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Sato M, Matsubara T, Adachi J, Hashimoto Y, Fukamizu K, Kishida M, Yang YA, Wakefield LM, Tomonaga T. Differential Proteome Analysis Identifies TGF-β-Related Pro-Metastatic Proteins in a 4T1 Murine Breast Cancer Model. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0126483. [PMID: 25993439 PMCID: PMC4436378 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0126483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2014] [Accepted: 04/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) has a dual role in tumorigenesis, acting as either a tumor suppressor or as a pro-oncogenic factor in a context-dependent manner. Although TGF-β antagonists have been proposed as anti-metastatic therapies for patients with advanced stage cancer, how TGF-β mediates metastasis-promoting effects is poorly understood. Establishment of TGF-β-related protein expression signatures at the metastatic site could provide new mechanistic information and potentially allow identification of novel biomarkers for clinical intervention to discriminate TGF-β oncogenic effects from tumor suppressive effects. In the present study, we found that systemic administration of the TGF-β receptor kinase inhibitor, SB-431542, significantly inhibited lung metastasis from transplanted 4T1 mammary tumors in Balb/c mice. The differentially expressed proteins in the comparison of lung metastases from SB-431542 treated and control vehicle-treated groups were analyzed by a quantitative LTQ Orbitrap Velos system coupled with stable isotope dimethyl labeling. A total of 36,239 peptides from 6,694 proteins were identified, out of which 4,531 proteins were characterized as differentially expressed. A subset of upregulated proteins in the control group was validated by western blotting and immunohistochemistry. The eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF) family members constituted the most enriched protein pathway in vehicle-treated compared with SB-43512-treated lung metastases, suggesting that increased protein expression of specific eIF family members, especially eIF4A1 and eEF2, is related to the metastatic phenotype of advanced breast cancer and can be down-regulated by TGF-β pathway inhibitors. Thus our proteomic approach identified eIF pathway proteins as novel potential mediators of TGF-β tumor-promoting activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Misako Sato
- Laboratory of Proteome Research, Proteome Research Center, National Institute of Biomedical Innovation, Saito, Osaka, Japan; Department of Hepatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Tsutomu Matsubara
- Department of Anatomy and Regenerative Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Jun Adachi
- Laboratory of Proteome Research, Proteome Research Center, National Institute of Biomedical Innovation, Saito, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yuuki Hashimoto
- Laboratory of Proteome Research, Proteome Research Center, National Institute of Biomedical Innovation, Saito, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kazuna Fukamizu
- Laboratory of Proteome Research, Proteome Research Center, National Institute of Biomedical Innovation, Saito, Osaka, Japan
| | - Marina Kishida
- Laboratory of Proteome Research, Proteome Research Center, National Institute of Biomedical Innovation, Saito, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yu-An Yang
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Lalage M Wakefield
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Takeshi Tomonaga
- Laboratory of Proteome Research, Proteome Research Center, National Institute of Biomedical Innovation, Saito, Osaka, Japan
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Abstract
Few pharmacotherapies are currently available to treat castration resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), with low impact on patient survival. Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) is a multi-functional peptide with opposite roles in prostate tumorigenesis as an inhibitor in normal growth and early stage disease and a promoter in advanced prostate cancer. Dysregulated TGF-β signaling leads to a cascade of events contributing to oncogenesis, including up-regulated proliferation, decreased apoptosis, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and evasion of immune surveillance. TGF-β signaling pathway presents an appropriate venue for establishing a therapeutic targeting platform in CRPC. Exploitation of TGF-β effectors and their cross talk with the androgen axis pathway will provide new insights into mechanisms of resistance of the current antiandrogen therapeutic strategies and lead to generation of new effective treatment modalities for CRPC. Points of functional convergence of TGF-β with key oncogenic pathways, including mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and androgen receptor (AR), are discussed as navigated within the EMT landscape in the tumor microenvironment. In this context the emerging anti-TGF-β pharmacotherapies for prostate cancer treatment are considered. Targeting the functional cross-talk between the TGF-β signaling effectors with the androgen axis supports the development of novel therapeutic strategies for treating CRPC with high specificity and efficacy in a personalized-medicine approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Cao
- Department of Toxicology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY, USA.,Department of Urology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY, USA.,Department of Pathology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY, USA.,Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Natasha Kyprianou
- Department of Toxicology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY, USA.,Department of Urology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY, USA.,Department of Pathology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY, USA.,Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY, USA
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103
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Shvedova AA, Kisin ER, Yanamala N, Tkach AV, Gutkin DW, Star A, Shurin GV, Kagan VE, Shurin MR. MDSC and TGFβ Are Required for Facilitation of Tumor Growth in the Lungs of Mice Exposed to Carbon Nanotubes. Cancer Res 2015; 75:1615-23. [PMID: 25744719 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-14-2376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2014] [Accepted: 02/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
During the last decades, changes have been observed in the frequency of different histologic subtypes of lung cancer, one of the most common causes of morbidity and mortality, with a declining proportion of squamous cell carcinomas and an increasing proportion of adenocarcinomas, particularly in developed countries. This suggests the emergence of new etiologic factors and mechanisms, including those defining the lung microenvironment, promoting tumor growth. Assuming that the lung is the main portal of entry for broadly used nanomaterials and their established proinflammatory propensities, we hypothesized that nanomaterials may contribute to changes facilitating tumor growth. Here, we report that an acute exposure to single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT) induces recruitment and accumulation of lung-associated myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) and MDSC-derived production of TGFβ, resulting in upregulated tumor burden in the lung. The production of TGFβ by MDSC requires their interaction with both SWCNT and tumor cells. We conclude that pulmonary exposure to SWCNT favors the formation of a niche that supports ingrowth of lung carcinoma in vivo via activation of TGFβ production by SWCNT-attracted and -presensitized MDSC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna A Shvedova
- HELD, NIOSH, CDC, Morgantown, West Virginia. Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia.
| | | | | | | | - Dmitriy W Gutkin
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Alexander Star
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Galina V Shurin
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Valerian E Kagan
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Michael R Shurin
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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Dekker TJA, Charehbili A, Smit VTHBM, ten Dijke P, Kranenbarg EMK, van de Velde CJH, Nortier JWR, Tollenaar RAEM, Mesker WE, Kroep JR. Disorganised stroma determined on pre-treatment breast cancer biopsies is associated with poor response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy: Results from the NEOZOTAC trial. Mol Oncol 2015; 9:1120-8. [PMID: 25735561 DOI: 10.1016/j.molonc.2015.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2014] [Revised: 01/18/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The tumor-associated stroma is of importance for tumor progression and is generally accepted to have a significant influence on patient prognosis. However, little is known regarding specific features of tumor-associated stromal tissues and response to (neoadjuvant) chemotherapy. This study investigated the predictive value of extracellular matrix organization on response to chemotherapy in patients treated in the NEOZOTAC trial. METHODS Stromal organisation was analyzed via a simple method using image analysis software on hematoxylin and eosin (H&E)-stained slides from primary tumor biopsies collected as part of the NEOZOTAC trial. Heidenhain's AZAN trichrome-stained slides were also analyzed for comparison of collagen evaluation. Sections were stained for phospho-Smad2 (pS2) in order to determine the relationship of TGF-β signaling with stromal organization. RESULTS A statistically significant relationship was observed between stroma consisting of organised collagen and pathological response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy (Odds Ratio 0.276, 95%CI 0.124-0.614, P = 0.002). This parameter was also related to ER-status (P = 0.003), clinical tumor -status (P = 0.041), nodal status (P = 0.029) and pS2 status (P = 0.025). Correlation between stromal organisation determined on H&E-stained and AZAN-stained tissue sections was high (Pearson's correlation coefficient = 0.806). CONCLUSION Intratumoral stromal organisation determined using pre-treatment breast cancer biopsies was related to pathological response to chemotherapy. This parameter might play a role in the management of breast cancer for identifying those patients that are likely to benefit from neoadjuvant chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- T J A Dekker
- Department of Clinical Oncology, Leiden University Medical Center, The Netherlands; Department of Surgery, Leiden University Medical Center, The Netherlands
| | - A Charehbili
- Department of Clinical Oncology, Leiden University Medical Center, The Netherlands; Department of Surgery, Leiden University Medical Center, The Netherlands
| | - V T H B M Smit
- Department of Pathology, Leiden University Medical Center, The Netherlands
| | - P ten Dijke
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Cancer Genomics Centre Netherlands, Leiden University Medical Center, The Netherlands; Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - C J H van de Velde
- Department of Surgery, Leiden University Medical Center, The Netherlands
| | - J W R Nortier
- Department of Clinical Oncology, Leiden University Medical Center, The Netherlands
| | - R A E M Tollenaar
- Department of Surgery, Leiden University Medical Center, The Netherlands
| | - W E Mesker
- Department of Surgery, Leiden University Medical Center, The Netherlands
| | - J R Kroep
- Department of Clinical Oncology, Leiden University Medical Center, The Netherlands.
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Triplett TA, Tucker CG, Triplett KC, Alderman Z, Sun L, Ling LE, Akporiaye ET, Weinberg AD. STAT3 Signaling Is Required for Optimal Regression of Large Established Tumors in Mice Treated with Anti-OX40 and TGFβ Receptor Blockade. Cancer Immunol Res 2015; 3:526-35. [PMID: 25627655 DOI: 10.1158/2326-6066.cir-14-0187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In preclinical tumor models, αOX40 therapy is often successful at treating small tumors, but is less effective once the tumors become large. For a tumor immunotherapy to be successful to cure large tumors, it will most likely require not only an agonist to boost effector T-cell function but also inhibitors of T-cell suppression. In this study, we show that combining αOX40 antibodies with an inhibitor of the TGFβ receptor (SM16) synergizes to elicit complete regression of large established MCA205 and CT26 tumors. Evaluation of tumor-infiltrating T cells showed that SM16/αOX40 dual therapy resulted in an increase in proliferating granzyme B(+) CD8 T cells, which produced higher levels of IFNγ, compared with treatment with either agent alone. We also found that the dual treatment increased pSTAT3 expression in both CD4 and CD8 T cells isolated from tumors. Because others have published that STAT3 signaling is detrimental to T-cell function within the tumor microenvironment, we explored whether deletion of STAT3 in OX40-expressing cells would affect this potent combination therapy. Surprisingly, we found that deletion of STAT3 in OX40-expressing cells decreased the efficacy of this combination therapy, showing that the full therapeutic potential of this treatment depends on STAT3 signaling, most likely in the T cells of tumor-bearing mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd A Triplett
- Robert W. Franz Cancer Research Center, Earle A. Chiles Research Institute, Providence Portland Medical Center, Portland, Oregon. Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Christopher G Tucker
- Robert W. Franz Cancer Research Center, Earle A. Chiles Research Institute, Providence Portland Medical Center, Portland, Oregon
| | - Kendra C Triplett
- Robert W. Franz Cancer Research Center, Earle A. Chiles Research Institute, Providence Portland Medical Center, Portland, Oregon
| | - Zefora Alderman
- Robert W. Franz Cancer Research Center, Earle A. Chiles Research Institute, Providence Portland Medical Center, Portland, Oregon
| | - Lihong Sun
- Oncology Cell Signaling, Biogen Idec, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Leona E Ling
- Oncology Cell Signaling, Biogen Idec, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Emmanuel T Akporiaye
- Robert W. Franz Cancer Research Center, Earle A. Chiles Research Institute, Providence Portland Medical Center, Portland, Oregon. Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon.
| | - Andrew D Weinberg
- Robert W. Franz Cancer Research Center, Earle A. Chiles Research Institute, Providence Portland Medical Center, Portland, Oregon. Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon.
