Mechanical strain-induced Ca(2+) waves are propagated via ATP release and purinergic receptor activation

Volume-dependent ATP-conductive large-conductance anion channel as a pathway for swelling-induced ATP release

In mouse mammary C127i cells, during whole-cell clamp, osmotic cell swelling activated an anion channel current, when the phloretin-sensitive, volume-activated outwardly rectifying Cl(-) channel was eliminated. This current exhibited time-dependent inactivation at positive and negative voltages greater than around +/-25 mV. The whole-cell current was selective for anions and sensitive to Gd(3)+. In on-cell patches, single-channel events appeared with a lag period of approximately 15 min after a hypotonic challenge. Under isotonic conditions, cell-attached patches were silent, but patch excision led to activation of currents that consisted of multiple large-conductance unitary steps. The current displayed voltage- and time-dependent inactivation similar to that of whole-cell current. Voltage-dependent activation profile was bell-shaped with the maximum open probability at -20 to 0 mV. The channel in inside-out patches had the unitary conductance of approximately 400 pS, a linear current-voltage relationship, and anion selectivity. The outward (but not inward) single-channel conductance was suppressed by extracellular ATP with an IC(50) of 12.3 mM and an electric distance (delta) of 0.47, whereas the inward (but not outward) conductance was inhibited by intracellular ATP with an IC(50) of 12.9 mM and delta of 0.40. Despite the open channel block by ATP, the channel was ATP-conductive with P(ATP)/P(Cl) of 0.09. The single-channel activity was sensitive to Gd(3)+, SITS, and NPPB, but insensitive to phloretin, niflumic acid, and glibenclamide. The same pharmacological pattern was found in swelling-induced ATP release. Thus, it is concluded that the volume- and voltage-dependent ATP-conductive large-conductance anion channel serves as a conductive pathway for the swelling-induced ATP release in C127i cells.

Key role for constitutive cyclooxygenase-2 of MDCK cells in basal signaling and response to released ATP

Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells release ATP upon mechanical or biochemical activation, initiating P2Y receptor signaling that regulates basal levels of multiple second messengers, including cAMP (J Biol Chem 275: 11735--11739, 2000). Data shown here document inhibition of cAMP formation by Gd(3+) and niflumic acid, channel inhibitors that block ATP release. cAMP production is stimulated via Ca(2+)-dependent activation of cytosolic phospholipase A(2), release of arachidonic acid (AA), and cyclooxygenase (COX)-dependent production of prostaglandins, which activate prostanoid receptors coupled to G(s) and adenylyl cyclase. In the current investigation, we assessed the expression and functional role of the two known isoforms of COX, COX-1 and COX-2. Treatment of cells with either a COX-1-selective inhibitor, SC-560, or COX-2-selective inhibitors, SC-58125 or NS-398, inhibited basal and UTP-stimulated cAMP levels. COX inhibitors also decreased forskolin-stimulated cAMP formation, implying this response is in part attributable to an action of AA metabolites. These findings imply an important role for the inducible form of COX, COX-2, under basal conditions. Indeed, COX-2 expression was readily detectable by immunoblot, and treatments that induce or reduce COX-2 expression in other cells (interleukin-1beta, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, phorbol ester, or dexamethasone) had minimal or no effect on the levels of COX-2 immunoreactivity. RT-PCR using isoform-specific primers detected COX-2 mRNA. We conclude that COX-2 is constitutively expressed in MDCK-D(1) cells and participates in basal and P2Y(2)-mediated signaling, implying a key role for COX-2 in regulation of epithelial cell function.

