101
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Abstract
Prominent blood and tissue eosinophilia is manifested in a number of inflammatory states, particularly in allergic diseases. Eosinophils are a source of numerous cytokines and growth factors, thus in principle they can display both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory activities as well as immunoregulatory ones. In this review, we will discuss the cross-talk between eosinophils and other cell types that they come in contact with in the inflammatory milieu, such as mast cells, fibroblasts and endothelial cells. 'New' roles for eosinophils in cancer and novel activatory signals will also be described.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Munitz
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
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102
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Walsh MT, Curran DR, Kingham PJ, Morgan RK, Durcan N, Gleich GJ, McLean WG, Costello RW. Effect of eosinophil adhesion on intracellular signaling in cholinergic nerve cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2004; 30:333-41. [PMID: 12855409 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2003-0188oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Eosinophil localization to cholinergic nerves occurs in a variety of inflammatory conditions, including asthma. This localization is mediated by interactions between eosinophil integrins and neuronal vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1). Eosinophil-nerve cell interactions lead to generation of neuronal reactive oxygen species and release of eosinophil proteins. The effects of eosinophil adhesion on neuronal intracellular signaling pathways were investigated. Eosinophil adhesion to IMR32 cholinergic nerves led to a rapid and sustained activation of the nuclear transcription factors nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB and activator protein (AP)-1 in the nerve cells. Eosinophil binding to neuronal ICAM-1 led to a rapid activation of ERK1/2 in nerve cells. Inhibition of ERK1/2 prevented NF-kappaB activation. Eosinophil adhesion to VCAM-1 resulted in AP-1 activation, mediated partially by rapid activation of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. These data show that adhesion of eosinophils induces mitogen-activated protein kinase-dependent activation of the transcription factors NF-kappaB and AP-1 in nerve cells, indicating that eosinophil adhesion may control nerve growth and phenotype.
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103
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Freund V, Frossard N. Expression of nerve growth factor in the airways and its possible role in asthma. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2004; 146:335-46. [PMID: 14712791 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(03)46021-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Nerve growth factor (NGF), in addition to its essential role in neuronal growth and survival, may also act as an inflammatory mediator. As several animal studies have shown, NGF appears to play a part in the development of airway hyperresponsiveness and in the increased sympathetic and sensory innervation of the lung. It also has a profound effect on airway inflammation and asthma-related symptoms. Sources of NGF in the airways are numerous: inflammatory cells infiltrated into the bronchial mucosa, and structural cells including lung fibroblasts, airway epithelial and smooth muscle cells. These cells, by releasing more NGF in inflammatory conditions, may contribute to the increased NGF levels observed in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and serum from patients with asthma. Taken together, these results suggest that NGF is an important mediator in both inflammation and asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vèronique Freund
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Unité 425, Neuroimmunopharmacologie pulmonaire, Université Louis Pasteur, Strasburg I, Faculté de Pharmacie, France.