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106
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Buijs JT, Matula KM, Cheung H, Kruithof-de Julio M, van der Mark MH, Snoeks TJ, Cohen R, Corver WE, Mohammad KS, Jonkers J, Guise TA, van der Pluijm G. Spontaneous bone metastases in a preclinical orthotopic model of invasive lobular carcinoma; the effect of pharmacological targeting TGFβ receptor I kinase. J Pathol 2015; 235:745-59. [PMID: 25421310 PMCID: PMC4407922 DOI: 10.1002/path.4488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2014] [Revised: 11/14/2014] [Accepted: 11/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC) and invasive lobular carcinoma (ILC) are the most frequently occurring histological subtypes of breast cancer, accounting for 80–90% and 10–15% of the total cases, respectively. At the time of diagnosis and surgical resection of the primary tumour, most patients do not have clinical signs of metastases, but bone micrometastases may already be present. Our aim was to develop a novel preclinical ILC model of spontaneous bone micrometastasis. We used murine invasive lobular breast carcinoma cells (KEP) that were generated by targeted deletion of E-cadherin and p53 in a conditional K14cre;Cdh1(F/F);Trp53(F/F) mouse model of de novo mammary tumour formation. After surgical resection of the growing orthotopically implanted KEP cells, distant metastases were formed. In contrast to other orthotopic breast cancer models, KEP cells readily formed skeletal metastases with minimal lung involvement. Continuous treatment with SD-208 (60 mg/kg per day), an orally available TGFβ receptor I kinase inhibitor, increased the tumour growth at the primary site and increased the number of distant metastases. Furthermore, when SD-208 treatment was started after surgical resection of the orthotopic tumour, increased bone colonisation was also observed (versus vehicle). Both our in vitro and in vivo data show that SD-208 treatment reduced TGFβ signalling, inhibited apoptosis, and increased proliferation. In conclusion, we have demonstrated that orthotopic implantation of murine ILC cells represent a new breast cancer model of minimal residual disease in vivo, which comprises key steps of the metastatic cascade. The cancer cells are sensitive to the anti-tumour effects of TGFβ. Our in vivo model is ideally suited for functional studies and evaluation of new pharmacological intervention strategies that may target one or more steps along the metastatic cascade of events. © 2014 The Authors. The Journal of Pathology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeroen T Buijs
- Department of Urology, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
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Pettersson F, Del Rincon SV, Emond A, Huor B, Ngan E, Ng J, Dobocan MC, Siegel PM, Miller WH. Genetic and pharmacologic inhibition of eIF4E reduces breast cancer cell migration, invasion, and metastasis. Cancer Res 2015; 75:1102-12. [PMID: 25608710 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-14-1996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The translation initiation factor eIF4E is an oncogene that is commonly overexpressed in primary breast cancers and metastases. In this article, we report that a pharmacologic inhibitor of eIF4E function, ribavirin, safely and potently suppresses breast tumor formation. Ribavirin administration blocked the growth of primary breast tumors in several murine models and reduced the development of lung metastases in an invasive model. Mechanistically, eIF4E silencing or blockade reduced the invasiveness and metastatic capability of breast cancer cells in a manner associated with decreased activity of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-3 and MMP-9. Furthermore, eIF4E silencing or ribavirin treatment suppressed features of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, a process crucial for metastasis. Our findings offer a preclinical rationale to explore broadening the clinical evaluation of ribavirin, currently being tested in patients with eIF4E-overexpressing leukemia, as a strategy to treat solid tumors such as metastatic breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filippa Pettersson
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Segal Cancer Centre, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Sonia V Del Rincon
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Segal Cancer Centre, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Audrey Emond
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Segal Cancer Centre, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Bonnie Huor
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Segal Cancer Centre, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Elaine Ngan
- Goodman Cancer Centre, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Jonathan Ng
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Segal Cancer Centre, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Monica C Dobocan
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Segal Cancer Centre, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Peter M Siegel
- Goodman Cancer Centre, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Wilson H Miller
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Segal Cancer Centre, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
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Liu A, Shao C, Jin G, Liu R, Hao J, Song B, Ouyang L, Hu X. miR-208-induced epithelial to mesenchymal transition of pancreatic cancer cells promotes cell metastasis and invasion. Cell Biochem Biophys 2014; 69:341-6. [PMID: 24604208 DOI: 10.1007/s12013-013-9805-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the role of miR-208 in the invasion and metastasis of pancreatic cancer cells and the underlying molecular mechanism. miR-208 mimic, miR-208 inhibitor and NC were transfected into pancreatic cancer cell line Bxpc3 using liposome. Transwell invasion and scratch assays were used to test cell migratory and invasive abilities. Western blotting and quantitative PCR methods were used to detect E-cadherin, fibronectin and vimentin protein and mRNA expression in pancreatic cancer cell line BxPC3 after transfection by miR-208 mimic, miR-208 inhibitor and NC. Transwell invasion and scratch assays showed that after overexpressing miR-208, pancreatic cancer cell line BxPC3 exhibited enhanced in vitro migratory and invasive abilities, while after downregulating miR-208 expression, cell migratory and invasive abilities were decreased. Western blotting and quantitative PCR showed that after overexpressing miR-208, expression of E-cadherin, an epithelial cell marker, was decreased and expression of fibronectin and vimentin, interstitial cell markers, was increased in pancreatic cancer cell line BxPC3; however, after inhibiting miR-208, increased E-cadherin expression and decreased fibronectin and vimentin expression were observed in pancreatic cancer cell line BxPC3. After overexpressing miR-208, p-AKT and p-GSK-3β expression was altered by activating AKT/GSK-3β/snail signaling pathway. miR-208 induces epithelial to mesenchymal transition of pancreatic cancer cell line BxPC3 by activating AKT/GSK-3β/snail signaling pathway and thereby promotes cell metastasis and invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anan Liu
- Department of Pancreatic Surgery, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University, No. 168 Changhai Road, Shanghai City, 200433, People's Republic of China
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Guo J, Canaff L, Rajadurai CV, Fils-Aimé N, Tian J, Dai M, Korah J, Villatoro M, Park M, Ali S, Lebrun JJ. Breast cancer anti-estrogen resistance 3 inhibits transforming growth factor β/Smad signaling and associates with favorable breast cancer disease outcomes. Breast Cancer Res 2014; 16:476. [PMID: 25499443 PMCID: PMC4311507 DOI: 10.1186/s13058-014-0476-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2014] [Accepted: 11/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION This study helps to define the implications of breast cancer anti-estrogen resistance 3 (BCAR3) in breast cancer and extends the current understanding of its molecular mechanism of action. BCAR3 has been shown to promote cell proliferation, migration and attachment to extracellular matrix components. However, in a cohort of metastatic breast cancer patients who received tamoxifen treatment, high BCAR3 mRNA levels were associated with favorable progression-free survival outcome. These results suggest that, besides its established roles, BCAR3 may have additional mechanisms of action that regulate breast cancer aggressive phenotype. In this study, we investigated whether BCAR3 is a novel antagonist of the canonical transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) pathway, which induces potent migration and invasion responses in breast cancer cells. METHODS We surveyed functional genomics databases for correlations between BCAR3 expression and disease outcomes of breast cancer patients. We also studied how BCAR3 could regulate the TGFβ/Smad signaling axis using Western blot analysis, coimmunoprecipitation and luciferase assays. In addition, we examined whether BCAR3 could modulate TGFβ-induced cell migration and invasion by using an automated imaging system and a confocal microscopy imaging-based matrix degradation assay, respectively. RESULTS Relatively low levels of BCAR3 expression in primary breast tumors correlate with poor distant metastasis-free survival and relapse-free survival outcomes. We also found a strong correlation between the loss of heterozygosity at BCAR3 gene alleles and lymph node invasion in human breast cancer, further suggesting a role for BCAR3 in preventing disease progression. In addition, we found BCAR3 to inhibit Smad activation, Smad-mediated gene transcription, Smad-dependent cell migration and matrix digestion in breast cancer cells. Furthermore, we found BCAR3 to be downregulated by TGFβ through proteasome degradation, thus defining a novel positive feedback loop mechanism downstream of the TGFβ/Smad signaling pathway. CONCLUSION BCAR3 is considered to be associated with aggressive breast cancer phenotypes. However, our results indicate that BCAR3 acts as a putative suppressor of breast cancer progression by inhibiting the prometastatic TGFβ/Smad signaling pathway in invasive breast tumors. These data provide new insights into BCAR3's molecular mechanism of action and highlight BCAR3 as a novel TGFβ/Smad antagonist in breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jimin Guo
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, McGill University Health Center, H7 Royal Victoria Hospital, 687 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 1A1, Canada.
| | - Lucie Canaff
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, McGill University Health Center, H7 Royal Victoria Hospital, 687 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 1A1, Canada.
| | - Charles Vincent Rajadurai
- Rosalind and Morris Goodman Cancer Center, 1160 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 1A3, Canada.
| | - Nadège Fils-Aimé
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, McGill University Health Center, H7 Royal Victoria Hospital, 687 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 1A1, Canada.
| | - Jun Tian
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, McGill University Health Center, H7 Royal Victoria Hospital, 687 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 1A1, Canada.
| | - Meiou Dai
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, McGill University Health Center, H7 Royal Victoria Hospital, 687 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 1A1, Canada.
| | - Juliana Korah
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, McGill University Health Center, H7 Royal Victoria Hospital, 687 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 1A1, Canada.
| | - Manuel Villatoro
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, McGill University Health Center, H7 Royal Victoria Hospital, 687 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 1A1, Canada.
| | - Morag Park
- Rosalind and Morris Goodman Cancer Center, 1160 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 1A3, Canada.
| | - Suhad Ali
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, McGill University Health Center, H7 Royal Victoria Hospital, 687 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 1A1, Canada.
| | - Jean-Jacques Lebrun
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, McGill University Health Center, H7 Royal Victoria Hospital, 687 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 1A1, Canada.
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Youngblood V, Wang S, Song W, Walter D, Hwang Y, Chen J, Brantley-Sieders DM. Elevated Slit2 Activity Impairs VEGF-Induced Angiogenesis and Tumor Neovascularization in EphA2-Deficient Endothelium. Mol Cancer Res 2014; 13:524-37. [PMID: 25504371 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-14-0142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Angiogenic remodeling during embryonic development and in adult tissue homeostasis is orchestrated by cooperative signaling between several distinct molecular pathways, which are often exploited by tumors. Indeed, tumors upregulate proangiogenic molecules while simultaneously suppressing angiostatic pathways to recruit blood vessels for growth, survival, and metastatic spread. Understanding how cancers exploit proangiogenic and antiangiogenic signals is a key step in developing new, molecularly targeted antiangiogenic therapies. While EphA2, a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK), is required for VEGF-induced angiogenesis, the mechanism through which these pathways intersect remains unclear. Slit2 expression is elevated in EphA2-deficient endothelium, and here it is reported that inhibiting Slit activity rescues VEGF-induced angiogenesis in cell culture and in vivo, as well as VEGF-dependent tumor angiogenesis, in EphA2-deficient endothelial cells and animals. Moreover, blocking Slit activity or Slit2 expression in EphA2-deficient endothelial cells restores VEGF-induced activation of Src and Rac, both of which are required for VEGF-mediated angiogenesis. These data suggest that EphA2 suppression of Slit2 expression and Slit angiostatic activity enables VEGF-induced angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo, providing a plausible mechanism for impaired endothelial responses to VEGF in the absence of EphA2 function. IMPLICATIONS Modulation of angiostatic factor Slit2 by EphA2 receptor regulates endothelial responses to VEGF-mediated angiogenesis and tumor neovascularization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Youngblood
- Department of Cancer Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Shan Wang
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Wenqiang Song
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Debra Walter
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Yoonha Hwang
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Jin Chen
- Department of Cancer Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee. Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee. Department of Cellular and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee. Vanderbilt Ingram Cancer Center, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee. Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Dana M Brantley-Sieders
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee. Vanderbilt Ingram Cancer Center, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee.
