MicroRNA-758 regulates cholesterol efflux through posttranscriptional repression of ATP-binding cassette transporter A1

MicroRNA Regulation of Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis and its attendant clinical complications, such as myocardial infarction, stroke, and peripheral artery disease, are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in Western societies. In response to biochemical and biomechanical stimuli, atherosclerotic lesion formation occurs from the participation of a range of cell types, inflammatory mediators, and shear stress. Over the past decade, microRNAs (miRNAs) have emerged as evolutionarily conserved, noncoding small RNAs that serve as important regulators and fine-tuners of a range of pathophysiological cellular effects and molecular signaling pathways involved in atherosclerosis. Accumulating studies reveal the importance of miRNAs in regulating key signaling and lipid homeostasis pathways that alter the balance of atherosclerotic plaque progression and regression. In this review, we highlight current paradigms of miRNA-mediated effects in atherosclerosis progression and regression. We provide an update on the potential use of miRNAs diagnostically for detecting increasing severity of coronary disease and clinical events. Finally, we provide a perspective on therapeutic opportunities and challenges for miRNA delivery in the field.

Macrophage miRNAs in atherosclerosis

The discovery of endogenous microRNAs (miRNAs) in the early 1990s has been followed by the identification of hundreds of miRNAs and their roles in regulating various biological processes, including proliferation, apoptosis, lipid metabolism, glucose homeostasis and viral infection Esteller (2011), Ameres and Zamore (2013) [1,2]. miRNAs are small (~22 nucleotides) non-coding RNAs that function as "rheostats" to simultaneously tweak the expression of multiple genes within a genetic network, resulting in dramatic functional modulation of biological processes. Although the last decade has brought the identification of miRNAs, their targets and function(s) in health and disease, there remains much to be deciphered from the human genome and its complexities in mechanistic regulation of entire genetic networks. These discoveries have opened the door to new and exciting avenues for therapeutic interventions to treat various pathological diseases, including cardiometabolic diseases such as atherosclerosis, diabetes and obesity. In a complex multi-factorial disease like atherosclerosis, many miRNAs have been shown to contribute to disease progression and may offer novel targets for future therapy. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: MicroRNAs and lipid/energy metabolism and related diseases edited by Carlos Fernández-Hernando and Yajaira Suárez.

Deep Sequencing and Screening of Differentially Expressed MicroRNAs Related to Milk Fat Metabolism in Bovine Primary Mammary Epithelial Cells

Milk fat is a key factor affecting milk quality and is also a major trait targeted in dairy cow breeding. To determine how the synthesis and the metabolism of lipids in bovine milk is regulated at the miRNA level, primary mammary epithelial cells (pMEC) derived from two Chinese Holstein dairy cows that produced extreme differences in milk fat percentage were cultured by the method of tissue nubbles culture. Small RNA libraries were constructed from each of the two pMEC groups, and Solexa sequencing and bioinformatics analysis were then used to determine the abundance of miRNAs and their differential expression pattern between pMECs. Target genes and functional prediction of differentially expressed miRNAs by Gene Ontology and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analysis illustrated their roles in milk fat metabolism. Results show that a total of 292 known miRNAs and 116 novel miRNAs were detected in both pMECs. Identification of known and novel miRNA candidates demonstrated the feasibility and sensitivity of sequencing at the cellular level. Additionally, 97 miRNAs were significantly differentially expressed between the pMECs. Finally, three miRNAs including bta-miR-33a, bta-miR-152 and bta-miR-224 whose predicted target genes were annotated to the pathway of lipid metabolism were screened and verified by real-time qPCR and Western-blotting experiments. This study is the first comparative profiling of the miRNA transcriptome in pMECs that produce different milk fat content.

miRNAs and High-Density Lipoprotein metabolism

Altered lipoprotein metabolism plays a key role during atherogenesis. For over 50years, epidemiological data have fueled the proposal that HDL-cholesterol (HDL-c) in circulation is inversely correlated to cardiovascular risk. However, the atheroprotective role of HDL is currently the focus of much debate and remains an active field of research. The emerging picture from research in the past decade suggests that HDL function, rather than HDL-c content, is important in disease. Recent developments demonstrate that miRNAs play an important role in fine-tuning the expression of key genes involved in HDL biogenesis, lipidation, and clearance, as well as in determining the amounts of HDL-c in circulation. Thus, it has been proposed that miRNAs that affect HDL metabolism might be exploited therapeutically in patients. Whether HDL-based therapies, alone or in combination with LDL-based treatments (e.g. statins), provide superior outcomes in patients has been recently questioned by human genetics studies and clinical trials. The switch in focus from "HDL-cholesterol" to "HDL function" opens a new paradigm to understand the physiology and therapeutic potential of HDL, and to find novel modulators of cardiovascular risk. In this review we summarize the current knowledge on the regulation of HDL metabolism and function by miRNAs. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: MicroRNAs and lipid/energy metabolism and related diseases edited by Carlos Fernández-Hernando and Yajaira Suárez.

microRNAs in lipoprotein metabolism and cardiometabolic disorders

Circulating levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL), and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL) are two of the most important risk factors for the development of cardiovascular disease (CVD), the leading cause of death worldwide. Recently, miRNAs have emerged as critical regulators of cholesterol metabolism and promising therapeutic targets for the treatment of CVD. A great deal of work has established numerous miRNAs as important regulators of HDL metabolism. This includes miRNAs that target ABCA1, a critical factor for HDL biogenesis and reverse cholesterol transport (RCT), the process through which cells, including arterial macrophages, efflux cellular cholesterol for transport to and removal by the liver. The most well studied of these miRNAs, miR-33, has been demonstrated to target ABCA1, as well as numerous other genes involved in metabolic function and RCT, and therapeutic inhibition of miR-33 was found to increase HDL levels in mice and non-human primates. Moreover, numerous studies have demonstrated the beneficial effects of miR-33 inhibition or knockout on reducing atherosclerotic plaque burden. Even more recent work has identified miRNAs that regulate LDL cholesterol levels, including direct modulation of LDL uptake in the liver through targeting of the LDL receptor. Among these, inhibition of miR-128-1, miR-148a, or miR-185 was found to reduce plasma LDL levels, and inhibition of miR-185 was further demonstrated to reduce atherosclerotic plaque size in ApoE(-/-) mice. Due to their ability to target many different genes, miRNAs have the ability to mediate complex physiologic changes through simultaneous regulation of multiple interrelated pathways. Of particular importance for CVD, inhibition of miR-148a may prove an important therapeutic approach for combating dyslipidemia, as this has been demonstrated to both raise plasma HDL levels and lower LDL levels in mice by targeting both ABCA1 and LDLR, respectively. In this review we highlight recent advances in our understanding of how miRNAs regulate cholesterol metabolism and the development of atherosclerotic plaques and discuss the potential of anti-miRNA therapies for the treatment and prevention of CVD.

miRNA and cholesterol homeostasis

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have recently emerged as a novel class of epigenetic regulators of gene expression. They are systemically involved in the control of lipid metabolism through a complex interactive mechanism that involves gene regulatory networks. Hence, they can contribute to defective lipid metabolism and metabolic diseases. Here, we review recent advances in the roles of lipid-sensing transcription factors in regulating miRNA gene networks, as well as miRNA expression and function in the regulation of cholesterol metabolism. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: MicroRNAs and lipid/energy metabolism and related diseases edited by Carlos Fernández-Hernando and Yajaira Suárez.