Differential effects of UTP, ATP, and adenosine on ciliary activity of human nasal epithelial cells

The purinergic regulation of ciliary activity was studied using small, continuously superfused explants of human nasal epithelium. The P2Y(2) purinoceptor (P2Y(2)-R) was identified as the major purinoceptor regulating ciliary beat frequency (CBF); UTP (EC(50) = 4.7 microM), ATP, and adenosine-5'-O-(3-thiotriphosphate) elicited similar maximal responses, approximately twofold over baseline. ATP, however, elicited a post-peak sustained plateau in CBF (1.83 +/- 0.1-fold), whereas the post-peak CBF response to UTP declined over 15 min to a low-level plateau (1.36 +/- 0.16-fold). UDP also stimulated ciliary beating, probably via P2Y(6)-R, with a maximal effect approximately one-half that elicited by P2Y(2)-R stimulation. Not indicated were P2Y(1)-R-, P2Y(4)-R-, or P2Y(11)-R-mediated effects. A(2B)-receptor agonists elicited sustained responses in CBF approximately equal to those from UTP/ATP [5'-(N-ethylcarboxamido)adenosine, EC(50) = 0.09 microM; adenosine, EC(50) = 0.7 microM]. Surprisingly, ADP elicited a sustained stimulation in CBF. The ADP effect and the post-peak sustained portion of the ATP response in CBF were inhibited by the A(2)-R antagonist 8-(p-sulfophenyl)theophylline. Hence, ATP affects ciliary activity through P2Y(2)-R and, after an apparent ectohydrolysis to adenosine, through A(2B)AR.

Extracellular nucleotide signaling along the renal epithelium

During the past two decades, several cell membrane receptors, which preferentially bind extracellular nucleotides, and their analogs have been identified. These receptors, collectively known as nucleotide receptors or "purinergic" receptors, have been characterized and classified on the basis of their biological actions, their pharmacology, their molecular biology, and their tissue and cell distribution. For these receptors to have biological and physiological relevance, nucleotides must be released from cells. The field of extracellular ATP release and signaling is exploding, as assays to detect this biological process increase in number and ingenuity. Studies of ATP release have revealed a myriad of roles in local regulatory (autocrine or paracrine) processes in almost every tissue in the body. The regulatory mechanisms that these receptors control or modulate have physiological and pathophysiological roles and potential therapeutic applications. Only recently, however, have ATP release and nucleotide receptors been identified along the renal epithelium of the nephron. This work has set the stage for the study of their physiological and pathophysiological roles in the kidney. This review provides a comprehensive presentation of these issues, with a focus on the renal epithelium.

Calcium-mediated transductive systems and functionally active gap junctions in astrocyte-like GL15 cells

BACKGROUND

It has been proposed that GL15, a human cell line derived from glioblastoma multiforme, is a possible astroglial-like cell model, based on the presence of cytoplasmic glial fibrillary acidic protein.

RESULTS

The aim of this work was to delineate the functional characteristics of GL15 cells using various experimental approaches, including the study of morphology, mechanism of induction of intracellular Ca2+ increase by different physiological agonists, and the presence and permeability of the gap-junction system during cell differentiation. Immunostaining experiments showed the presence and localization of specific glial markers, such as glial fibrillary acidic protein and S100B, and the lack of the neuronal marker S100A. Notably, all the Ca2+ pathways present in astrocytes were detected in GL15 cells. In particular, oscillations in intracellular Ca2+ levels were recorded either spontaneously, or in the presence of ATP or glutamate (but not KCl). Immunolabelling assays and confocal microscopy, substantiated by Western blot analyses, revealed the presence of connexin43, a subunit of astrocyte gap-junction channels. The protein is organised in characteristic spots on the plasma membrane at cell-cell contact regions, and its presence and distribution depends on the differentiative status of the cell. Finally, a microinjection/dye-transfer assay, employed to determine gap-junction functionality, clearly demonstrated that the cells were functionally coupled, albeit to varying degrees, in differentiated and undifferentiated phenotypes.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, results from this study support the use of the GL15 cell line as a suitable in vitro astrocyte model, which provides a valuable guide for studying glial physiological features at various differentiation phases.