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COHN ALLEN, LAHN MICHAELM, WILLIAMS KRISTENE, CLEVERLY ANNL, PITOU CELINE, KADAM SUNILK, FARMEN MARKW, DESAIAH DURISALA, RAJU ROBERT, CONKLING PAUL, RICHARDS DONALD. A phase I dose-escalation study to a predefined dose of a transforming growth factor-β1 monoclonal antibody (TβM1) in patients with metastatic cancer. Int J Oncol 2014; 45:2221-31. [PMID: 25270361 PMCID: PMC4215585 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2014.2679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2014] [Accepted: 05/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) plays an important role in cancer. Monoclonal antibodies (mAb) designed to specifically block the TGF-β ligands, are expected to inhibit tumor progression in patients with metastatic cancer. TβM1 is a humanized mAb optimized for neutralizing activity against TGF-β1. The objective of this clinical trial was to assess the safety and tolerability of TβM1 in patients with metastatic cancer. In this phase I, uncontrolled, non-randomized, dose-escalation study, 18 eligible adult patients who had measurable disease per RECIST and a performance status of ≤ 2 on the ECOG scale were administered TβM1 intravenously over 10 min at doses of 20, 60, 120 and 240 mg on day 1 of each 28-day cycle. Safety was assessed by adverse events (as defined by CTCAE version 3.0) and possible relationship to study drug, dose-limiting toxicities and laboratory changes. Systemic drug exposure and pharmacodynamic (PD) parameters were assessed. TβM1 was safe when administered once monthly. The pharmacokinetic (PK) profile was consistent with a mAb with a mean elimination half-life approximately 9 days. Although anticipated changes in PD markers such as serum VEGF, bFGF and mRNA expression of SMAD7 were observed in whole-blood, suggesting activity of TβM1 on the targeted pathway, these changes were not consistent to represent a PD effect. Additionally, despite the presence of an activated TGF-β1 expression signature in patients' whole blood, the short dosing duration did not translate into significant antitumor effect in the small number of patients investigated in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- ALLEN COHN
- Rocky Mountain Cancer Center - Midtown, Denver, CO, USA
| | | | | | - ANN L. CLEVERLY
- Eli Lilly and Company, Erl Wood Manor, Windlesham, Surrey, UK
| | - CELINE PITOU
- Eli Lilly and Company, Erl Wood Manor, Windlesham, Surrey, UK
| | | | | | | | - ROBERT RAJU
- Innovation Center Kettering Medical Center, Kettering, OH
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Cao Z, Kyprianou N. WITHDRAWN: Mechanisms navigating the TGF-β pathway in prostate cancer. Asian J Urol 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ajur.2014.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
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113
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Kothari AN, Mi Z, Zapf M, Kuo PC. Novel clinical therapeutics targeting the epithelial to mesenchymal transition. Clin Transl Med 2014; 3:35. [PMID: 25343018 PMCID: PMC4198571 DOI: 10.1186/s40169-014-0035-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Accepted: 09/25/2014] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is implicated in many processes, ranging from tissue and organogenesis to cancer and metastatic spread. Understanding the key regulatory mechanisms and mediators within this process offers the opportunity to develop novel therapeutics with broad clinical applicability. To date, several components of EMT already are targeted using pharmacologic agents in fibrosis and cancer. As our knowledge of EMT continues to grow, the potential for novel therapeutics will also increase. This review focuses on the role of EMT both as a necessary part of development and a key player in disease progression, specifically the similarity in pathways used during both processes as targets for drug development. Also, the key role of the tumor microenvironment with EMT is outlined, focusing on both co-factors and cell types with the ability to modulate the progression of EMT in cancer and metastatic disease. Lastly, we discuss the current status of clinical therapies both in development and those progressed to clinical trial specifically targeting pathologic EMTs including small molecule inhibitors, non-coding RNAs, exogenous co-factors, and adjunctive therapies to current chemotherapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anai N Kothari
- Department of Surgery, Oncology Institute, Loyola University Medical Center, 2160 South First Ave, EMS Bldg, Rm 3244, Maywood 60153, IL, USA
| | - Zhiyong Mi
- Department of Surgery, Oncology Institute, Loyola University Medical Center, 2160 South First Ave, EMS Bldg, Rm 3244, Maywood 60153, IL, USA
| | - Matthew Zapf
- Department of Surgery, Oncology Institute, Loyola University Medical Center, 2160 South First Ave, EMS Bldg, Rm 3244, Maywood 60153, IL, USA
| | - Paul C Kuo
- Department of Surgery, Oncology Institute, Loyola University Medical Center, 2160 South First Ave, EMS Bldg, Rm 3244, Maywood 60153, IL, USA
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Zhou F, Li F, Xie F, Zhang Z, Huang H, Zhang L. TRAF4 mediates activation of TGF-β signaling and is a biomarker for oncogenesis in breast cancer. SCIENCE CHINA-LIFE SCIENCES 2014; 57:1172-6. [DOI: 10.1007/s11427-014-4727-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2013] [Accepted: 02/20/2014] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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Abstract
Targeting prostate cancer metastasis has very high therapeutic potential. Prostate cancer is the second most common cause of cancer death among men in the USA, and death results from the development of metastatic disease. In order to metastasize, cancer cells must complete a series of steps that together constitute the metastatic cascade. Each step therefore offers the opportunity for therapeutic targeting. However, practical limitations have served as limiting roadblocks to successfully targeting the metastatic cascade. They include our still-emerging understanding of the underlying biology, as well as the fact that many of the dysregulated processes have critical functionality in otherwise normal cells. We provide a discussion of the underlying biology, as it relates to therapeutic targeting. Therapeutic inroads are rapidly being made, and we present a series of case studies to highlight key points. Finally, future perspectives related to drug discovery for antimetastatic agents are discussed.
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Chondroitin sulfate-E is a negative regulator of a pro-tumorigenic Wnt/beta-catenin-Collagen 1 axis in breast cancer cells. PLoS One 2014; 9:e103966. [PMID: 25090092 PMCID: PMC4121171 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0103966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Accepted: 07/09/2014] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Expression of the glycosaminoglycan chondroitin sulfate-E (CS-E) is misregulated in many human cancers, including breast cancer. Cell-surface associated CS-E has been shown to have pro-tumorigenic functions, and pharmacological treatment with exogenous CS-E has been proposed to interfere with tumor progression mediated by endogenous CS-E. However, the effects of exogenous CS-E on breast cancer cell behavior, and the molecular mechanisms deployed by CS-E are not well understood. We show here that treatment with CS-E, but not other chondroitin forms, could interfere with the invasive protrusion formation and migration of breast cancer cells in three-dimensional organotypic cultures. Microarray analysis identified transcriptional programs controlled by CS-E in these cells. Importantly, negative regulation of the pro-metastatic extracellular matrix gene Col1a1 was required for the anti-migratory effects of exogenous CS-E. Knock-down of Col1a1 gene expression mimics the effects of CS-E treatment, while exposing cells to a preformed collagen I matrix interfered with the anti-migratory effects of CS-E. In addition, CS-E specifically interfered with Wnt/beta-catenin signaling, a known pro-tumorigenic pathway. Lastly, we demonstrate that Col1a1 is a positively regulated target gene of the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway in breast cancer cells. Together, our data identify treatment with exogenous CS-E as negative regulatory mechanism of breast cancer cell motility through interference with a pro-tumorigenic Wnt/beta-catenin - Collagen I axis.