Epigenetic associations in relation to cardiovascular prevention and therapeutics

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) increasingly burden societies with vast financial and health care problems. Therefore, the importance of improving preventive and therapeutic measures against cardiovascular diseases is continually growing. To accomplish such improvements, research must focus particularly on understanding the underlying mechanisms of such diseases, as in the field of epigenetics, and pay more attention to strengthening primary prevention. To date, preliminary research has found a connection between DNA methylation, histone modifications, RNA-based mechanisms and the development of CVD like atherosclerosis, cardiac hypertrophy, myocardial infarction, and heart failure. Several therapeutic agents based on the findings of such research projects are currently being tested for use in clinical practice. Although these tests have produced promising data so far, no epigenetically active agents or drugs targeting histone acetylation and/or methylation have actually entered clinical trials for CVDs, nor have they been approved by the FDA. To ensure the most effective prevention and treatment possible, further studies are required to understand the complex relationship between epigenetic regulation and the development of CVD. Similarly, several classes of RNA therapeutics are currently under development. The use of miRNAs and their targets as diagnostic or prognostic markers for CVDs is promising, but has not yet been realized. Further studies are necessary to improve our understanding of the involvement of lncRNA in regulating gene expression changes underlying heart failure. Through the data obtained from such studies, specific therapeutic strategies to avoid heart failure based on interference with incRNA pathways could be developed. Together, research and testing findings raise hope for enhancing the therapeutic armamentarium. This review presents the currently available data concerning epigenetic mechanisms and compounds involved in cardiovascular diseases, as well as preventive and therapeutic approaches against them.

Noncoding RNAs in Regulation of Cancer Metabolic Reprogramming

Since the description of the Warburg effect 90 years ago, metabolic reprogramming has been gradually recognized as a major hallmark of cancer cells. Mounting evidence now indicates that cancer is a kind of metabolic disease, quite distinct from conventional perception. While metabolic alterations in cancer cells have been extensively observed in glucose, lipid, and amino acid metabolisms, its underlying regulatory mechanisms are still poorly understood. Noncoding RNA, also known as the "dark matter in life," functions through various mechanisms at RNA level regulating different biological pathways. The last two decades have witnessed the booming of noncoding RNA study on microRNA (miRNA), long noncoding RNA (lncRNA), circular RNA (circRNA), PIWI-interacting RNA (piRNA), etc. In this chapter, we will discuss the regulatory roles of noncoding RNAs on cancer metabolism.

Small but smart: MicroRNAs orchestrate atherosclerosis development and progression

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short non-coding RNA able to bind specific sequences on target messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and thereby to post-transcriptionally modulate gene expression. Being expressed in all vertebrate cell types, miRNAs have emerged as key players in a wide array of biological processes, including cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. Over the past decade, knowledge concerning the contribution of miRNAs to human pathology has grown with an astonishing pace. In particular, a major involvement of miRNAs in atherosclerosis as a leading cause of global mortality has been supported by ample evidence from in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies. This review aims to summarize and highlight current concepts of miRNA function in the continuum of atherogenesis ranging from risk factors (i.e. dyslipidemia, diabetes, hypertension), to endothelial dysfunction up to the events leading to plaque rupture. Areas in need for further research and potential perspectives for translational applications will be scrutinized. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: MicroRNAs and lipid/energy metabolism and related diseases edited by Carlos Fernández-Hernando and Yajaira Suárez.

Inverse association between microRNA-124a and ABCC4 in HepG2 cells treated with antiretroviral drugs

The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) super-family of drug transporters regulates efflux of xenobiotic compounds. The subfamily, multi-drug resistance proteins (MRPs) transports cyclic nucleotides and xenobiotics. Epigenetic modulation of drug transporters is scarcely described. The regulatory role of microRNA (miR)-124a on drug transporter gene ABCC4 was only recently reported. Our study investigated the differential regulation of miR-124a by nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs): Zidovudine (AZT), Stavudine (d4T) and Tenofovir (TFV); at 24 h and 120 h treatments in HepG2 cells. ABCC4 mRNA (qPCR) and ABCC4 protein (western blot) were quantified. Cytotoxicity was evaluated by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels. All NRTIs elevated miR-124a levels at 24 h, with a concomitant decline in ABCC4 mRNA levels (p<0.05). At 120 h, d4T and TFV elevated miR-124a and depleted ABCC4 mRNA levels (p<0.0001), while the inverse was observed with AZT (p<0.005). ABCC4 protein was increased by d4T and TFV at 24h. A significant reduction in protein levels was observed at 120 h in all three treatments (p<0.005). The disjoint in mRNA and protein levels is likely due to ABCC4 being a membrane bound protein. Following prolonged exposure, membrane integrity was compromised as evidenced by increased LDH leakage (p<0.005). We conclude antiretroviral drugs have varying effects on miR-124a and ABCC4.

miR-27b inhibits LDLR and ABCA1 expression but does not influence plasma and hepatic lipid levels in mice

RATIONALE

Recently, there has been significant interest in the therapeutic administration of miRNA mimics and inhibitors to treat cardiovascular disease. In particular, miR-27b has emerged as a regulatory hub in cholesterol and lipid metabolism and potential therapeutic target for treating atherosclerosis. Despite this, the impact of miR-27b on lipid levels in vivo remains to be determined. As such, here we set out to further characterize the role of miR-27b in regulating cholesterol metabolism in vitro and to determine the effect of miR-27b overexpression and inhibition on circulating and hepatic lipids in mice.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Our results identify miR-27b as an important regulator of LDLR activity in human and mouse hepatic cells through direct targeting of LDLR and LDLRAP1. In addition, we report that modulation of miR-27b expression affects ABCA1 protein levels and cellular cholesterol efflux to ApoA1 in human hepatic Huh7 cells. Overexpression of pre-miR-27b in the livers of wild-type mice using AAV8 vectors increased pre-miR-27b levels 50-fold and reduced hepatic ABCA1 and LDLR expression by 50% and 20%, respectively, without changing circulating and hepatic cholesterol and triglycerides. To determine the effect of endogenous miR-27b on circulating lipids, wild-type mice were fed a Western diet for one month and injected with 5 mg/kg of LNA control or LNA anti-miR-27b oligonucleotides. Following two weeks of treatment, the expression of ABCA1 and LDLR were increased by 10-20% in the liver, demonstrating effective inhibition of miR-27b function. Intriguingly, no differences in circulating and hepatic lipids were observed between treatment groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The results presented here provide evidence that short-term modulation of miR-27b expression in wild-type mice regulates hepatic LDLR and ABCA1 expression but does not influence plasma and hepatic lipid levels.

