Villablanca
- Gastrointestinal Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114
| | - Barbara Cassani
- Gastrointestinal Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114
| | | | - J. Rodrigo Mora
- Gastrointestinal Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114
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115
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Overcoming hurdles in developing successful drugs targeting chemokine receptors. Nat Rev Immunol 2011; 11:355-63. [DOI: 10.1038/nri2972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 253] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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116
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Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic evaluation of the novel CCR1 antagonist CCX354 in healthy human subjects: implications for selection of clinical dose. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2011; 89:726-34. [PMID: 21451509 DOI: 10.1038/clpt.2011.33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The safety and pharmacokinetic (PK)/pharmacodynamic (PD) profile of the novel CCR1 antagonist CCX354 was evaluated in double-blind, placebo-controlled, single- and multiple-dose phase I studies (1-300 mg/day oral doses). CCX354 was well tolerated and displayed a linear dose-exposure profile, with half-life approaching 7 h at the 300-mg dose. The extent of CCR1 receptor blockade on blood monocytes, which correlated well with plasma concentrations of the drug, was assessed using fluorescently labeled CCL3 binding in whole blood from phase I subjects. High levels of receptor coverage at the 12-h time point were achieved after a single dose of 100 mg CCX354. Preclinical studies indicate that effective blockade of inflammatory cell infiltration into tissues requires ≥90% CCR1 inhibition on blood leukocytes at all times. The comparison of the properties of CCX354 with those published for other CCR1 antagonists has informed the dose selection for ongoing clinical development of CCX354 in rheumatoid arthritis (RA).
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117
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Abstract
The mucosal immune system is constantly exposed to a wide range of commensal and potentially pathogenic microbial species. Chronic exposure to foreign organisms makes generation of an appropriate immune response critical in maintaining a balance between elimination of harmful pathogens, peaceful coexistence with commensals, and prevention of autoimmunity. Intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes provide a first line of defense at this extensive barrier with the outside world, and as such, understanding their role in immunity is critical.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian S Sheridan
- Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, 263 Farmington Avenue, Farmington, CT 06030, USA.
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118
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Cruz-Orengo L, Holman DW, Dorsey D, Zhou L, Zhang P, Wright M, McCandless EE, Patel JR, Luker GD, Littman DR, Russell JH, Klein RS. CXCR7 influences leukocyte entry into the CNS parenchyma by controlling abluminal CXCL12 abundance during autoimmunity. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 208:327-39. [PMID: 21300915 PMCID: PMC3039853 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20102010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
During CNS autoimmunity, brain endothelial cell CXCR7 internalizes CXCL12 from the perivascular space, thereby permitting leukocyte migration into the CNS parenchyma. Loss of CXCL12, a leukocyte localizing cue, from abluminal surfaces of the blood–brain barrier occurs in multiple sclerosis (MS) lesions. However, the mechanisms and consequences of reduced abluminal CXCL12 abundance remain unclear. Here, we show that activation of CXCR7, which scavenges CXCL12, is essential for leukocyte entry via endothelial barriers into the central nervous system (CNS) parenchyma during experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a model for MS. CXCR7 expression on endothelial barriers increased during EAE at sites of inflammatory infiltration. Treatment with a CXCR7 antagonist ameliorated EAE, reduced leukocyte infiltration into the CNS parenchyma and parenchymal VCAM-1 expression, and increased abluminal levels of CXCL12. Interleukin 17 and interleukin 1β increased, whereas interferon-γ decreased, CXCR7 expression on and CXCL12 internalization in primary brain endothelial cells in vitro. These findings identify molecular requirements for the transvascular entry of leukocytes into the CNS and suggest that CXCR7 blockade may have therapeutic utility for the treatment of MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lillian Cruz-Orengo
- Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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119
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Wurbel MA, McIntire MG, Dwyer P, Fiebiger E. CCL25/CCR9 interactions regulate large intestinal inflammation in a murine model of acute colitis. PLoS One 2011; 6:e16442. [PMID: 21283540 PMCID: PMC3026821 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0016442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2010] [Accepted: 12/17/2010] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background & Aims CCL25/CCR9 is a non-promiscuous chemokine/receptor pair and a key regulator of leukocyte migration to the small intestine. We investigated here whether CCL25/CCR9 interactions also play a role in the regulation of inflammatory responses in the large intestine. Methods Acute inflammation and recovery in wild-type (WT) and CCR9−/− mice was studied in a model of dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis. Distribution studies and phenotypic characterization of dendritic cell subsets and macrophage were performed by flow cytometry. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) scores were assessed and expression of inflammatory cytokines was studied at the mRNA and the protein level. Results CCL25 and CCR9 are both expressed in the large intestine and are upregulated during DSS colitis. CCR9−/− mice are more susceptible to DSS colitis than WT littermate controls as shown by higher mortality, increased IBD score and delayed recovery. During recovery, the CCR9−/− colonic mucosa is characterized by the accumulation of activated macrophages and elevated levels of Th1/Th17 inflammatory cytokines. Activated plasmacytoid dendritic cells (DCs) accumulate in mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs) of CCR9−/− animals, altering the local ratio of DC subsets. Upon re-stimulation, T cells isolated from these MLNs secrete significantly higher levels of TNFα, IFNγ, IL2, IL-6 and IL-17A while down modulating IL-10 production. Conclusions Our results demonstrate that CCL25/CCR9 interactions regulate inflammatory immune responses in the large intestinal mucosa by balancing different subsets of dendritic cells. These findings have important implications for the use of CCR9-inhibitors in therapy of human IBD as they indicate a potential risk for patients with large intestinal inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc-Andre Wurbel
- Division of Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Children's Hospital Boston, and Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America.
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120
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Mortier A, Gouwy M, Van Damme J, Proost P. Effect of posttranslational processing on the in vitro and in vivo activity of chemokines. Exp Cell Res 2010; 317:642-54. [PMID: 21146523 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2010.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2010] [Revised: 11/25/2010] [Accepted: 11/29/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The CXC and CC chemokine gene clusters provide an abundant number of chemotactic factors selectively binding to shared G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR). Hence, chemokines function in a complex network to mediate migration of the various leukocyte subsets, expressing specific GPCRs during the immune response. Further fine-tuning of the chemokine system is reached through specific posttranslational modifications of the mature proteins. Indeed, enzymatic processing of chemokines during an early phase of inflammation leads to activation of precursor molecules or cleavage into even more active or receptor specific chemokine isoforms. At a further stage, proteolytic processing leads to loss of GPCR signaling, thereby providing natural chemokine receptor antagonists. Finally, further NH(2)-terminal cleavage results in complete inactivation to dampen the inflammatory response. During inflammatory responses, the two chemokines which exist in a membrane-bound form may be released by proteases from the cellular surface. In addition to proteolytic processing, citrullination and glycosylation of chemokines is also important for their biological activity. In particular, citrullination of arginine residues seems to reduce the inflammatory activity of chemokines in vivo. This goes along with other positive and negative regulatory mechanisms for leukocyte migration, such as chemokine synergy and scavenging by decoy receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anneleen Mortier
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Rega Institute, K.U. Leuven, Minderbroedersstraat 10, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium.
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