Molecular basis of mechanotransduction in living cells

The simplest cell-like structure, the lipid bilayer vesicle, can respond to mechanical deformation by elastic membrane dilation/thinning and curvature changes. When a protein is inserted in the lipid bilayer, an energetic cost may arise because of hydrophobic mismatch between the protein and bilayer. Localized changes in bilayer thickness and curvature may compensate for this mismatch. The peptides alamethicin and gramicidin and the bacterial membrane protein MscL form mechanically gated (MG) channels when inserted in lipid bilayers. Their mechanosensitivity may arise because channel opening is associated with a change in the protein's membrane-occupied area, its hydrophobic mismatch with the bilayer, excluded water volume, or a combination of these effects. As a consequence, bilayer dilation/thinning or changes in local membrane curvature may shift the equilibrium between channel conformations. Recent evidence indicates that MG channels in specific animal cell types (e.g., Xenopus oocytes) are also gated directly by bilayer tension. However, animal cells lack the rigid cell wall that protects bacteria and plants cells from excessive expansion of their bilayer. Instead, a cortical cytoskeleton (CSK) provides a structural framework that allows the animal cell to maintain a stable excess membrane area (i.e., for its volume occupied by a sphere) in the form of membrane folds, ruffles, and microvilli. This excess membrane provides an immediate membrane reserve that may protect the bilayer from sudden changes in bilayer tension. Contractile elements within the CSK may locally slacken or tighten bilayer tension to regulate mechanosensitivity, whereas membrane blebbing and tight seal patch formation, by using up membrane reserves, may increase membrane mechanosensitivity. In specific cases, extracellular and/or CSK proteins (i.e., tethers) may transmit mechanical forces to the process (e.g., hair cell MG channels, MS intracellular Ca(2+) release, and transmitter release) without increasing tension in the lipid bilayer.

ATP release mechanisms, ATP receptors and purinergic signalling along the nephron

1. Autocrine and paracrine signalling along the nephron of the kidney has been a widely held hypothesis for several decades. The lumen of the nephron is an ideal autocrine and paracrine signalling microenvironment. Any agonist, filtered at the glomerulus or released in the proximal tubule or other proximal segments, is subsequently trapped in the lumen of the nephron and present to interact with luminal receptors. Similar signalling in the renal interstitium is also possible and likely. Indeed, receptors for many autocrine and paracrine agonists have been characterized on the luminal membrane and serosal membrane of multiple nephron segments. 2. An important family of autocrine and paracrine agonists in the kidney are the purinergic agonists. Extracellular ATP, as well as its metabolites (ADP, 5'-AMP and adenosine), is released by renal epithelial cells. These compounds are also freely filtered at the glomerulus and are found in the final urine. Receptors for ATP and adenosine are also expressed on the luminal and serosal side of many nephron segments. 3. The present review discusses purinergic signalling by nucleotide agonists in an integrated manner, from ATP release to ATP receptors to extracellular ATP-mediated effects on renal epithelial function. These themes are the focus of our laboratory in normal and polycystic kidneys as well as in normal and diseased epithelial cells from other tissues. The physiological roles of extracellular purinergic signalling in the kidney and other tissues are only beginning to emerge.

Airway goblet-cell mucus secretion

A mucus hypersecretory phenotype is a dominant characteristic of chronic airways diseases such as chronic bronchitis and asthma. This phenotype develops following chronic exposure of the respiratory tract to particulate matter, allergens, irritants and/or pathogens. The associated increase in the mucus-producing potential of the respiratory epithelium represents an innate host response that can be modulated by elements of the adaptive host response. Although elevation of mucus production is designed to protect the airways, increasing evidence suggests that in excess it can be detrimental to health. Considerable progress has been made over the past five years in understanding the mechanisms involved in the development and regulation of the hypersecretory phenotype. This progress has set the stage for the development of successful dedicated mucomodulatory strategies to counter the negative impact of excess mucus production in respiratory disease.