MicroRNA-148a regulates LDL receptor and ABCA1 expression to control circulating lipoprotein levels

The hepatic low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) pathway is essential for clearing circulating LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C). While the transcriptional regulation of LDLR is well-characterized, the post-transcriptional mechanisms which govern LDLR expression are just beginning to emerge. Here, we developed a high-throughput genome-wide screening assay to systematically identify microRNAs (miRNAs) that regulate LDLR activity in human hepatic cells. From this screen, we characterize miR-148a as a negative regulator of LDLR expression and activity, and define a novel SREBP1-mediated pathway by which miR-148a regulates LDL-C uptake. Importantly, inhibition of miR-148a increases hepatic LDLR expression and decreases plasma LDL-C in vivo. We also provide evidence that miR-148a regulates hepatic ABCA1 expression and circulating HDL-C levels. Collectively, these studies uncover miR-148a as an important regulator of hepatic LDL-C clearance through direct regulation of LDLR expression, and demonstrate the therapeutic potential of inhibiting miR-148a to ameliorate the elevated LDL-C/HDL-C ratio, a prominent risk factor for cardiovascular disease.

Mammalian hibernation and regulation of lipid metabolism: a focus on non-coding RNAs

Numerous species will confront severe environmental conditions by undergoing significant metabolic rate reduction. Mammalian hibernation is one such natural model of hypometabolism. Hibernators experience considerable physiological, metabolic, and molecular changes to survive the harsh challenges associated with winter. Whether as fuel source or as key signaling molecules, lipids are of primary importance for a successful bout of hibernation and their careful regulation throughout this process is essential. In recent years, a plethora of non-coding RNAs has emerged as potential regulators of targets implicated in lipid metabolism in diverse models. In this review, we introduce the general characteristics associated with mammalian hibernation, present the importance of lipid metabolism prior to and during hibernation, as well as discuss the potential relevance of non-coding RNAs such as miRNAs and lncRNAs during this process.

MicroRNAs and Noncoding RNAs in Hepatic Lipid and Lipoprotein Metabolism: Potential Therapeutic Targets of Metabolic Disorders

Noncoding RNAs and microRNAs (miRNAs) represent an important class of regulatory molecules that modulate gene expression. The role of miRNAs in diverse cellular processes such as cancer, apoptosis, cell differentiation, cardiac remodeling, and inflammation has been intensively explored. Recent studies further demonstrated the important roles of miRNAs and noncoding RNAs in modulating a broad spectrum of genes involved in lipid synthesis and metabolic pathways. This overview focuses on the role of miRNAs in hepatic lipid and lipoprotein metabolism and their potential as therapeutic targets for metabolic syndrome. This includes recent advances made in the understanding of their target pathways and the clinical development of miRNAs in lipid metabolic disorders.

The Relationship Between Colonic Macrophages and MicroRNA-128 in the Pathogenesis of Slow Transit Constipation

BACKGROUND

Recent evidence suggests that colonic macrophages and microRNAs play important roles in motor activity in the gastrointestinal tract. However, there are almost no data concerning colonic macrophages and microRNAs in slow transit constipation.

AIM

The purpose of this study was to investigate colonic macrophages and microRNA-128 expression in the pathogenesis of slow transit constipation in colon tissues.

METHODS

Full-thickness colonic specimens from patients undergoing surgery for slow transit constipation, due to refractoriness to other therapeutic interventions (n = 25), were compared to controls (n = 25), and the number of colonic macrophages (as evaluated by specific monoclonal antibodies) was counted. Gene expression analysis of microRNA-128 was performed by microRNA microarray and qRT-PCR. Lastly, bioinformatics analysis, coupled with luciferase reporter assays, was used to investigate the mRNA transcript(s) targeted by microRNA-128.

RESULTS

Compared to controls, 20 of 25 slow transit constipation patients (80 %) had significantly higher numbers of macrophages in colonic specimens, coupled with down-regulation of microRNA-128. Linear regression analyses showed a significant negative correlation between macrophage number and microRNA-128 expression level. Among 83 bioinformatically predicated candidates, mitogen-activated protein kinase 14 (p38α) was validated to be a direct target of microRNA-128 in human intestinal epithelial cells.

CONCLUSIONS

This study presents evidence for the negative correlation of macrophage number and microRNA-128 expression, in slow transit constipation patients, representing a possible mechanism of impaired gastrointestinal motility.

The Regulation of Reverse Cholesterol Transport and Cellular Cholesterol Homeostasis by MicroRNAs

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, non-coding RNAs that have the ability to post-transcriptionally regulate gene expression. Hundreds of miRNAs have been identified in humans and they are involved in the regulation of almost every process, including cholesterol transport, metabolism, and maintenance of cholesterol homeostasis. Because of their small size and their ability to very specifically regulate gene expression, miRNAs are attractive targets for the regulation of dyslipidemias and other lipid-related disorders. However, the complex interactions between miRNAs, transcription factors, and gene expression raise great potential for side effects as a result of miRNA overexpression or inhibition. Many dietary components can also target specific miRNAs, altering the expression of downstream genes. Therefore, much more research is necessary to fully understand the role(s) of each miRNA in the body and how they may be impacted by diet and health. The present review aims to summarize the known roles of miRNAs in the regulation of reverse cholesterol transport and the maintenance of cholesterol homeostasis, as well as the potential clinical consequences of their manipulation.

Unlocking the door to new therapies in cardiovascular disease: microRNAs hold the key

MicroRNAs are the most abundant class of regulatory noncoding RNA and are estimated to regulate over half of all human protein-coding genes. The heart is comprised of some of the most complex and highly conserved genetic networks and is thus under tight regulation by post-transcriptional mechanisms. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have been found to regulate virtually all aspects of cardiac physiology and pathophysiology, from the development of inflammatory atherosclerosis to hypertrophic remodeling in heart failure. Owing to the wide-spread involvement of miRNAs in the development of and protection from many diseases, there has been increasing excitement surrounding their potential as novel therapeutic targets to treat and prevent the worldwide epidemic of cardiovascular disease.