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104
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Tabakman R, Lecht S, Sephanova S, Arien-Zakay H, Lazarovici P. Interactions between the cells of the immune and nervous system: neurotrophins as neuroprotection mediators in CNS injury. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2004; 146:387-401. [PMID: 14699975 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(03)46024-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Inflammatory processes in the central nervous system (CNS) are considered neurotoxic, although recent studies suggest that they also can be beneficial and confer neuroprotection (neuroprotective autoimmunity). Cells from the immune system have been detected in CNS injury and found to produce and secrete a variety of neurotrophins such as NGF, BDNF, NT-3 and NT-4/5, and to express (similarly to neuronal cells), members of the tyrosine kinase (Trk) receptor family such as TrkA, TrkB and TrkC. Indeed, autocrine and paracrine interactions are observed at the site of CNS injury, resulting in a variety of homologic-heterologic modulations of immune and neuronal cell function. The end result of the inflammatory process, neurotoxicity and/or neuroprotection, is a function of the fine balance between the two cellular systems, i.e., of the complex signaling relationships between anti-inflammatory neuroprotective factors (neurotrophins and other chemical mediators) and proinflammatory neurotoxic factors (TNF, free radicals, certain cytokines, etc.). Autoimmune neuroprotection is a novel therapeutic approach aimed at shifting the balance between the immune and neuronal cells towards survival pathways in a variety of CNS injuries. This review focuses on data supporting this concept and its future therapeutical implications for optic nerve injury and multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rinat Tabakman
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
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105
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Nassenstein C, Kerzel S, Braun A. Neurotrophins and neurotrophin receptors in allergic asthma. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2004; 146:347-67. [PMID: 14699973 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(03)46022-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The neurotrophins nerve growth factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) and NT-4 play a pivotal role in the development of the nervous system. Despite their well-known effects on neurons, elevated neurotrophin concentrations have been observed under pathological conditions in sera of patients with inflammatory disorders. Patients with asthma feature both airway inflammation and an abnormal airway reactivity to many unspecific stimuli, referred to as airway hyperresponsiveness, which is, at least partly, neuronally controlled. Interestingly, these patients show increased levels of neurotrophins in the blood as well as locally in the lung. It has been demonstrated that neurotrophin release from immune cells is triggered by allergen contact. The presence of neurotrophins and the neurotrophin receptors p75 (p75NTR), tyrosine kinase A (TrkA), TrkB and TrkC have been described in several immune cells. There is strong evidence for an involvement of neurotrophins in regulation of hematopoiesis and, in addition, in modulation of immune cell function in mature cells circulating in blood or resting in lymphatic organs and peripheral tissues. The aim of this review is to demonstrate possible roles of neurotrophins during an allergic reaction in consideration of the temporospatial compartimentalization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Nassenstein
- Fraunhofer Institute of Toxicology and Experimental Medicine, Nikolai-Fuchs-Str. 1, D-30625 Hannover, Germany
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106
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Nockher WA, Renz H. Neurotrophins in inflammatory lung diseases: modulators of cell differentiation and neuroimmune interactions. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2003; 14:559-78. [PMID: 14563357 DOI: 10.1016/s1359-6101(03)00071-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Chronic inflammatory lung diseases represent a group of severe diseases with increasing prevalence as well as epidemiological importance. Inflammatory lung diseases could result from allergic or infectious genesis. There is growing evidence that the immune and nervous system are closely related not only in physiological but also in pathological reactions in the lung. Extensive communications between neurons and immune cells are responsible for the magnitude of airway inflammation and the development of airway hyperreactivity, a consequence of neuronal dysregulation. Neurotrophins are molecules regulating and controlling this crosstalk between the immune and peripheral nervous system (PNS) during inflammatory lung diseases. They are constitutively expressed by resident lung cells and produced in increasing quantities by immune cells invading the airways under inflammatory conditions. They act as activation, differentiation and survival factors for cells of both the immune and nervous system. This article will review the most recent data of neurotrophin signaling in the normal and inflamed lung and as yet unexplored, roles of neurotrophins in the complex communication within the neuroimmune network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Andreas Nockher
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics, University Hospital, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg 35033, Germany.