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Xu S, Wei J, Wang F, Kong LY, Ling XY, Nduom E, Gabrusiewicz K, Doucette T, Yang Y, Yaghi NK, Fajt V, Levine JM, Qiao W, Li XG, Lang FF, Rao G, Fuller GN, Calin GA, Heimberger AB. Effect of miR-142-3p on the M2 macrophage and therapeutic efficacy against murine glioblastoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 2014; 106:dju162. [PMID: 24974128 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/dju162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The immune therapeutic potential of microRNAs (miRNAs) in the context of tumor-mediated immune suppression has not been previously described for monocyte-derived glioma-associated macrophages, which are the largest infiltrating immune cell population in glioblastomas and facilitate gliomagenesis. METHODS An miRNA microarray was used to compare expression profiles between human glioblastoma-infiltrating macrophages and matched peripheral monocytes. The effects of miR-142-3p on phenotype and function of proinflammatory M1 and immunosuppressive M2 macrophages were determined. The therapeutic effect of miR-142-3p was ascertained in immune-competent C57BL/6J mice harboring intracerebral GL261 gliomas and in genetically engineered Ntv-a mice bearing high-grade gliomas. Student t test was used to evaluate the differences between ex vivo datasets. Survival was analyzed with the log-rank test and tumor sizes with linear mixed models and F test. All statistical tests were two-sided. RESULTS miR-142-3p was the most downregulated miRNA (approximately 4.95-fold) in glioblastoma-infiltrating macrophages. M2 macrophages had lower miR-142-3p expression relative to M1 macrophages (P = .03). Overexpression of miR-142-3p in M2 macrophages induced selective modulation of transforming growth factor beta receptor 1, which led to subsequent preferential apoptosis in the M2 subset (P = .01). In vivo miR-142-3p administration resulted in glioma growth inhibition (P = .03, n = 5) and extended median survival (miR-142-3p-treated C57BL/6J mice vs scramble control: 31 days vs 23.5 days, P = .03, n = 10; miR-142-3p treated Ntv-a mice vs scramble control: 32 days vs 24 days, P = .03, n = 9), with an associated decrease in infiltrating macrophages (R (2) = .303). CONCLUSIONS These data indicate a unique role of miR-142-3p in glioma immunity by modulating M2 macrophages through the transforming growth factor beta signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Xu
- Affiliations of authors: Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China (SX, X-GL), Department of Neurosurgery (SX, JW, FW, L-YK, X-YL, EN, KG, TD, YY, FFL, GR, ABH), Department of Biostatistics (WQ), Department of Pathology (GNF), and Department of Experimental Therapeutics (GAC), University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX; Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX (NKY); Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX (VF)
| | - Jun Wei
- Affiliations of authors: Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China (SX, X-GL), Department of Neurosurgery (SX, JW, FW, L-YK, X-YL, EN, KG, TD, YY, FFL, GR, ABH), Department of Biostatistics (WQ), Department of Pathology (GNF), and Department of Experimental Therapeutics (GAC), University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX; Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX (NKY); Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX (VF)
| | - Fei Wang
- Affiliations of authors: Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China (SX, X-GL), Department of Neurosurgery (SX, JW, FW, L-YK, X-YL, EN, KG, TD, YY, FFL, GR, ABH), Department of Biostatistics (WQ), Department of Pathology (GNF), and Department of Experimental Therapeutics (GAC), University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX; Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX (NKY); Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX (VF)
| | - Ling-Yuan Kong
- Affiliations of authors: Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China (SX, X-GL), Department of Neurosurgery (SX, JW, FW, L-YK, X-YL, EN, KG, TD, YY, FFL, GR, ABH), Department of Biostatistics (WQ), Department of Pathology (GNF), and Department of Experimental Therapeutics (GAC), University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX; Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX (NKY); Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX (VF)
| | - Xiao-Yang Ling
- Affiliations of authors: Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China (SX, X-GL), Department of Neurosurgery (SX, JW, FW, L-YK, X-YL, EN, KG, TD, YY, FFL, GR, ABH), Department of Biostatistics (WQ), Department of Pathology (GNF), and Department of Experimental Therapeutics (GAC), University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX; Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX (NKY); Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX (VF)
| | - Edjah Nduom
- Affiliations of authors: Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China (SX, X-GL), Department of Neurosurgery (SX, JW, FW, L-YK, X-YL, EN, KG, TD, YY, FFL, GR, ABH), Department of Biostatistics (WQ), Department of Pathology (GNF), and Department of Experimental Therapeutics (GAC), University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX; Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX (NKY); Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX (VF)
| | - Konrad Gabrusiewicz
- Affiliations of authors: Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China (SX, X-GL), Department of Neurosurgery (SX, JW, FW, L-YK, X-YL, EN, KG, TD, YY, FFL, GR, ABH), Department of Biostatistics (WQ), Department of Pathology (GNF), and Department of Experimental Therapeutics (GAC), University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX; Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX (NKY); Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX (VF)
| | - Tiffany Doucette
- Affiliations of authors: Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China (SX, X-GL), Department of Neurosurgery (SX, JW, FW, L-YK, X-YL, EN, KG, TD, YY, FFL, GR, ABH), Department of Biostatistics (WQ), Department of Pathology (GNF), and Department of Experimental Therapeutics (GAC), University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX; Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX (NKY); Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX (VF)
| | - Yuhui Yang
- Affiliations of authors: Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China (SX, X-GL), Department of Neurosurgery (SX, JW, FW, L-YK, X-YL, EN, KG, TD, YY, FFL, GR, ABH), Department of Biostatistics (WQ), Department of Pathology (GNF), and Department of Experimental Therapeutics (GAC), University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX; Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX (NKY); Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX (VF)
| | - Nasser K Yaghi
- Affiliations of authors: Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China (SX, X-GL), Department of Neurosurgery (SX, JW, FW, L-YK, X-YL, EN, KG, TD, YY, FFL, GR, ABH), Department of Biostatistics (WQ), Department of Pathology (GNF), and Department of Experimental Therapeutics (GAC), University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX; Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX (NKY); Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX (VF)
| | - Virginia Fajt
- Affiliations of authors: Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China (SX, X-GL), Department of Neurosurgery (SX, JW, FW, L-YK, X-YL, EN, KG, TD, YY, FFL, GR, ABH), Department of Biostatistics (WQ), Department of Pathology (GNF), and Department of Experimental Therapeutics (GAC), University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX; Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX (NKY); Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX (VF)
| | - Jonathan M Levine
- Affiliations of authors: Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China (SX, X-GL), Department of Neurosurgery (SX, JW, FW, L-YK, X-YL, EN, KG, TD, YY, FFL, GR, ABH), Department of Biostatistics (WQ), Department of Pathology (GNF), and Department of Experimental Therapeutics (GAC), University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX; Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX (NKY); Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX (VF)
| | - Wei Qiao
- Affiliations of authors: Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China (SX, X-GL), Department of Neurosurgery (SX, JW, FW, L-YK, X-YL, EN, KG, TD, YY, FFL, GR, ABH), Department of Biostatistics (WQ), Department of Pathology (GNF), and Department of Experimental Therapeutics (GAC), University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX; Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX (NKY); Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX (VF)
| | - Xin-Gang Li
- Affiliations of authors: Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China (SX, X-GL), Department of Neurosurgery (SX, JW, FW, L-YK, X-YL, EN, KG, TD, YY, FFL, GR, ABH), Department of Biostatistics (WQ), Department of Pathology (GNF), and Department of Experimental Therapeutics (GAC), University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX; Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX (NKY); Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX (VF)
| | - Frederick F Lang
- Affiliations of authors: Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China (SX, X-GL), Department of Neurosurgery (SX, JW, FW, L-YK, X-YL, EN, KG, TD, YY, FFL, GR, ABH), Department of Biostatistics (WQ), Department of Pathology (GNF), and Department of Experimental Therapeutics (GAC), University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX; Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX (NKY); Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX (VF)
| | - Ganesh Rao
- Affiliations of authors: Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China (SX, X-GL), Department of Neurosurgery (SX, JW, FW, L-YK, X-YL, EN, KG, TD, YY, FFL, GR, ABH), Department of Biostatistics (WQ), Department of Pathology (GNF), and Department of Experimental Therapeutics (GAC), University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX; Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX (NKY); Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX (VF)
| | - Gregory N Fuller
- Affiliations of authors: Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China (SX, X-GL), Department of Neurosurgery (SX, JW, FW, L-YK, X-YL, EN, KG, TD, YY, FFL, GR, ABH), Department of Biostatistics (WQ), Department of Pathology (GNF), and Department of Experimental Therapeutics (GAC), University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX; Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX (NKY); Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX (VF)
| | - George A Calin
- Affiliations of authors: Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China (SX, X-GL), Department of Neurosurgery (SX, JW, FW, L-YK, X-YL, EN, KG, TD, YY, FFL, GR, ABH), Department of Biostatistics (WQ), Department of Pathology (GNF), and Department of Experimental Therapeutics (GAC), University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX; Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX (NKY); Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX (VF)
| | - Amy B Heimberger
- Affiliations of authors: Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China (SX, X-GL), Department of Neurosurgery (SX, JW, FW, L-YK, X-YL, EN, KG, TD, YY, FFL, GR, ABH), Department of Biostatistics (WQ), Department of Pathology (GNF), and Department of Experimental Therapeutics (GAC), University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX; Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX (NKY); Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX (VF).
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Sheen YY, Kim MJ, Park SA, Park SY, Nam JS. Targeting the Transforming Growth Factor-β Signaling in Cancer Therapy. Biomol Ther (Seoul) 2014; 21:323-31. [PMID: 24244818 PMCID: PMC3825194 DOI: 10.4062/biomolther.2013.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2013] [Accepted: 09/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
TGF-β pathway is being extensively evaluated as a potential therapeutic target. The transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signaling pathway has the dual role in both tumor suppression and tumor promotion. To design cancer therapeutics successfully, it is important to understand TGF-β related functional contexts. This review discusses the molecular mechanism of the TGF-β pathway and describes the different ways of tumor suppression and promotion by TGF-β. In the last part of the review, the data on targeting TGF-β pathway for cancer treatment is assessed. The TGF-β inhibitors in pre-clinical studies, and Phase I and II clinical trials are updated.
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Jahn SC, Law ME, Corsino PE, Davis BJ, Harrison JK, Law BK. Signaling mechanisms that suppress the cytostatic actions of rapamycin. PLoS One 2014; 9:e99927. [PMID: 24927123 PMCID: PMC4057458 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2014] [Accepted: 05/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
While rapamycin and the "rapalogs" Everolimus and Temsirolimus have been approved for clinical use in the treatment of a number of forms of cancer, they have not met overarching success. Some tumors are largely refractory to rapamycin treatment, with some even undergoing an increase in growth rates. However the mechanisms by which this occurs are largely unknown. The results presented here reveal novel cell-signaling mechanisms that may lead to this resistance. The absence of TGFβ signaling results in resistance to rapamycin. Additionally, we observed that treatment of some cancer cell lines with rapamycin and its analogs not only potentiates mitogenic signaling and proliferation induced by HGF, but also stimulates the pro-survival kinase Akt. Together, the data show that the effectiveness of rapamycin treatment can be influenced by a number of factors and bring to light potential biomarkers for the prediction of responsiveness to treatment, and suggest combination therapies to optimize rapalog anticancer efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan C. Jahn
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- University of Florida-Health Cancer Center, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Mary E. Law
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- University of Florida-Health Cancer Center, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Patrick E. Corsino
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- University of Florida-Health Cancer Center, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Bradley J. Davis
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- University of Florida-Health Cancer Center, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey K. Harrison
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- University of Florida-Health Cancer Center, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Brian K. Law
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- University of Florida-Health Cancer Center, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Hollern DP, Andrechek ER. A genomic analysis of mouse models of breast cancer reveals molecular features of mouse models and relationships to human breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res 2014; 16:R59. [PMID: 25069779 PMCID: PMC4078930 DOI: 10.1186/bcr3672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2013] [Accepted: 12/04/2013] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Genomic variability limits the efficacy of breast cancer therapy. To simplify the study of the molecular complexity of breast cancer, researchers have used mouse mammary tumor models. However, the degree to which mouse models model human breast cancer and are reflective of the human heterogeneity has yet to be demonstrated with gene expression studies on a large scale. METHODS To this end, we have built a database consisting of 1,172 mouse mammary tumor samples from 26 different major oncogenic mouse mammary tumor models. RESULTS In this dataset we identified heterogeneity within mouse models and noted a surprising amount of interrelatedness between models, despite differences in the tumor initiating oncogene. Making comparisons between models, we identified differentially expressed genes with alteration correlating with initiating events in each model. Using annotation tools, we identified transcription factors with a high likelihood of activity within these models. Gene signatures predicted activation of major cell signaling pathways in each model, predictions that correlated with previous genetic studies. Finally, we noted relationships between mouse models and human breast cancer at both the level of gene expression and predicted signal pathway activity. Importantly, we identified individual mouse models that recapitulate human breast cancer heterogeneity at the level of gene expression. CONCLUSIONS This work underscores the importance of fully characterizing mouse tumor biology at molecular, histological and genomic levels before a valid comparison to human breast cancer may be drawn and provides an important bioinformatic resource.