MicroRNAs and High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Metabolism

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-protein-coding RNAs that negatively regulate gene expression. They bind to the 3'-untranslated region of specific mRNAs and inhibit translation or promote mRNA degradation. Dyslipidemia/hyperlipidemia is a well-accepted risk factor for the development of atherosclerosis. The pathogenesis factors involved in lipid abnormalities are being examined extensively, and there is emerging evidence linking miRNAs to lipid metabolism. Among them, recent studies, including ours, have demonstrated that miRNAs control the expression of genes associated with high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol (HDL-C) metabolism, including ABCA1, ABCG1, and scavenger receptor class B, type I. Moreover, HDL-C itself was proved to carry miRNAs and deliver them to several different types of cells. In this review, we describe the current understanding of the functions of miRNAs in HDL metabolism and their potential in therapy for treating cardiometabolic diseases.

[Epigenetics in atherosclerosis]

The association studies based on candidate genes carried on for decades have helped in visualizing the influence of the genetic component in complex diseases such as atherosclerosis, also showing the interaction between different genes and environmental factors. Even with all the knowledge accumulated, there is still some way to go to decipher the individual predisposition to disease, and if we consider the great influence that environmental factors play in the development and progression of atherosclerosis, epigenetics is presented as a key element in trying to expand our knowledge on individual predisposition to atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. Epigenetics can be described as the discipline that studies the mechanisms of transcriptional regulation, independent of changes in the sequence of DNA, and mostly induced by environmental factors. This review aims to describe what epigenetics is and how epigenetic mechanisms are involved in atherosclerosis.

The effects of microRNA on the absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion of drugs

The importance of genetic factors (e.g. sequence variation) in the absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion (ADME) and overall efficacy of therapeutic agents is well established. Our ability to identify, interpret and utilize these factors is the subject of much clinical investigation and therapeutic development. However, drug ADME and efficacy are also heavily influenced by epigenetic factors such as DNA/histone methylation and non-coding RNAs [especially microRNAs (miRNAs)]. Results from studies using tools, such as in silico miRNA target prediction, in vitro functional assays, nucleic acid profiling/sequencing and high-throughput proteomics, are rapidly expanding our knowledge of these factors and their effects on drug metabolism. Although these studies reveal a complex regulation of drug ADME, an increased understanding of the molecular interplay between the genome, epigenome and transcriptome has the potential to provide practically useful strategies to facilitate drug development, optimize therapeutic efficacy, circumvent adverse effects, yield novel diagnostics and ultimately become an integral component of personalized medicine.

MicroRNA-101 overexpression by IL-6 and TNF-α inhibits cholesterol efflux by suppressing ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 expression

BACKGROUND

MicroRNAs play key roles in regulating cholesterol homeostasis. Here, we investigated the role of microRNA-101 (miR-101) in regulating ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) expression and cholesterol efflux under non-inflammatory and inflammatory conditions in human THP-1-derived macrophages and HepG2 hepatoblastoma cells.

METHODS

The cell lines were transfected with one of four lentiviral vectors: miR-101, miR-101 control, anti-miR-101, or anti-miR-101 control. A luciferase reporter assay was used to examine miR-101 binding to the 3' untranslated region (UTR) of ABCA1. Western blotting was conducted to assess ABCA1 protein expression. Cells were loaded with BODIPY-cholesterol and stained with oil red O to assess cholesterol efflux.

RESULTS

The luciferase activity assay revealed that wild-type miR-101 binding at site 2 significantly repressed ABCA1 3' UTR activity, suggesting that miR-101 directly targets the ABCA1 mRNA at site 2. In both cell lines, Western blotting revealed that miR-101 expression negatively regulates ABCA1 protein expression and significantly suppresses cholesterol efflux to ApoA1 under both low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and non-LDL conditions, which was confirmed by pronounced lipid inclusions visible by oil red O staining. In HepG2 cells, both IL-6 and TNF-α treatments produced significant miR-101 overexpression; however, in THP-1-derived macrophages, only IL-6 treatment produced significant miR-101 overexpression. Anti-mir-101 transfection under both IL-6 and TNF-α treatment conditions led to ABCA1 upregulation, indicating that miR-101 expression represses ABCA1 expression under inflammatory conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

miR-101 promotes intracellular cholesterol retention under inflammatory conditions through suppressing ABCA1 expression and suggests that the miR-101-ABCA1 axis may play an intermediary role in the development of NAFLD and vascular atherosclerosis.

Behavioral stress reduces RIP140 expression in astrocyte and increases brain lipid accumulation

Receptor-interacting protein 140 (RIP140) is highly expressed in the brain, and acts in neurons and microglia to affect emotional responses. The present study reveals an additional function of RIP140 in the brain, which is to regulate brain lipid homeostasis via its action in astrocytes. We found forced swim stress (FSS) significantly reduces the expression level of RIP140 and elevates cholesterol content in the brain. Mechanistically, FSS elevates endoplasmic reticulum stress, which suppresses RIP140 expression by increasing microRNA 33 (miR33) that targets RIP140 mRNA's 3'-untranslated region. Consequentially, cholesterol biosynthesis and export are dramatically increased in astrocyte, the major source of brain cholesterol. These results demonstrate that RIP140 plays an important role in maintaining brain cholesterol homeostasis through, partially, regulating cholesterol metabolism in, and mobilization from, astrocyte. Altering RIP140 levels can disrupt brain cholesterol homeostasis, which may contribute to behavioral stress-induced neurological disorders.

Cholesterol efflux and reverse cholesterol transport

Both alterations of lipid/lipoprotein metabolism and inflammatory events contribute to the formation of the atherosclerotic plaque, characterized by the accumulation of abnormal amounts of cholesterol and macrophages in the artery wall. Reverse cholesterol transport (RCT) may counteract the pathogenic events leading to the formation and development of atheroma, by promoting the high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-mediated removal of cholesterol from the artery wall. Recent in vivo studies established the inverse relationship between RCT efficiency and atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases (CVD), thus suggesting that the promotion of this process may represent a novel strategy to reduce atherosclerotic plaque burden and subsequent cardiovascular events. HDL plays a primary role in all stages of RCT: (1) cholesterol efflux, where these lipoproteins remove excess cholesterol from cells; (2) lipoprotein remodeling, where HDL undergo structural modifications with possible impact on their function; and (3) hepatic lipid uptake, where HDL releases cholesterol to the liver, for the final excretion into bile and feces. Although the inverse association between HDL plasma levels and CVD risk has been postulated for years, recently this concept has been challenged by studies reporting that HDL antiatherogenic functions may be independent of their plasma levels. Therefore, assessment of HDL function, evaluated as the capacity to promote cell cholesterol efflux may offer a better prediction of CVD than HDL levels alone. Consistent with this idea, it has been recently demonstrated that the evaluation of serum cholesterol efflux capacity (CEC) is a predictor of atherosclerosis extent in humans.