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107
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Micera A, Puxeddu I, Aloe L, Levi-Schaffer F. New insights on the involvement of Nerve Growth Factor in allergic inflammation and fibrosis. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2003; 14:369-74. [PMID: 12948520 DOI: 10.1016/s1359-6101(03)00047-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Nerve Growth Factor (NGF), that was originally discovered for its properties of stimulating growth and differentiation of neurons, is now also considered responsible for several activities in the immune system and beyond. Mast cells and eosinophils, key cells of allergic inflammation, are a source of NGF and are influenced by it. These observations have prompted studies on NGF in allergy and tissue repair. Recent evidences link NGF and these two processes. While NGF is clearly a new tool in the management of untreatable ulcers, its role in allergic inflammation, although appearing to be pro-inflammatory, is still not clearly defined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Micera
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Pharmacy, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, PO Box 12065, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
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108
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Kingham PJ, McLean WG, Walsh MT, Fryer AD, Gleich GJ, Costello RW. Effects of eosinophils on nerve cell morphology and development: the role of reactive oxygen species and p38 MAP kinase. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2003; 285:L915-24. [PMID: 12794004 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00094.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The adhesion of eosinophils to nerve cells and the subsequent release of eosinophil products may contribute to the pathogenesis of conditions such as asthma and inflammatory bowel disease. In this study we have separately examined the consequences of eosinophil adhesion and degranulation for nerve cell morphology and development. Eosinophils induced neurite retraction of cultured guinea pig parasympathetic nerves and differentiated IMR32 cholinergic neuroblastoma cells. Inhibition of eosinophil adhesion to IMR32 cells attenuated this retraction. Eosinophil adhesion to IMR32 cells led to tyrosine phosphorylation of a number of nerve cell proteins, activation of p38 MAP kinase, and generation of neuronal reactive oxygen species (ROS). Inhibition of tyrosine kinases with genistein prevented both the generation of ROS in the nerve cells and neurite retraction. The p38 MAP kinase inhibitor SB-239063 prevented neurite retraction but had no effect on the induction of ROS. Thus eosinophils induced neurite retraction via two distinct pathways: by generation of tyrosine kinase-dependent ROS and by p38 MAP kinase. Eosinophils also prevented neurite outgrowth during differentiation of IMR32 cells. In contrast to their effect on neurite retraction, this effect was mimicked by medium containing products released from eosinophils and by eosinophil major basic protein. These results indicate that eosinophils modify the morphology of nerve cells by distinct mechanisms that involve adhesion and released proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Kingham
- Dept. of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Univ. of Liverpool, The Sherrington Bldgs., Ashton St., Liverpool L69 3GE, UK
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109
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Nassenstein C, Braun A, Erpenbeck VJ, Lommatzsch M, Schmidt S, Krug N, Luttmann W, Renz H, Virchow JC. The neurotrophins nerve growth factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, neurotrophin-3, and neurotrophin-4 are survival and activation factors for eosinophils in patients with allergic bronchial asthma. J Exp Med 2003; 198:455-67. [PMID: 12900521 PMCID: PMC2194097 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20010897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2001] [Revised: 06/23/2003] [Accepted: 06/23/2003] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurotrophins (nerve growth factor [NGF], brain-derived neurotrophic factor [BDNF], neurotrophin [NT]-3, and NT-4) have been observed in elevated concentrations in allergic diseases. Neurotrophin levels are up-regulated endobronchially after allergen challenge. This coincides with an influx of activated eosinophils into the bronchial lumen. These eosinophils have an increased viability and CD69 expression 18 h after segmental allergen provocation (SAP) which is not present in peripheral blood. To investigate whether these observations are related we studied the influence of neurotrophins on eosinophil function in allergic asthma. Incubation with NGF, BDNF, NT-3, or NT-4 caused a significant increase in the viability and CD69 expression of isolated eosinophils from bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) but not from peripheral blood, suggesting a unique sensitivity of endobronchial eosinophils to neurotrophins. To elucidate the underlying mechanisms expression of the neurotrophin receptors p75NTR, trkA, trkB, and trkC on eosinophils was analyzed by RT-PCR and immunocytology. After SAP expression of all neurotrophin receptors was markedly elevated on eosinophils from BALF. Our findings suggest that neurotrophin-mediated activation of bronchial eosinophils might play a role in the regulation of eosinophilic inflammation in allergic asthma.