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Bailey-Downs LC, Thorpe JE, Disch BC, Bastian A, Hauser PJ, Farasyn T, Berry WL, Hurst RE, Ihnat MA. Development and characterization of a preclinical model of breast cancer lung micrometastatic to macrometastatic progression. PLoS One 2014; 9:e98624. [PMID: 24878664 PMCID: PMC4039511 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0098624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2013] [Accepted: 05/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Most cancer patients die with metastatic disease, thus, good models that recapitulate the natural process of metastasis including a dormancy period with micrometastatic cells would be beneficial in developing treatment strategies. Herein we report a model of natural metastasis that balances time to complete experiments with a reasonable dormancy period, which can be used to better study metastatic progression. The basis for the model is a 4T1 triple negative syngeneic breast cancer model without resection of the primary tumor. A cell titration from 500 to 15,000 GFP tagged 4T1 cells implanted into fat pad number four of immune proficient eight week female BALB/cJ mice optimized speed of the model while possessing metastatic processes including dormancy and beginning of reactivation. The frequency of primary tumors was less than 50% in animals implanted with 500–1500 cells. Although implantation with over 10,000 cells resulted in 100% primary tumor development, the tumors and macrometastases formed were highly aggressive, lacked dormancy, and offered no opportunity for treatment. Implantation of 7,500 cells resulted in >90% tumor take by 10 days; in 30–60 micrometastases in the lung (with many animals also having 2–30 brain micrometastases) two weeks post-implantation, with the first small macrometastases present at five weeks; many animals displaying macrometastases at five weeks and animals becoming moribund by six weeks post-implantation. Using the optimum of 7,500 cells the efficacy of a chemotherapeutic agent for breast cancer, doxorubicin, given at its maximal tolerated dose (MTD; 1 mg/kg weekly) was tested for an effect on metastasis. Doxorubicin treatment significantly reduced primary tumor growth and lung micrometastases but the number of macrometastases at experiment end was not significantly affected. This model should prove useful for development of drugs to target metastasis and to study the biology of metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jessica E. Thorpe
- DormaTarg, Inc., Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Oklahoma College of Pharmacy, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Bryan C. Disch
- DormaTarg, Inc., Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Anja Bastian
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Oklahoma College of Pharmacy, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Paul J. Hauser
- DormaTarg, Inc., Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
- Department of Urology, University of Oklahoma College of Medicine, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Taleah Farasyn
- DormaTarg, Inc., Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - William L. Berry
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma College of Medicine, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Robert E. Hurst
- DormaTarg, Inc., Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
- Department of Urology, University of Oklahoma College of Medicine, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, of Oklahoma College of Medicine, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Michael A. Ihnat
- DormaTarg, Inc., Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Oklahoma College of Pharmacy, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Ciftci R, Tas F, Yasasever CT, Aksit E, Karabulut S, Sen F, Keskin S, Kilic L, Yildiz I, Bozbey HU, Duranyildiz D, Vatansever S. High serum transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGFB1) level predicts better survival in breast cancer. Tumour Biol 2014; 35:6941-8. [PMID: 24740564 DOI: 10.1007/s13277-014-1932-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2014] [Accepted: 04/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGFB1) is a regulatory cytokine with both tumor suppressor and tumor-promoting effects in breast cancer (BC) cell lines and tissue. Data about level of circulating TGFB1 and its prognostic significance in BC patients is conflicting. The objective of this study is to determine the clinical significance of the serum TGFB1 levels in BC patients. We enrolled 96 female patients with histopathologically diagnosed BC who did not receive chemotherapy (CT) or radiotherapy. Serum TGFB1 levels were measured by ELISA method and compared with 30 healthy controls. The mean serum TGFB1 level of BC patients was significantly higher than controls (0.08 vs. 0.04 ng/ml, p < 0.001). There was no significant difference according to known disease-related clinicopathological or laboratory parameters. Serum TGFB1 level had a significant impact on overall survival in both univariate (p = 0.01) and multivariate analysis (p = 0.013). Serum TGFB1 level is elevated in BC patients and has a favorable prognostic value. However, it has no predictive role on CT response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rumeysa Ciftci
- Medical Oncology Department, Institute of Oncology, Istanbul University, Capa, Istanbul, Turkey,
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Denoyer D, Kusuma N, Burrows A, Ling X, Jupp L, Anderson RL, Pouliot N. Bone-derived soluble factors and laminin-511 cooperate to promote migration, invasion and survival of bone-metastatic breast tumor cells. Growth Factors 2014; 32:63-73. [PMID: 24601751 DOI: 10.3109/08977194.2014.894037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Tumor intrinsic and extrinsic factors are thought to contribute to bone metastasis but little is known about how they cooperate to promote breast cancer spread to bone. We used the bone-metastatic 4T1BM2 mammary carcinoma model to investigate the cooperative interactions between tumor LM-511 and bone-derived soluble factors in vitro. We show that bone conditioned medium cooperates with LM-511 to enhance 4T1BM2 cell migration and invasion and is sufficient alone to promote survival in the absence of serum. These responses were associated with increased secretion of MMP-9 and activation of ERK and AKT signaling pathways and were partially blocked by pharmacological inhibitors of MMP-9, AKT-1/2 or MEK. Importantly, pre-treatment of 4T1BM2 cells with an AKT-1/2 inhibitor significantly reduced experimental metastasis to bone in vivo. Promotion of survival and invasive responses by bone-derived soluble factors and tumor-derived LM-511 are likely to contribute to the metastatic spread of breast tumors to bone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delphine Denoyer
- Metastasis Research Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre , Melbourne, VIC , Australia
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Chen YW, Hsiao PJ, Weng CC, Kuo KK, Kuo TL, Wu DC, Hung WC, Cheng KH. SMAD4 loss triggers the phenotypic changes of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cells. BMC Cancer 2014; 14:181. [PMID: 24625091 PMCID: PMC4007528 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-14-181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2013] [Accepted: 02/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND SMAD4 is a gastrointestinal malignancy-specific tumor suppressor gene found mutated in one third of colorectal cancer specimens and half of pancreatic tumors. SMAD4 inactivation by allelic deletion or intragenic mutation mainly occurs in the late stage of human pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Various studies have proposed potential SMAD4-mediated anti-tumor effects in human malignancy; however, the relevance of SMAD4 in the PDAC molecular phenotype has not yet been fully characterized. METHODS The AsPC-1, CFPAC-1 and PANC-1 human PDAC cell lines were used. The restoration or knockdown of SMAD4 expression in PDAC cells were confirmed by western blotting, luciferase reporter and immunofluorescence assays. In vitro cell proliferation, xenograft, wound healing, quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), Western blotting, and immunohistochemistry analysis were conducted using PDAC cells in which SMAD4 was either overexpressed or knocked down. RESULTS Here, we report that re-expression of SMAD4 in SMAD4-null PDAC cells does not affect tumor cell growth in vitro or in vivo, but significantly enhances cells migration in vitro. SMAD4 restoration transcriptionally activates the TGF-β1/Nestin pathway and induces expression of several transcriptional factors. In contrast, SMAD4 loss in PDAC leads to increased expression of E-cadherin, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and CD133. Furthermore, SMAD4 loss causes alterations to multiple kinase pathways (particularly the phosphorylated ERK/p38/Akt pathways), and increases chemoresistance in vitro. Finally, PDAC cells with intact SMAD4 are more sensitive to TGF-β1 inhibitor treatment to reduced cell migration; PDAC cells lacking SMAD4 showed decreased cell motility in response to EGFR inhibitor treatment. CONCLUSIONS This study revealed the molecular basis for SMAD4-dependent differences in PDAC with the aim of identifying the subset of patients likely to respond to therapies targeting the TGF-β or EGFR signaling pathways and of identifying potential therapeutic interventions for PDAC patients with SMAD4 defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Wen Chen
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan
| | - Pi-Jung Hsiao
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Chieh Weng
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan
| | - Kung-Kai Kuo
- Division of Hepatobiliary Pancreatic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Tzu-Lei Kuo
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan
| | - Deng-Chyang Wu
- Division of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Municipal Hsiao-Kang Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Chun Hung
- National Institute of Cancer Research, National Health Research Institutes, Tainan 704, Taiwan
| | - Kuang-Hung Cheng
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan
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Zhang Y, Li L, Yu J, Zhu D, Zhang Y, Li X, Gu H, Zhang CY, Zen K. Microvesicle-mediated delivery of transforming growth factor β1 siRNA for the suppression of tumor growth in mice. Biomaterials 2014; 35:4390-400. [PMID: 24565517 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2014.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2014] [Accepted: 02/04/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cell-derived microvesicles (MVs) have been recently shown as an efficient carrier to deliver small RNAs into the target cells. In the present study, we characterized the inhibitory effect of TGF-β1 siRNA delivered by mouse fibroblast L929 cell-derived MVs (L929 MVs) on the growth and metastasis of murine sarcomas 180 cells both in vitro and in vivo. We found that, comparing to the same concentration of free TGF-β1 siRNA, TGF-β1 siRNA delivered by L929 MVs much more efficiently decreased the level of TGF-β1 in the recipient tumor cells. Functionally, MVs containing TGF-β1 siRNA significantly decreased the viability and migration of sarcomas 180 cells and promoted the apoptosis of tumor cells. Co-immunoprecipitation with Argonaute 2 (AGO2) via anti-AGO2 antibody indicated that the majority of TGF-β1 siRNA in the MVs were associated with AGO2 complex. A tumor implantation mouse model further showed that intravenous injection of TGF-β1 siRNA-containing MVs strongly suppressed TGF-β1 expression and TGF-β1 signaling downstream in the implanted tumor cells, and thus inhibited the growth and lung metastases of tumor cells. In conclusion, our results collectively demonstrate that the delivery of therapeutic TGF-β1 siRNA by cell-derived MVs provides an effective strategy to control tumor cell growth and metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaqin Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, China
| | - Limin Li
- Jiangsu Engineering Research Center for microRNA Biology and Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China
| | - Jianxiong Yu
- Jiangsu Engineering Research Center for microRNA Biology and Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China
| | - Dihan Zhu
- Jiangsu Engineering Research Center for microRNA Biology and Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China
| | - Yujing Zhang
- Jiangsu Engineering Research Center for microRNA Biology and Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China
| | - Xihan Li
- Jiangsu Engineering Research Center for microRNA Biology and Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China
| | - Hongwei Gu
- Jiangsu Engineering Research Center for microRNA Biology and Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China.
| | - Chen-Yu Zhang
- Jiangsu Engineering Research Center for microRNA Biology and Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China.
| | - Ke Zen
- Jiangsu Engineering Research Center for microRNA Biology and Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China.
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126
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FKBP51 increases the tumour-promoter potential of TGF-beta. Clin Transl Med 2014; 3:1. [PMID: 24460977 PMCID: PMC3906759 DOI: 10.1186/2001-1326-3-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2013] [Accepted: 12/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background FKBP51 (FKBP5 Official Symbol) is a large molecular weight component of the family of FK506 binding proteins (FKBP). In recent years, research studies from our laboratory highlighted functions for FKBP51 in the control of apoptosis and melanoma progression. FKBP51 expression correlated with the invasiveness and aggressiveness of melanoma. Since a role for TGF-β in the enhanced tumorigenic potential of melanoma cells is widely described, we hypothesized a cooperative effect between FKBP51 and TGF-β in melanoma progression. Methods SAN and A375 melanoma cell lines were utilized for this study. Balb/c IL2γ NOD SCID served to assess the ability to colonize organs and metastasize of different cell lines, which was evaluated by in vivo imaging. Realtime PCR and western blot served for measurement of mRNA and protein expression, respectively. Results By comparing the metastatic potential of two melanoma cell lines, namely A375 and SAN, we confirmed that an increased capability to colonize murine organs was associated with increased levels of FKBP51. A375 melanoma cell line expressed FKBP51 mRNA levels 30-fold higher in comparison to the SAN mRNA level and appeared more aggressive than SAN melanoma cell line in an experimental metastasis model. In addition, A375 expressed, more abundantly than SAN, the TGF-β and the pro angiogenic TGF-β receptor type III (TβRIII) factors. FKBP51 silencing produced a reduction of TGF-β and TβRIII gene expression in A375 cell line, in accordance with previous studies. We found that the inducing effect of TGF-β on Sparc and Vimentin expression was impaired in condition of FKBP51 depletion, suggesting that FKBP51 is an important cofactor in the TGF-β signal. Such a hypothesis was supported by co immunoprecipitation assays, showing that FKBP51 interacted with either Smad2,3 and p300. In normal melanocytes, FKBP51 potentiated the effect of TGF-β on N-cadherin expression and conferred a mesenchymal-like morphology to such round-shaped cells. Conclusions Overall, our findings show that FKBP51 enhances some pro oncogenic functions of TGF-β, suggesting that FKBP51-overexpression may help melanoma to take advantage of the tumor promoting activities of the cytokine.