Antisense oligonucleotides, microRNAs, and antibodies

The specificity of Watson-Crick base pairing and the development of several chemical modifications to oligonucleotides have enabled the development of novel drug classes for the treatment of different human diseases. This review focuses on promising results of recent preclinical or clinical studies on targeting HDL metabolism and function by antisense oligonucleotides and miRNA-based therapies. Although many hurdles regarding basic mechanism of action, delivery, specificity, and toxicity need to be overcome, promising results from recent clinical trials and recent approval of these types of therapy to treat dyslipidemia suggest that the treatment of HDL dysfunction will benefit from these unique clinical opportunities. Moreover, an overview of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) developed for the treatment of dyslipidemia and cardiovascular disease and currently being tested in clinical studies is provided. Initial studies have shown that these compounds are generally safe and well tolerated, but ongoing large clinical studies will assess their long-term safety and efficacy.

MicroRNA-mediated mechanisms of the cellular stress response in atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is characterised by the accumulation of lipid-laden macrophages in atherosclerotic lesions and occurs preferentially at arterial branching points, which are prone to inflammation during hyperlipidaemic stress. The increased susceptibility at branching sites of arteries is attributable to poor adaptation of arterial endothelial cells to disturbed blood flow. In the past 5 years, several studies have provided mechanistic insights into the regulatory roles of microRNAs (miRNAs) in inflammatory activation, proliferation, and regeneration of endothelial cells during this maladaptive process. The intercellular transfer of vesicle-bound miRNAs contributes to arterial homeostasis, and the combinatorial effect of multiple miRNAs controls the unresolved inflammation orchestrated by macrophages in atherosclerotic lesions. In this Review, we highlight the miRNA-dependent regulation of the endothelial phenotype and the proliferative reserve that occurs in response to altered haemodynamic conditions as a prerequisite for atherogenic inflammation. In particular, we discuss the regulation of transcriptional modules by miRNAs and the protective role of complementary strand pairs, which encompasses remote miRNA signalling. In addition, we review the roles of miRNA tandems and describe the relevance of RNA target selection and competition to the behaviour of lesional macrophages. Elucidating miRNA-mediated regulatory mechanisms can aid the development of novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for atherosclerosis.

miRNAs in atherosclerotic plaque initiation, progression, and rupture

Atherosclerosis is a chronic immune-inflammatory disorder that integrates multiple cell types and a diverse set of inflammatory mediators. miRNAs are emerging as important post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression in most, if not all, vertebrate cells, and constitute central players in many physiological and pathological processes. Rapidly accumulating experimental studies reveal their key role in cellular and molecular processes related to the development of atherosclerosis. We review current evidence for the involvement of miRNAs in early atherosclerotic lesion formation and in plaque rupture and erosion. We conclude with a perspective on the clinical relevance, therapeutic opportunities, and future challenges of miRNA biology in understanding the pathogenesis of this complex disease.

Genome-wide linkage and positional association analyses identify associations of novel AFF3 and NTM genes with triglycerides: the GenSalt study

We conducted a genome-wide linkage scan and positional association study to identify genes and variants influencing blood lipid levels among participants of the Genetic Epidemiology Network of Salt-Sensitivity (GenSalt) study. The GenSalt study was conducted among 1906 participants from 633 Han Chinese families. Lipids were measured from overnight fasting blood samples using standard methods. Multipoint quantitative trait genome-wide linkage scans were performed on the high-density lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein, and log-transformed triglyceride phenotypes. Using dense panels of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), single-marker and gene-based association analyses were conducted to follow-up on promising linkage signals. Additive associations between each SNP and lipid phenotypes were tested using mixed linear regression models. Gene-based analyses were performed by combining P-values from single-marker analyses within each gene using the truncated product method (TPM). Significant associations were assessed for replication among 777 Asian participants of the Multi-ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). Bonferroni correction was used to adjust for multiple testing. In the GenSalt study, suggestive linkage signals were identified at 2p11.2‒2q12.1 [maximum multipoint LOD score (MML) = 2.18 at 2q11.2] and 11q24.3‒11q25 (MML = 2.29 at 11q25) for the log-transformed triglyceride phenotype. Follow-up analyses of these two regions revealed gene-based associations of charged multivesicular body protein 3 (CHMP3), ring finger protein 103 (RNF103), AF4/FMR2 family, member 3 (AFF3), and neurotrimin (NTM) with triglycerides (P = 4 × 10(-4), 1.00 × 10(-5), 2.00 × 10(-5), and 1.00 × 10(-7), respectively). Both the AFF3 and NTM triglyceride associations were replicated among MESA study participants (P = 1.00 × 10(-7) and 8.00 × 10(-5), respectively). Furthermore, NTM explained the linkage signal on chromosome 11. In conclusion, we identified novel genes associated with lipid phenotypes in linkage regions on chromosomes 2 and 11.

Identification of microRNAs 758 and 33b as potential modulators of ABCA1 expression in human atherosclerotic plaques

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-binding cassette (ABC) transporters A1 and G1 are the main transporters involved in macrophage cholesterol efflux. The understanding of the molecular mechanism(s) of their regulation in atherosclerosis is crucial for potential therapeutic approaches. Preclinical studies support a role for microRNAs in the posttranscriptional regulation of these transporters; however, no evidence is still available on human atherosclerosis. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the modulation of the ABCA1 and ABCG1 pathway in human atherosclerotic plaques and microRNA involvement in its modulation.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Thirty-one human atherosclerotic plaques were obtained from patients undergoing carotid endarterectomy for high-grade (>70%) vessel stenosis, and divided into normocholesterolemic (n = 15) and hypercholesterolemic groups (n = 16) according to the presence/absence of hypercholesterolemia. Both ABCA1 and ABCG1 messenger RNAs (mRNAs) were significantly upregulated in carotid plaques from hypercholesterolemic patients as assessed by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Despite this result, no difference was found at the protein levels analyzed by Western blot, thus suggesting a strong posttranscriptional modulation. MicroRNA microarray and subsequent validation by RT-PCR showed a significant upregulation of ABCA1-linked miR-758 and miR-33b in plaques from hypercholesterolemic patients.

CONCLUSION

We provide evidence of a strong posttranscriptional regulation of ABCA1 and ABCG1 expression in human atherosclerotic plaques from hypercholesterolemic patients. This effect is potentially due to the concomitant increase of miR-33b and miR-758, two well-established regulators of ABCA1 and ABCG1 expression. The identification of miR-33b and miR-758 as putative key regulators of ABCA1 protein expression within human atherosclerotic plaques provides further data for the realization of new anti-atherosclerotic drugs with specific targets based on anti-miRNA technologies.