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MESH Headings
- Adult
- Antigens, CD/metabolism
- Antigens, Differentiation, T-Lymphocyte/metabolism
- Asthma/immunology
- Asthma/metabolism
- Asthma/physiopathology
- Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor/metabolism
- Bronchial Hyperreactivity/immunology
- Bronchial Provocation Tests
- Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid/cytology
- Eosinophils/cytology
- Eosinophils/metabolism
- Female
- Forced Expiratory Volume
- Humans
- Lectins, C-Type
- Male
- Nerve Growth Factor/metabolism
- Nerve Growth Factors/metabolism
- Neuroprotective Agents/metabolism
- Neurotrophin 3/metabolism
- Receptor, Nerve Growth Factor
- Receptor, trkA/genetics
- Receptor, trkA/metabolism
- Receptor, trkB/genetics
- Receptor, trkB/metabolism
- Receptor, trkC/genetics
- Receptor, trkC/metabolism
- Receptors, Nerve Growth Factor/genetics
- Receptors, Nerve Growth Factor/metabolism
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110
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Abstract
In vivo, eosinophils localise to airway nerves in patients with asthma as well as in animal models of hyperreactivity. In both, in vivo and in vitro studies, we have shown that this localisation changes both cholinergic nerve and eosinophil function. In particular, it leads to an increase in acetylcholine release due to loss of function of a neuronal autoreceptor, the M(2) muscarinic receptor. This loss of M(2) receptor function occurs because eosinophils become activated and degranulate as a result of interactions that occur via specific adhesion molecules expressed on nerves that are recognised by counter ligands on eosinophils.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J Kingham
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
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111
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Abstract
The neurotrophins are a family of polypeptide growth factors that are essential for the development and maintenance of the vertebrate nervous system. In recent years, data have emerged indicating that neurotrophins could have a broader role than their name might suggest. In particular, the putative role of NGF and its receptor TrkA in immune system homeostasis has become a much studied topic, whereas information on the other neurotrophins is scarce in this regard. This paper reviews what is known about the expression and possible functions of neurotrophins and their receptors in different immune tissues and cells, as well as recent data obtained from studies of transgenic mice in our laboratory. Results from studies to date support the idea that neurotrophins may regulate some immune functions. They also play an important role in the development of the thymus and in the survival of thymocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- José A Vega
- Departamento de Morfología y Biología Celular, Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain.
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112
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Klion AD, Noel P, Akin C, Law MA, Gilliland DG, Cools J, Metcalfe DD, Nutman TB. Elevated serum tryptase levels identify a subset of patients with a myeloproliferative variant of idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome associated with tissue fibrosis, poor prognosis, and imatinib responsiveness. Blood 2003; 101:4660-6. [PMID: 12676775 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2003-01-0006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 250] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Since serum tryptase levels are elevated in some patients with myeloproliferative disorders, we examined their utility in identifying a subset of patients with hypereosinophilic syndrome (HES) and an underlying myeloproliferative disorder. Elevated serum tryptase levels (> 11.5 ng/mL) were present in 9 of 15 patients with HES and were associated with other markers of myeloproliferation, including elevated B12 levels and splenomegaly. Although bone marrow biopsies in these patients showed increased numbers of CD25+ mast cells and atypical spindle-shaped mast cells, patients with HES and elevated serum tryptase could be distinguished from patients with systemic mastocytosis and eosinophilia by their clinical manifestations, the absence of mast cell aggregates, the lack of a somatic KIT mutation, and the presence of the recently described fusion of the Fip1-like 1 (FIP1L1) gene to the platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha gene (PDGFRA). Patients with HES and elevated serum tryptase were more likely to develop fibroproliferative end organ damage, and 3 of 9 died within 5 years of diagnosis in contrast to 0 of 6 patients with normal serum tryptase levels. All 6 patients with HES and elevated tryptase treated with imatinib demonstrated a clinical and hematologic response. In summary, elevated serum tryptase appears to be a sensitive marker of a myeloproliferative variant of HES that is characterized by tissue fibrosis, poor prognosis, and imatinib responsiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy D Klion
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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113
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Affiliation(s)
- David B Jacoby
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, USA.
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114
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Nockher WA, Renz H. The role of neurotrophins in the pathogenesis of asthma and related diseases: allergy and asthma as prototypic neuro-immune diseases? Clin Exp Allergy 2002; 32:1266-8. [PMID: 12220461 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2745.2002.01489.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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