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127
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Li MO, Flavell RA. TGF-β, T-cell tolerance and immunotherapy of autoimmune diseases and cancer. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2014; 2:257-65. [DOI: 10.1586/1744666x.2.2.257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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128
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Lee YH, Schiemann WP. Chemotherapeutic Targeting of the Transforming Growth Factor-β Pathway in Breast Cancers. BREAST CANCER MANAGEMENT 2014; 3:73-85. [PMID: 25904986 DOI: 10.2217/bmt.13.74] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Transforming growth factor (TGF-β) is a multifunctional cytokine that plays essential roles in regulating mammary gland development, morphogenesis, differentiation, and involution. TGF-β also regulates mammary gland homeostasis and prevents its transformation by prohibiting dysregulated cell cycle progression, and by inducing apoptosis; it also creates cell microenvironments that readily inhibit cell migration, invasion, and metastasis. Interestingly, while early-stage mammary tumors remain sensitive to the tumor suppressing activities of TGF-β, late-stage breast cancers become insensitive to the anticancer functions of this cytokine and instead rely upon TGF-β to drive disease and metastatic progression. This switch in TGF-β function is known as the "TGF-β Paradox" and represents the rationale for developing chemotherapies to inactivate the TGF-β pathway and its oncogenic functions in late-stage breast cancers. Here we outline the molecular mechanisms that manifest the "TGF-β Paradox" and discuss the challenges associated with the development and use of anti-TGF-β agents to treat breast cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Hun Lee
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Division of General Medical Sciences-Oncology, Case Western Reserve University, Wolstein Research Building, 2103 Cornell Road Cleveland, OH 44106
| | - William P Schiemann
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Division of General Medical Sciences-Oncology, Case Western Reserve University, Wolstein Research Building, 2103 Cornell Road Cleveland, OH 44106
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129
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Biswas T, Gu X, Yang J, Ellies LG, Sun LZ. Attenuation of TGF-β signaling supports tumor progression of a mesenchymal-like mammary tumor cell line in a syngeneic murine model. Cancer Lett 2013; 346:129-38. [PMID: 24368187 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2013.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2013] [Revised: 12/11/2013] [Accepted: 12/14/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies have suggested that TGF-β functions as a tumor promoter in metastatic, mesenchymal-like breast cancer cells and that TGF-β inhibitors can effectively abrogate tumor progression in several of these models. Here we report a novel observation with the use of genetic and pharmacological approaches, and murine mammary cell injection models in both syngeneic and immune compromised mice. We found that TGF-β receptor II (TβRII) knockdown in the MMTV-PyMT derived Py8119, a mesenchymal-like murine mammary tumor cell line, resulted in increased orthotopic tumor growth potential in a syngeneic background and a similar trend in an immune compromised background. Systemic treatment with a small-molecule TGF-β receptor I kinase inhibitor induced a trend towards increased metastatic colonization of distant organs following intracardiac inoculation of Py8119 cells, with little effect on the colonization of luminal-like Py230 cells, also derived from MMTV-PyMT tumors. Taken together, our data suggest that the attenuation of TGF-β signaling in mesenchymal-like mammary tumors does not necessarily inhibit their malignant potential, and anti-TGF-β therapeutic intervention requires greater precision in identifying molecular markers in tumors with an indication of functional TGF-β signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanuka Biswas
- Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Xiang Gu
- Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Junhua Yang
- Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Lesley G Ellies
- Department of Pathology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Lu-Zhe Sun
- Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA; Cancer Therapy and Research Center, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA.
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130
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Brenet F, Scandura JM. [TGFβ contribution to hematopoietic regeneration after myelosuppressive chemotherapy]. Med Sci (Paris) 2013; 29:940-2. [PMID: 24280490 DOI: 10.1051/medsci/20132911003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Fabienne Brenet
- Inserm U1068, Centre de recherche en cancérologie de Marseille (CRCM), Institut Paoli-Calmettes (IPC), Université d'Aix-Marseille II, 27, boulevard Leï Roure, 13009 Marseille, France
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Ladam F, Damour I, Dumont P, Kherrouche Z, de Launoit Y, Tulasne D, Chotteau-Lelievre A. Loss of a negative feedback loop involving pea3 and cyclin d2 is required for pea3-induced migration in transformed mammary epithelial cells. Mol Cancer Res 2013; 11:1412-24. [PMID: 23989931 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-13-0229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The Ets family transcription factor Pea3 (ETV4) is involved in tumorigenesis especially during the metastatic process. Pea3 is known to induce migration and invasion in mammary epithelial cell model systems. However, the molecular pathways regulated by Pea3 are still misunderstood. In the current study, using in vivo and in vitro assays, Pea3 increased the morphogenetic and tumorigenic capacity of mammary epithelial cells by modulating their cell morphology, proliferation, and migration potential. In addition, Pea3 overexpression favored an epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) triggered by TGF-β1. During investigation for molecular events downstream of Pea3, Cyclin D2 (CCND2) was identified as a new Pea3 target gene involved in the control of cellular proliferation and migration, a finding that highlights a new negative regulatory loop between Pea3 and Cyclin D2. Furthermore, Cyclin D2 expression was lost during TGF-β1-induced EMT and Pea3-induced tumorigenesis. Finally, restored Cyclin D2 expression in Pea3-dependent mammary tumorigenic cells decreased cell migration in an opposite manner to Pea3. As such, these data demonstrate that loss of the negative feedback loop between Cyclin D2 and Pea3 contributes to Pea3-induced tumorigenesis. IMPLICATIONS This study reveals molecular insight into how the Ets family transcription factor Pea3 favors EMT and contributes to tumorigenesis via a negative regulatory loop with Cyclin D2, a new Pea3 target gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franck Ladam
- CNRS UMR 8161, Institut de Biologie de Lille - Institut Pasteur de Lille, 1 Rue Pr Calmette, BP447, 59021 Lille, France.
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López-Díaz FJ, Gascard P, Balakrishnan SK, Zhao J, Del Rincon SV, Spruck C, Tlsty TD, Emerson BM. Coordinate transcriptional and translational repression of p53 by TGF-β1 impairs the stress response. Mol Cell 2013; 50:552-64. [PMID: 23706820 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2013.04.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2012] [Revised: 03/25/2013] [Accepted: 04/24/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Cellular stress results in profound changes in RNA and protein synthesis. How cells integrate this intrinsic, p53-centered program with extracellular signals is largely unknown. We demonstrate that TGF-β1 signaling interferes with the stress response through coordinate transcriptional and translational repression of p53 levels, which reduces p53-activated transcription, and apoptosis in precancerous cells. Mechanistically, E2F-4 binds constitutively to the TP53 gene and induces transcription. TGF-β1-activated Smads are recruited to a composite Smad/E2F-4 element by an E2F-4/p107 complex that switches to a Smad corepressor, which represses TP53 transcription. TGF-β1 also causes dissociation of ribosomal protein RPL26 and elongation factor eEF1A from p53 mRNA, thereby reducing p53 mRNA association with polyribosomes and p53 translation. TGF-β1 signaling is dominant over stress-induced transcription and translation of p53 and prevents stress-imposed downregulation of Smad proteins. Thus, crosstalk between the TGF-β and p53 pathways defines a major node of regulation in the cellular stress response, enhancing drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando J López-Díaz
- Regulatory Biology Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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Johansson J, Berg T, Kurzejamska E, Pang MF, Tabor V, Jansson M, Roswall P, Pietras K, Sund M, Religa P, Fuxe J. MiR-155-mediated loss of C/EBPβ shifts the TGF-β response from growth inhibition to epithelial-mesenchymal transition, invasion and metastasis in breast cancer. Oncogene 2013; 32:5614-24. [PMID: 23955085 PMCID: PMC3898103 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2013.322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2013] [Revised: 06/01/2013] [Accepted: 06/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
During breast cancer progression, transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) switches from acting as a growth inhibitor to become a major promoter of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), invasion and metastasis. However, the mechanisms involved in this switch are not clear. We found that loss of CCAAT-enhancer binding protein beta (C/EBPβ), a differentiation factor for the mammary epithelium, was associated with signs of EMT in triple-negative human breast cancer, and in invasive areas of mammary tumors in MMTV-PyMT mice. Using an established model of TGF-β-induced EMT in mouse mammary gland epithelial cells, we discovered that C/EBPβ was repressed during EMT by miR-155, an oncomiR in breast cancer. Depletion of C/EBPβ potentiated the TGF-β response towards EMT, and contributed to evasion of the growth inhibitory response to TGF-β. Furthermore, loss of C/EBPβ enhanced invasion and metastatic dissemination of the mouse mammary tumor cells to the lungs after subcutaneous injection into mice. The mechanism by which loss of C/EBPβ promoted the TGF-β response towards EMT, invasion and metastasis, was traced to a previously uncharacterized role of C/EBPβ as a transcriptional activator of genes encoding the epithelial junction proteins E-cadherin and coxsackie virus and adenovirus receptor. The results identify miR-155-mediated loss of C/EBPβ as a mechanism, which promotes breast cancer progression by shifting the TGF-β response from growth inhibition to EMT, invasion and metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Johansson
- Division of Vascular Biology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - T Berg
- Division of Vascular Biology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - E Kurzejamska
- 1] Department of Medicine, Centre for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden [2] Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - M-F Pang
- Division of Vascular Biology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - V Tabor
- Division of Vascular Biology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - M Jansson
- Department of Surgical and Perioperative Sciences, Surgery, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - P Roswall
- Division of Vascular Biology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - K Pietras
- 1] Division of Vascular Biology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden [2] Department of Laboratory Medicine Malmö, Lund University Cancer Center, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
| | - M Sund
- Department of Surgical and Perioperative Sciences, Surgery, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - P Religa
- Department of Medicine, Centre for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - J Fuxe
- Division of Vascular Biology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
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Combined treatment with erlotinib and a transforming growth factor-β type I receptor inhibitor effectively suppresses the enhanced motility of erlotinib-resistant non-small-cell lung cancer cells. J Thorac Oncol 2013; 8:259-69. [PMID: 23334091 DOI: 10.1097/jto.0b013e318279e942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION : Despite an initial dramatic response to the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) gefitinib and erlotinib, the majority of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients with EGFR-activating mutations develop acquired resistance. Therefore, there is an urgent need to elucidate the unknown mechanisms and biological behaviors of EGFR TKI-resistant lung tumors. We investigated the motility of EGFR TKI-resistant cells, as these characteristics are relevant to cancer metastasis. METHODS : Erlotinib-resistant PC-9ER cells were generated from PC-9 NSCLC cells, which harbor an EGFR-activating mutation, and used in this study. We investigated the involvement of the transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) pathway in cell motility, and tested the effects of erlotinib and TGF-β type I receptor (RI) inhibition on cell motility. RESULTS : PC-9ER cells displayed enhanced motility resulting from autocrine activation of the TGF-β pathway. Increased TGF-β2 secretion resulting from TGF-β2 up-regulation at the transcriptional level was suggested to be responsible for the phosphorylation of Smad2 and the subsequently elevated transcriptional regulatory activity in PC-9ER cells. The motility of PC-9ER cells was suppressed by treatment with either the TGF-βRI inhibitor LY364947 or erlotinib, and greater suppression was observed when used in combination. LY364947 or erlotinib exerted no growth-inhibitory effects, suggesting that motility and growth are driven by different signaling pathways in PC-9ER cells. CONCLUSIONS : Our results imply that blockade of the TGF-β signaling pathway combined with continuous EGFR TKI treatment will be beneficial in preventing metastasis in patients with EGFR TKI-resistant NSCLC without the EGFR T790M resistance mutation.