Dietary lipids modulate the expression of miR-107, an miRNA that regulates the circadian system

SCOPE

The increased prevalence of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) has been hypothesized to be the result of an increased exposure to a host of atherogenic environmental factors, paramount among them being unhealthy dietary habits. Long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids have been shown to have cardio protective effects, partially due to their ability to regulate gene expression. In this regard, increasing attention has been devoted to the role of miRNAs as regulators of multiple metabolic pathways whose deregulation has been associated with CVD risk.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In this work, we investigated whether miRNA expression was regulated by docosahexanoic acid, conjugated linoleic acid, and cholesterol in Caco-2 cells. The modulated miRNAs, miR-107 was differentially expressed by all treatments and this modulation was independent of its hosting gene, PANK1, possibly through its own promoter, which contains binding sites for metabolically relevant transcription factors. Among the putative target genes of miR-107, we found some genes with key roles in circadian rhythm. Specifically, we demonstrated that binding of miR-107 to the CLOCK gene results in the deregulation of the circadian rhythm of the cells.

CONCLUSION

Since chronodisruption has been linked to metabolic disorders such as type 2 diabetes, atherosclerosis, obesity, and CVD, our findings suggests that miR-107 could represent a new approach for pharmacological treatment of these diseases.

Regulation of HDL genes: transcriptional, posttranscriptional, and posttranslational

HDL regulation is exerted at multiple levels including regulation at the level of transcription initiation by transcription factors and signal transduction cascades; regulation at the posttranscriptional level by microRNAs and other noncoding RNAs which bind to the coding or noncoding regions of HDL genes regulating mRNA stability and translation; as well as regulation at the posttranslational level by protein modifications, intracellular trafficking, and degradation. The above mechanisms have drastic effects on several HDL-mediated processes including HDL biogenesis, remodeling, cholesterol efflux and uptake, as well as atheroprotective functions on the cells of the arterial wall. The emphasis is on mechanisms that operate in physiologically relevant tissues such as the liver (which accounts for 80% of the total HDL-C levels in the plasma), the macrophages, the adrenals, and the endothelium. Transcription factors that have a significant impact on HDL regulation such as hormone nuclear receptors and hepatocyte nuclear factors are extensively discussed both in terms of gene promoter recognition and regulation but also in terms of their impact on plasma HDL levels as was revealed by knockout studies. Understanding the different modes of regulation of this complex lipoprotein may provide useful insights for the development of novel HDL-raising therapies that could be used to fight against atherosclerosis which is the underlying cause of coronary heart disease.

Epigenetic reprogramming in atherosclerosis

Recent data support the involvement of epigenetic alterations in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. The most widely investigated epigenetic mechanism is DNA methylation although also histone code changes occur during the diverse steps of atherosclerosis, such as endothelial cell proliferation, vascular smooth muscle cell (SMC) differentiation, and inflammatory pathway activation. In this review, we focus on the main genes that are epigenetically modified during the atherogenic process, particularly nitric oxide synthase (NOS), estrogen receptors (ERs), collagen type XV alpha 1 (COL15A1), vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR), and ten-eleven translocation (TET), which are involved in endothelial dysfunction; gamma interferon (IFN-γ), forkhead box p3 (FOXP3), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), associated with atherosclerotic inflammatory process; and p66shc, lectin-like oxLDL receptor (LOX1), and apolipoprotein E (APOE) genes, which are regulated by high cholesterol and homocysteine (Hcy) levels. Furthermore, we also discuss the role of non-coding RNAs (ncRNA) in atherosclerosis. NcRNAs are involved in epigenetic regulation of endothelial function, SMC proliferation, cholesterol synthesis, lipid metabolism, and inflammatory response.

Mechanistic Role of MicroRNAs in Coupling Lipid Metabolism and Atherosclerosis

MicroRNAs (miRNAs, miRs) represent a group of powerful and versatile posttranscriptional regulators of gene expression being involved in the fine control of a plethora of physiological and pathological processes. Besides their well-established crucial roles in the regulation of cell cycle, embryogenesis or tumorigenesis, these tiny molecules have also been shown to participate in the regulation of lipid metabolism. In particular, miRs orchestrate cholesterol and fatty acids synthesis, transport, and degradation and low-density and high-density lipoprotein (LDL and HDL) formation. It is thus not surprising that they have also been reported to affect the development and progression of several lipid metabolism-related disorders including liver steatosis and atherosclerosis. Mounting evidence suggests that miRs might represent important "posttranscriptional hubs" of lipid metabolism, which means that one miR usually targets 3'-untranslated regions of various mRNAs that are involved in different steps of one precise metabolic/signaling pathway, e.g., one miR targets mRNAs of enzymes important for cholesterol synthesis, degradation, and transport. Therefore, changes in the levels of one key miR affect various steps of one pathway, which is thereby promoted or inhibited. This makes miRs potent future diagnostic and even therapeutic tools for personalized medicine. Within this chapter, the most prominent microRNAs involved in lipid metabolism, e.g., miR-27a/b, miR-33/33*, miR-122, miR-144, or miR-223, and their intracellular and extracellular functions will be extensively discussed, in particular focusing on their mechanistic role in the pathophysiology of atherosclerosis. Special emphasis will be given on miR-122, the first microRNA currently in clinical trials for the treatment of hepatitis C and on miR-223, the most abundant miR in lipoprotein particles.

MicroRNA 302a is a novel modulator of cholesterol homeostasis and atherosclerosis

OBJECTIVE

Macrophage foam cell formation is a key feature of atherosclerosis. Recent studies have shown that specific microRNAs (miRs) are regulated in modified low-density lipoprotein-treated macrophages, which can affect the cellular cholesterol homeostasis. Undertaking a genome-wide screen of miRs regulated in primary macrophages by modified low-density lipoprotein, miR-302a emerged as a potential candidate that may play a key role in macrophage cholesterol homeostasis.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

The objective of this study was to assess the involvement of miR-302a in macrophage lipid homeostasis and if it can influence circulating lipid levels and atherosclerotic development when it is inhibited in a murine atherosclerosis model. We found that transfection of primary macrophages with either miR-302a or anti-miR-302a regulated the expression of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter ABCA1 mRNA and protein. Luciferase reporter assays showed that miR-302a repressed the 3' untranslated regions (UTR) activity of mouse Abca1 by 48% and human ABCA1 by 45%. In addition, transfection of murine macrophages with miR-302a attenuated cholesterol efflux to apolipoprotein A-1 (apoA-1) by 38%. Long-term in vivo administration of anti-miR-302a to mice with low-density lipoprotein receptor deficiency (Ldlr(-/-)) fed an atherogenic diet led to an increase in ABCA1 in the liver and aorta as well as an increase in circulating plasma high-density lipoprotein levels by 35% compared with that of control mice. The anti-miR-302a-treated mice also displayed reduced atherosclerotic plaque size by ≈25% and a more stable plaque morphology with reduced signs of inflammation.

CONCLUSIONS

These studies identify miR-302a as a novel modulator of cholesterol efflux and a potential therapeutic target for suppressing atherosclerosis.

MicroRNA regulation of mitochondrial and ER stress signaling pathways: implications for lipoprotein metabolism in metabolic syndrome

The development of metabolic syndrome is closely associated with the deregulation of lipid metabolism. Emerging evidence has demonstrated that microRNAs (miRNAs) are intensively engaged in lipid and lipoprotein metabolism by regulating genes involved in control of intracellular lipid synthesis, mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation, and lipoprotein assembly. Mitochondrial dysfunction induced by altered miRNA expression has been proposed to be a contributing factor in the onset of metabolic diseases, while at the same time, aberrant expression of certain miRNAs is associated with the induction of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress induced by nutrient-surplus. These studies position miRNAs as a link between oxidative stress and ER stress, two cellular stress pathways that are deregulated in metabolic disease and are associated with very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) overproduction. Dyslipoproteinemia frequently accompanied with metabolic syndrome is initiated largely by the overproduction of VLDL and altered biogenesis of high-density lipoprotein (HDL). In this review, we highlight recent findings on the regulatory impact of miRNAs on the metabolic homeostasis of mitochondria and ER as well as their contribution to the aberrant biogenesis of both VLDL and HDL in the context of metabolic disorders, in an attempt to gain further insights into the molecular mechanisms of dyslipidemia in the metabolic syndrome.

Revising the high-density lipoprotein targeting strategies - insights from human and preclinical studies

In recent years, the high-density lipoprotein (HDL) hypothesis has been challenged. Several completed randomized clinical trials continue to fall short in demonstrating HDL, or at least HDL-cholesterol (HDL-C) levels, as being a consistent target in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. However, population studies and findings in lipid modifying trials continue to strongly support HDL-C as a superb risk predictor. It is increasingly evident that the complexity of HDL metabolism confounds the use of HDL-C concentration as a unified target. However, important insights continue to emerge from the post hoc analyses of recently completed (i) fibrate-based FIELD and ACCORD trials, including the unexpected beneficial effect of fibrates in microvascular diseases, (ii) the niacin-based AIM-HIGH and HPS2-THRIVE studies, (iii) recombinant HDL-based as well as (iv) the completed CETP inhibitor-based trials. These together with on-going mechanistic studies on novel pathways, which include the unique roles of microRNAs, post-translational remodeling of HDL and novel pathways related to HDL modulators will provide valuable insights to guide how best to refocus and redesign the conceptual framework for selecting HDL-based targets.

Non-coding RNAs and lipid metabolism

A high percentage of the mammalian genome consists of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). Among ncRNAs two main subgroups have been identified: long ncRNAs (lncRNAs) and micro RNAs (miRNAs). ncRNAs have been demonstrated to play a role in a vast variety of diseases, since they regulate gene transcription and are involved in post-transcriptional regulation. They have the potential to function as molecular signals or as guides for transcription factors and to regulate epigenetic modifiers. In this literature review we have summarized data on miRNAs and lncRNAs and their involvement in dyslipidaemia, atherosclerosis, insulin resistance and adipogenesis. Outlining certain ncRNAs as disease biomarkers and/or therapeutic targets, and testing them in vivo, will be the next steps in future research.

microRNA regulation of lipoprotein metabolism

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The objective of this review article is to summarize the recent findings about the importance of microRNAs (miRNAs) in regulating lipoprotein metabolism. We highlight the recent findings that uncover the importance of miRNAs in controlling plasma LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C) levels.

RECENT FINDINGS

In 2013, several studies reported a number of miRNAs that regulate plasma LDL-C levels, including miR-30c. In this review article, we discuss those miRNAs that modulate LDL-C levels and lipoprotein secretion. We also discuss the numerous studies that demonstrate the critical role of miRNAs in governing the many facets of HDL metabolism, such as the ATP transporters, ABCA1, and ABCG1, and the scavenger receptor, SRB1.

SUMMARY

The understanding of how these miRNAs modulate lipoprotein metabolism promises to reveal new therapeutic targets to treat dyslipidemias and related cardiovascular disorders.

MicroRNA-410 regulated lipoprotein lipase variant rs13702 is associated with stroke incidence and modulated by diet in the randomized controlled PREDIMED trial

BACKGROUND

MicroRNAs have emerged as important epigenetic regulators in cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Using an observational meta-analysis design, we previously characterized a gain-of-function microRNA-410 target site polymorphism (rs13702T>C) in the 3'untranslated region of the lipoprotein lipase (LPL) gene. The C allele was associated with lower triglycerides, and this association was modulated by fat intake.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to extend our findings by assessing the interaction between the rs13702 polymorphism and fat intake on triglycerides at baseline and longitudinally by using a dietary intervention design. We also examined as a primary outcome the association of this variant with CVD incidence and its modulation by the Mediterranean diet (MedDiet).

DESIGN

We studied 7187 participants in the PREDIMED (Prevención con Dieta Mediterránea) randomized trial that tested a MedDiet intervention compared with a control diet, with a median 4.8-y follow-up. LPL polymorphisms and triglycerides were determined and CVD assessed. Gene-diet interactions for triglycerides were analyzed at baseline (n = 6880) and after a 3-y intervention (n = 4131). Oxidative stress parameters were investigated in a subsample.

RESULTS

The rs13702T>C polymorphism was strongly associated with lower triglycerides in C allele carriers and interacted synergistically with dietary monounsaturated (P = 0.038) and unsaturated fat intake (P = 0.037), decreasing triglycerides at baseline. By 3 y, we observed a gene-diet interaction (P = 0.025) in which the C allele was associated with a greater reduction in triglycerides after intervention with MedDiet, high in unsaturated fat. Although the polymorphism was associated with lower stroke risk (HR: 0.74; 95% CI: 0.57, 0.97; P = 0.029 per C allele), this association reached statistical significance only in the MedDiet intervention (HR: 0.58; 95% CI: 0.37, 0.91; P = 0.019 in C compared with TT carriers), not in the control group (HR: 0.94; 95% CI: 0.55, 1.59; P = 0.805).

CONCLUSION

We report a novel association between a microRNA target site variant and stroke incidence, which is modulated by diet in terms of decreasing triglycerides and possibly stroke risk in rs13702 C allele carriers after a high-unsaturated fat MedDiet intervention.

Relevance of microRNA in metabolic diseases

Metabolic syndrome is a complex metabolic condition caused by abnormal adipose deposition and function, dyslipidemia and hyperglycemia, which affects >47 million American adults and ∼1 million children. Individuals with the metabolic syndrome have essentially twice the risk for developing cardiovascular disease (CVD) and Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D), compared to those without the syndrome. In the search for improved and novel therapeutic strategies, microRNAs (miRNA) have been shown to be interesting targets due to their regulatory role on gene networks controlling different crucial aspects of metabolism, including lipid and glucose homeostasis. More recently, the discovery of circulating miRNAs suggest that miRNAs may be involved in facilitating metabolic crosstalk between organs as well as serving as novel biomarkers of diseases, including T2D and atherosclerosis. These findings highlight the importance of miRNAs for regulating pathways that underlie metabolic diseases, and their potential as therapeutic targets for the development of novel treatments.