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135
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Zhang X, Min KW, Liggett J, Baek SJ. Disruption of the transforming growth factor-β pathway by tolfenamic acid via the ERK MAP kinase pathway. Carcinogenesis 2013; 34:2900-7. [PMID: 23864386 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgt250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) modulates diverse cell physiological processes and plays a complicated role in tumor development. It has been well established that TGF-β inhibits cell proliferation in normal and early stage carcinoma and facilitates tumor metastasis in late-stage carcinoma. Therefore, blocking TGF-β signaling in advanced stage carcinogenesis provides a potentially interesting chemotherapeutic strategy. We aimed to determine the effect of tolfenamic acid (TA) on TGF-β-induced protumorigenic activity. Here, we demonstrate that TA attenuates tumor-promoting effects of TGF-β in cancer cells. Further observation indicates TA blocks the TGF-β/Smad pathway, and this blockage is mainly attributed to the interference of TGF-β1-driven phosphorylation of Smad2/3. We also show that TA could exert this effect on cancer cell lines from several different origins and that TA is much better than other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs with respect to inhibition of TGF-β1-induced Smad2 phosphorylation. Finally, extracellular signal-regulated kinase mitogen-activated protein kinase plays a role in TA-induced suppression of Smad2/3 phosphorylation and subsequent nuclear accumulation of Smad2/3 in response to TGF-β1. Our study provides a possible mechanism by which TA affects anticancer activity by inhibiting the TGF-β pathway and sheds light on the application of TA for cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaobo Zhang
- Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA and
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136
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Ye Y, Han X, Guo B, Sun Z, Liu S. Combination treatment with platycodin D and osthole inhibits cell proliferation and invasion in mammary carcinoma cell lines. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2013; 36:115-124. [PMID: 23603464 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2013.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2012] [Revised: 03/20/2013] [Accepted: 03/22/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
In this study, two invasive mammary carcinoma cells (MDA-MB-231 and 4T1) were utilized to evaluate the inhibitory activities of platycodin D, osthole, and the two in combination. The anti-proliferative effect was tested using the MTT and BrdU assay, and the combination of 15μM osthole and 75μM platycodin D was used for subsequent analyses. The anti-invasive effect was evaluated by the transwell assay. The results showed that the combination treatment reduced both cell proliferation and invasion. Western blot and real-time PCR revealed that the platycodin D-osthole combination significantly decreased TβRII, Smad2, Smad3 and Smad4 gene or protein expressions, as well as effectively blocked TGF-β-induced phosphorylation of Smad2 and Smad3. Thus, this study demonstrates that the anti-cancer effects of the platycodin D-osthole combination in breast cancer cells involve proliferation inhibition and invasion blockade, both of which may be mediated by perturbations in the TGF-β/Smads pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiyi Ye
- Pharmacology Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Longhua Hospital, 725 Wanpingnan Road, Shanghai 200032, China
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137
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION The transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signaling pathway has a pivotal role in tumor suppression and yet, paradoxically, in tumor promotion. Functional context dependent insights into the TGF-β pathway are crucial in developing TGF-β-based therapeutics for cancer. AREAS COVERED This review discusses the molecular mechanism of the TGF-β pathway and describes the different ways of tumor suppression by TGF-β. It is then explained how tumors can evade these effects and how TGF-β contributes to further growing and spreading of some of the tumors. In the last part of the review, the data on targeting TGF-β pathway for cancer treatment is assessed. This review focuses on anti-TGF-β based treatment and other options targeting activated pathways in tumors where the TGF-β tumor suppressor pathway is lost. Pre-clinical as well up to date results of the most recent clinical trials are given. EXPERT OPINION Targeting the TGF-β pathway can be a promising direction in cancer treatment. However, several challenges still exist, the most important are differentiating between the carcinogenic effects of TGF-β and its other physiological roles, and delineating the tumor suppressive versus the tumor promoting roles of TGF-β in each specific tumor. Future studies are needed in order to find safer and more effective TGF-β-based drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lior H Katz
- Visiting Scientist, The University of Texas, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, & Nutrition, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Ying Li
- Assistant Professor (Research), The University of Texas, M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, & Nutrition, Dr. Lopa Mishra’s Lab, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Jiun-Sheng Chen
- Research Assistant II, The University of Texas, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, & Nutrition, Dr. Lopa Mishra’s Lab, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Nina M Muñoz
- Research Scientist, The University of Texas, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, & Nutrition, Dr. Lopa Mishra’s Lab, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Avijit Majumdar
- Postdoctoral Fellow, The University of Texas, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, & Nutrition, Dr.Lopa Mishra’s Lab, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Jian Chen
- Instructor, The University of Texas, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, & Nutrition, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Lopa Mishra
- Del and Dennis McCarthy Distinguished Professor and Chair, The University of Texas, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, & Nutrition, Houston, TX, USA, Tel: +1 713 794 3221; Fax: +1 713 745 1886
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138
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Bednarz-Knoll N, Alix-Panabières C, Pantel K. Plasticity of disseminating cancer cells in patients with epithelial malignancies. Cancer Metastasis Rev 2013; 31:673-87. [PMID: 22733306 DOI: 10.1007/s10555-012-9370-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Current models suggest that at a certain but yet undefined time point of tumour development malignant cells with an aggressive phenotype start to disseminate via the blood stream into distant organs. This invasive phenotype appears to be associated with an epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), which enables detachment of tumour cells from a primary site and migration. The reverse process of mesenchymal-epithelial transition (MET) might play a crucial role in the further steps of metastasis when circulating tumour cells (CTCs) settle down in distant organs and establish (micro-)metastasis. Nevertheless, the exact mechanisms and interplay of EMT and MET are only partially understood and their relevance in cancer patients is unclear. Research groups have just started to apply EMT-related markers in their studies on CTCs in cancer patients. In the present review, we summarize and discuss the current state of investigations on CTCs in the context of research on EMT/MET.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Bednarz-Knoll
- Department of Tumour Biology, Center of Experimental Medicine, University Cancer Center Hamburg, University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistr. 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany.
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139
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Peng J, Tsang JYS, Li D, Niu N, HO DHH, Lau KF, Lui VCH, Lamb JR, Chen Y, Tam PKH. Inhibition of TGF-β signaling in combination with TLR7 ligation re-programs a tumoricidal phenotype in tumor-associated macrophages. Cancer Lett 2013; 331:239-49. [DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2013.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2012] [Revised: 12/31/2012] [Accepted: 01/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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140
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Primary aldosteronism and impaired natriuresis in mice underexpressing TGFβ1. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:5600-5. [PMID: 23503843 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1302641110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
To uncover the potential cardiovascular effects of human polymorphisms influencing transforming growth factor β1 (TGFβ1) expression, we generated mice with Tgfb1 mRNA expression graded in five steps from 10% to 300% normal. Adrenal expression of the genes for mineralocorticoid-producing enzymes ranged from 50% normal in the hypermorphs at age 12 wk to 400% normal in the hypomorphs accompanied with proportionate changes in plasma aldosterone levels, whereas plasma volumes ranged from 50% to 150% normal accompanied by marked compensatory changes in plasma angiotensin II and renin levels. The aldosterone/renin ratio ranged from 0.3 times normal in the 300% hypermorphs to six times in the 10% hypomorphs, which have elevated blood pressure. Urinary output of water and electrolytes are markedly decreased in the 10% hypomorphs without significant change in the glomerular filtration rate. Renal activities for the Na(+), K(+)-ATPase, and epithelial sodium channel are markedly increased in the 10% hypomorphs. The hypertension in the 10% hypomorphs is corrected by spironolactone or amiloride at doses that do not change blood pressure in wild-type mice. Thus, changes in Tgfb1 expression cause marked progressive changes in multiple systems that regulate blood pressure and fluid homeostasis, with the major effects being mediated by changes in adrenocortical function.