Hepatitis C virus infection decreases the expression of Toll-like receptors 3 and 7 via upregulation of miR-758

Chronic infection with hepatotropic viruses is the main cause of chronic liver disease and cirrhosis worldwide. Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) and Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7) are pathogen-recognition receptors that are expressed on innate immune cells. They recognize viral RNA, which induces their activation, with a subsequent increase in type I interferon transcription. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection inhibits the expression of TLR3 and TLR7; however, the mechanism by which this occurs is unclear. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small RNAs that posttranscriptionally regulate gene expression. Their aberrant expression is commonly correlated with disease status, as is the case with HCV infection. Here, we found that miR-758 levels were increased in patients with HCV infection and were correlated with TLR3 and TLR7 expression levels in the patients with HCV infection, and bioinformatics analysis predicted that TLR3 and TLR7 are targets of miR-758. Therefore, we postulate that HCV may increase the level of miR-758, which inhibits the expression of TLR3 and TLR7, resulting in a loss of antiviral effect. In order to test our hypothesis, we constructed an HCV core protein expression plasmid and used it to transfect liver cells. The results showed that HCV infection increased miR-758 levels and decreased TLR3/TLR7 expression. Furthermore, using RT-PCR and luciferase reporter analysis, we found that miR-758 targets TLR3 and TLR7, with a subsequent decrease in IFNα and IFNβ production. In conclusion, our results highlight the upregulation of miR-758 expression by HCV as a novel mechanism contributing to downregulation of TLR3 and TLR7 in patients with HCV infection.

The emerging role of epigenetics in cardiovascular disease

There is a worldwide epidemic of cardiovascular diseases causing not only a public health issue but also accounting for trillions of dollars of healthcare expenditure. Studies pertaining to epidemiology, pathophysiology, molecular biology, gene identification and genetic linkage maps have been able to lay a strong foundation for both the diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular medicine. Although the concept of 'epigenetics' is not recent, the term in current usage is extended from the initial concept of 'controlling developmental gene expression and signaling pathways in undifferentiated zygotes' to include heritable changes to gene expression that are not from differences in the genetic code. The impact of epigenetics in cardiovascular disease is now emerging as an important regulatory key player at different levels from pathophysiology to therapeutics. This review focuses on the emerging role of epigenetics in major cardiovascular medicine specialties such as coronary artery disease, heart failure, cardiac hypertrophy and diabetes.

MicroRNAs: a connection between cholesterol metabolism and neurodegeneration

Dysregulation of cholesterol metabolism in the brain has been associated with many neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Niemann-Pick type C disease, Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome, Hungtington's disease and Parkinson's disease. Specifically, genes involved in cholesterol biosynthesis (24-dehydrocholesterol reductase, DHCR24) and cholesterol efflux (ATP-binding cassete transporter, ABCA1, and apolipoprotein E, APOE) have been associated with developing Alzheimer's disease. Indeed, APOE was the first gene variation found to increase the risk of Alzheimer's disease and remains the risk gene with the greatest known impact. Mutations in another cholesterol biosynthetic gene, 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase (DHCR7), cause Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome and impairment in cellular cholesterol trafficking caused by mutations in the NPC1 protein results in Niemann-Pick type C disease. Taken together, these findings provide strong evidence that cholesterol metabolism needs to be controlled at very tight levels in the brain. Recent studies have implicated microRNAs (miRNAs) as novel regulators of cholesterol metabolism in several tissues. These small non-coding RNAs regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level by either suppressing translation or inducing mRNA degradation. This review article focuses on how cholesterol homeostasis is regulated by miRNAs and their potential implication in several neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease. Finally, we also discuss how antagonizing miRNA expression could be a potential therapy for treating cholesterol related diseases.

microRNAs and HDL life cycle

miRNAs have emerged as important regulators of lipoprotein metabolism. Work over the past few years has demonstrated that miRNAs control the expression of most of the genes associated with high-density lipoprotein (HDL) metabolism, including the ATP transporters, ABCA1 and ABCG1, and the scavenger receptor SRB1. These findings strongly suggest that miRNAs regulate HDL biogenesis, cellular cholesterol efflux, and HDL cholesterol (HDL-C) uptake in the liver, thereby controlling all of the steps of reverse cholesterol transport. Recent work in animal models has demonstrated that manipulating miRNA levels including miR-33 can increase circulating HDL-C. Importantly, antagonizing miR-33 in vivo enhances the regression and reduces the progression of atherosclerosis. These findings support the idea of developing miRNA inhibitors for the treatment of dyslipidaemia and related cardiovascular disorders such as atherosclerosis. This review article focuses on how HDL metabolism is regulated by miRNAs and how antagonizing miRNA expression could be a potential therapy for treating cardiometabolic diseases.

MicroRNAs: emerging roles in adipogenesis and obesity

Obesity is a serious health problem worldwide associated with an increased risk of life-threatening diseases such as type 2 diabetes, atherosclerosis, and certain types of cancer. Understanding the molecular basis of adipogenesis and fat cell development in obesity is essential to identify new biomarkers and therapeutic targets for the development of anti-obesity drugs. Recent computational and experimental studies have shown that microRNAs (miRNAs) appear to play regulatory roles in many biological processes associated with obesity, including adipocyte differentiation and lipid metabolism. In addition, many miRNAs are dysregulated in metabolic tissues from obese animals and humans, which potentially contributes to the pathogenesis of obesity-associated complications. The discovery of circulating miRNAs has highlighted their potential as both endocrine signaling molecules and disease markers. The potential of miRNA based therapeutics targeting obesity is highlighted as well as recommendations for future research which could lead to a breakthrough in the treatment of obesity.

Noncoding RNAs and atherosclerosis

Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) represent a class of RNA molecules that typically do not code for proteins. Emerging data suggest that ncRNAs play an important role in several physiological and pathological conditions such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases, including atherosclerosis. The best-characterized ncRNAs are the microRNAs which are small, approximately 22-nucleotide sequences of RNA that regulate gene expression at the posttranscriptional level through transcript degradation or translational repression. MicroRNAs control several aspects of atherosclerosis, including endothelial cell, vascular smooth cell, and macrophage functions as well as lipoprotein metabolism. Apart from microRNAs, recently ncRNAs, especially long ncRNAs, have emerged as important potential regulators of the progression of atherosclerosis. However, the molecular mechanism of their regulation and function as well as the significance of other ncRNAs such as small nucleolar RNAs during atherogenesis is largely unknown. In this review, we summarize the recent findings in the field, highlighting the importance of ncRNAs in atherosclerosis and discuss their potential use as therapeutic targets in cardiovascular diseases.