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141
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Ngan E, Northey JJ, Brown CM, Ursini-Siegel J, Siegel PM. A complex containing LPP and α-actinin mediates TGFβ-induced migration and invasion of ErbB2-expressing breast cancer cells. J Cell Sci 2013; 126:1981-91. [PMID: 23447672 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.118315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) is a potent modifier of the malignant phenotype in ErbB2-expressing breast cancers. We demonstrate that epithelial-derived breast cancer cells, which undergo a TGFβ-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), engage signaling molecules that normally facilitate cellular migration and invasion of mesenchymal cells. We identify lipoma preferred partner (LPP) as an indispensable regulator of TGFβ-induced migration and invasion of ErbB2-expressing breast cancer cells. We show that LPP re-localizes to focal adhesion complexes upon TGFβ stimulation and is a critical determinant in TGFβ-mediated focal adhesion turnover. Finally, we have determined that the interaction between LPP and α-actinin, an actin cross-linking protein, is necessary for TGFβ-induced migration and invasion of ErbB2-expressing breast cancer cells. Thus, our data reveal that LPP, which is normally operative in cells of mesenchymal origin, can be co-opted by breast cancer cells during an EMT to promote their migration and invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaine Ngan
- Goodman Cancer Research Centre, McGill University, Montréal, QC H3A 1A3, Canada
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142
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Brenet F, Kermani P, Spektor R, Rafii S, Scandura JM. TGFβ restores hematopoietic homeostasis after myelosuppressive chemotherapy. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 210:623-39. [PMID: 23440043 PMCID: PMC3600905 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20121610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Blocking TGFβ signaling after chemotherapy accelerates hematopoietic reconstitution and delays the return of cycling HSCs to quiescence. Myelosuppression is a life-threatening complication of antineoplastic therapy, but treatment is restricted to a few cytokines with unilineage hematopoietic activity. Although hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are predominantly quiescent during homeostasis, they are rapidly recruited into cell cycle by stresses, including myelosuppressive chemotherapy. Factors that induce HSCs to proliferate during stress have been characterized, but it is not known how HSC quiescence is then reestablished. In this study, we show that TGFβ signaling is transiently activated in hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) during hematopoietic regeneration. Blockade of TGFβ signaling after chemotherapy accelerates hematopoietic reconstitution and delays the return of cycling HSCs to quiescence. In contrast, TGFβ blockade during homeostasis fails to induce cycling of HSPCs. We identified the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor Cdkn1c (p57) as a key downstream mediator of TGFβ during regeneration because the recovery of chimeric mice, incapable of expressing p57 in HSPCs, phenocopies blockade of TGFβ signaling after chemotherapy. This study demonstrates that context-dependent activation of TGFβ signaling is central to an unrecognized counterregulatory mechanism that promotes homeostasis once hematopoiesis has sufficiently recovered from myelosuppressive chemotherapy. These results open the door to new, potentially superior, approaches to promote multilineage hematopoietic recovery by blocking the TGFβ signaling that dampens regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabienne Brenet
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York 10065, USA
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143
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Mirzoeva S, Franzen CA, Pelling JC. Apigenin inhibits TGF-β-induced VEGF expression in human prostate carcinoma cells via a Smad2/3- and Src-dependent mechanism. Mol Carcinog 2013; 53:598-609. [PMID: 23359392 DOI: 10.1002/mc.22005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2012] [Revised: 11/28/2012] [Accepted: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Cancer progression relies on establishment of the blood supply necessary for tumor growth and ultimately metastasis. Prostate cancer mortality is primarily attributed to development of metastases rather than primary, organ-confined disease. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a key regulator of angiogenesis in prostate tissue. Our previous studies have demonstrated that the chemopreventive bioflavonoid apigenin inhibited hypoxia-induced elevation of VEGF production at low oxygen conditions characteristic for solid tumors. Low oxygen (hypoxia) and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) are two major factors responsible for increased VEGF secretion. In the present study, experiments were performed to investigate the inhibitory effect of apigenin on TGF-β-induced VEGF production and the mechanisms underlying this action. Our results demonstrate that VEGF expression is induced by TGF-β1 in human prostate cancer PC3-M and LNCaP C4-2B cells, and treatment with apigenin markedly decreased VEGF production. Additionally, apigenin inhibited TGF-β1-induced phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of Smad2 and Smad3. Further experiments demonstrated that specific transient knockdown of Smad2 or Smad3 blunted apigenin's effect on VEGF expression. We also found that apigenin inhibited Src, FAK, and Akt phosphorylation in PC3-M and LNCaP C4-2B cells. Furthermore, constitutively active Src reversed the inhibitory effect of apigenin on VEGF expression and Smad2/3 phosphorylation. Taken together, our results suggest that apigenin inhibits prostate carcinogenesis by modulating TGF-β-activated pathways linked to cancer progression and metastases, in particular the Smad2/3 and Src/FAK/Akt pathways. These findings provide new insights into molecular pathways targeted by apigenin, and reveal a novel molecular mechanism underlying the antiangiogenic potential of apigenin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salida Mirzoeva
- Department of Pathology and the Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois
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144
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Chiechi A, Waning DL, Stayrook KR, Buijs JT, Guise TA, Mohammad KS. Role of TGF- β in breast cancer bone metastases. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 4:15-30. [PMID: 24558636 PMCID: PMC3928102 DOI: 10.4236/abb.2013.410a4003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Breast cancer is the most prevalent cancer among females worldwide leading to approximately 350,000 deaths each year. It has long been known that cancers preferentially metastasize to particular organs, and bone metastases occur in ~70% of patients with advanced breast cancer. Breast cancer bone metastases are predominantly osteolytic and accompanied by increased fracture risk, pain, nerve compression and hypercalcemia, causing severe morbidity. In the bone matrix, transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) is one of the most abundant growth factors, which is released in active form upon tumor-induced osteoclastic bone resorption. TGF-β, in turn, stimulates bone metastatic tumor cells to secrete factors that further drive osteolytic bone destruction adjacent to the tumor. Thus, TGF-β is a crucial factor responsible for driving the feed-forward vicious cycle of cancer growth in bone. Moreover, TGF-β activates epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, increases tumor cell invasiveness and angiogenesis and induces immunosuppression. Blocking the TGF-β signaling pathway to interrupt this vicious cycle between breast cancer and bone offers a promising target for therapeutic intervention to decrease skeletal metastasis. This review will describe the role of TGF-β in breast cancer and bone metastasis, and pre-clinical and clinical data will be evaluated for the potential use of TGF-β inhibitors in clinical practice to treat breast cancer bone metastases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Chiechi
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, USA
| | - David L Waning
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, USA
| | - Keith R Stayrook
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, USA
| | - Jeroen T Buijs
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, USA ; Department of Urology, Medical Center, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Theresa A Guise
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, USA
| | - Khalid S Mohammad
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, USA
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145
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Gogineni VR, Gupta R, Nalla AK, Velpula KK, Rao JS. uPAR and cathepsin B shRNA impedes TGF-β1-driven proliferation and invasion of meningioma cells in a XIAP-dependent pathway. Cell Death Dis 2012; 3:e439. [PMID: 23222509 PMCID: PMC3542612 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2012.170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Overexpression of transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) has been linked to immune suppression, tumor angiogenesis, tumor cell migration, tumor cell survival, and tumor cell invasion in many cancers. In the present study, we found abundant expression of TGF-β1 in the microenvironment of four different pathological types of meningioma tumors. TGF-β1 induced invasion in malignant meningioma cells with an associated upregulation of urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA), uPAR, cathepsin B, and MMP-9, and this increase in proliferation was coupled with the expression of anti-apoptotic and pro-survival signaling molecules. In addition to the intense immunoreactivity of meningioma tumors to X-linked inhibitor to apoptosis (XIAP), its knockdown abolished the TGF-β1-induced proliferation of these cells. The stimulation of XIAP expression and the activation of pSMAD-2 is mediated by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)- and MEK-dependent pathways, and the addition of anti-TGF-β1 antibodies prevented their expression with a consequent decrease in invasion. Bicistronic shRNA constructs targeting uPAR and cathepsin B (pUC) quenched TGF-β1-driven invasion and survival of meningioma cells by downregulation of XIAP and pSMAD-2 expression. Animal models with intracranial tumors showed elevated levels of TGF-β1, XIAP and pSMAD-2, and pUC treatment prevented this increased expression. Thus, targeted silencing of TGF-β1-induced signaling by pUC in meningioma would provide new treatment approaches for management of meningioma.
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Affiliation(s)
- V R Gogineni
- Department of Cancer Biology & Pharmacology, University of Illinois College of Medicine at Peoria, Peoria, IL 61605, USA
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146
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Bao R, Christova T, Song S, Angers S, Yan X, Attisano L. Inhibition of tankyrases induces Axin stabilization and blocks Wnt signalling in breast cancer cells. PLoS One 2012; 7:e48670. [PMID: 23144924 PMCID: PMC3492487 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0048670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2012] [Accepted: 09/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Constitutive Wnt signalling is characterized by excessive levels of β-catenin protein and is a frequent occurrence in cancer. APC and Axin are key components of the β-catenin destruction complex that acts to promote β-catenin degradation. The levels of Axin are in turn controlled by tankyrases, members of the PARP-family of poly-ADP-ribosylation enzymes. In colorectal cancer cells, which typically harbor APC mutations, inhibition of tankyrase activity promotes Axin stabilization and attenuates Wnt signalling. Here, we examined the effect of inhibiting tankyrases in breast cancer cells with normal APC. We show that application of the small molecule tankyrase inhibitor, XAV939 or siRNA-mediated abrogation of tankyrase expression increases Axin1 and Axin2 protein levels and attenuates Wnt-induced transcriptional responses in several breast cancer lines. In MDA-MB-231 cells, inhibiton of tankyrase activity also attenuate Wnt3a induced cell migration. Moreover, in both MDA-MB-231 and colorectal cancer cells, XAV939 inhibits cell growth under conditions of serum-deprivation. However, the presence of serum prevents this growth inhibitory effect, although inhibition of Wnt-induced transcriptional and migratory responses was maintained. These results indicate that stabilization of Axin by inhibition of tankyrases alone, may not be an effective means to block tumor cell growth and that combinatorial therapeutic approaches should be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renyue Bao
- Department of Biochemistry, Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Zhejiang, Hangzhou, China
| | - Tania Christova
- Department of Biochemistry, Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Siyuan Song
- Department of Biochemistry, Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Stephane Angers
- Department of Biochemistry, Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Xiaojun Yan
- College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Zhejiang, Hangzhou, China
- * E-mail: (LA); (XJY)
| | - Liliana Attisano
- Department of Biochemistry, Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail: (LA); (XJY)
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147
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Bone marrow microenvironment in cancer patients: immunological aspects and clinical implications. Cancer Metastasis Rev 2012; 32:163-78. [DOI: 10.1007/s10555-012-9397-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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148
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Perrot CY, Javelaud D, Mauviel A. Overlapping activities of TGF-β and Hedgehog signaling in cancer: therapeutic targets for cancer treatment. Pharmacol Ther 2012; 137:183-99. [PMID: 23063491 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2012.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2012] [Accepted: 09/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in the field of cancer therapeutics come from the development of drugs that specifically recognize validated oncogenic or pro-metastatic targets. The latter may be mutated proteins with altered function, such as kinases that become constitutively active, or critical components of growth factor signaling pathways, whose deregulation leads to aberrant malignant cell proliferation and dissemination to metastatic sites. We herein focus on the description of the overlapping activities of two important developmental pathways often exacerbated in cancer, namely Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGF-β) and Hedgehog (HH) signaling, with a special emphasis on the unifying oncogenic role played by GLI1/2 transcription factors. The latter are the main effectors of the canonical HH pathway, yet are direct target genes of TGF-β/SMAD signal transduction. While tumor-suppressor in healthy and pre-malignant tissues, TGF-β is often expressed at high levels in tumors and contributes to tumor growth, escape from immune surveillance, invasion and metastasis. HH signaling regulates cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis, and aberrant HH signaling is found in a variety of cancers. We discuss the current knowledge on HH and TGF-β implication in cancer including cancer stem cell biology, as well as the current state, both successes and failures, of targeted therapeutics aimed at blocking either of these pathways in the pre-clinical and clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carole Y Perrot
- Institut Curie, Team TGF-β and Oncogenesis, 91400, Orsay, France; INSERM U1021, 91400, Orsay, France
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149
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Abstract
Many drugs that target transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ) signalling have been developed, some of which have reached Phase III clinical trials for a number of disease applications. Preclinical and clinical studies indicate the utility of these agents in fibrosis and oncology, particularly in augmentation of existing cancer therapies, such as radiation and chemotherapy, as well as in tumour vaccines. There are also reports of specialized applications, such as the reduction of vascular symptoms of Marfan syndrome. Here, we consider why the TGFβ signalling pathway is a drug target, the potential clinical applications of TGFβ inhibition, the issues arising with anti-TGFβ therapy and how these might be tackled using personalized approaches to dosing, monitoring of biomarkers as well as brief and/or localized drug-dosing regimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosemary J Akhurst
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, USA.
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150
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TGF-β blockade improves the distribution and efficacy of therapeutics in breast carcinoma by normalizing the tumor stroma. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:16618-23. [PMID: 22996328 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1117610109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 279] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the role of TGF-β in tumor progression has been studied extensively, its impact on drug delivery in tumors remains far from understood. In this study, we examined the effect of TGF-β blockade on the delivery and efficacy of conventional therapeutics and nanotherapeutics in orthotopic mammary carcinoma mouse models. We used both genetic (overexpression of sTβRII, a soluble TGF-β type II receptor) and pharmacologic (1D11, a TGF-β neutralizing antibody) approaches to block TGF-β signaling. In two orthotopic mammary carcinoma models (human MDA-MB-231 and murine 4T1 cell lines), TGF-β blockade significantly decreased tumor growth and metastasis. TGF-β blockade also increased the recruitment and incorporation of perivascular cells into tumor blood vessels and increased the fraction of perfused vessels. Moreover, TGF-β blockade normalized the tumor interstitial matrix by decreasing collagen I content. As a result of this vessel and interstitial matrix normalization, TGF-β blockade improved the intratumoral penetration of both a low-molecular-weight conventional chemotherapeutic drug and a nanotherapeutic agent, leading to better control of tumor growth.
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