101
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Zagulska-Szymczak S, Filipkowski RK, Kaczmarek L. Kainate-induced genes in the hippocampus: lessons from expression patterns. Neurochem Int 2001; 38:485-501. [PMID: 11248397 DOI: 10.1016/s0197-0186(00)00101-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Kainate, the analog of the excitatory amino acid L-glutamate, upon binding to non-NMDA glutamate receptors, causes depolarization of neurons followed by severe status epilepticus, neurodegeneration, plasticity and gliosis. These events are best observed in hippocampus, the limbic structure implicated in learning and long-term memory formation. Neurons in all hippocampal structures undergo hyper-activation, however, whereas the cells in the CA subfields degenerate within 2--3 days following the application of kainate, the granule cells of the dentate gyrus are resistant to any form of neurodegeneration and even initiate new synaptic contacts. These physiological and histological changes are modulated by short-term and long-term alterations in gene expression. Perhaps close examination of the changing spatio-temporal patterns of mRNAs of various genes may help in generating a clearer picture of the molecular events leading to complex cognitive functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Zagulska-Szymczak
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Nencki Institute, Pasteura 3, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland
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102
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Fager N, Jaworski DM. Differential spatial distribution and temporal regulation of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase mRNA expression during rat central nervous system development. Mech Dev 2000; 98:105-9. [PMID: 11044612 DOI: 10.1016/s0925-4773(00)00437-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The elucidation of the cellular and molecular mechanisms governing the maturation of the central nervous system (CNS) is rapidly emerging. Cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions play critical roles in all phases of developmental tissue remodeling. Throughout development, an intricate balance between extracellular matrix synthesis and degradation is preserved by the opposing actions of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their specific inhibitors, the tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs). Although recent evidence suggests that TIMPs exert diverse cell biological functions distinct from their MMP-inhibitory activities, few studies have investigated MMP or TIMP expression during CNS development. The present report analyzes the mRNA expression of the four known TIMPs throughout the course of embryonic and postnatal rat CNS development. The results clearly demonstrate the unique spatial distribution and temporal regulation of TIMP expression and suggest a distinct role for each TIMP during CNS development.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Fager
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Given C454, Burlington, VT 05405, USA
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103
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Rathke-Hartlieb S, Budde P, Ewert S, Schlomann U, Staege MS, Jockusch H, Bartsch JW, Frey J. Elevated expression of membrane type 1 metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP) in reactive astrocytes following neurodegeneration in mouse central nervous system. FEBS Lett 2000; 481:227-34. [PMID: 11007969 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-5793(00)02011-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Reactive astrocytes occurring in response to neurodegeneration are thought to play an important role in neuronal regeneration by upregulating the expression of extracellular matrix (ECM) components as well as the ECM degrading metalloproteinases (MMPs). We examined the mRNA levels and cellular distribution of membrane type matrix metalloproteinase 1 (MT1-MMP) and tissue inhibitors 1-4 of MMPs (TIMPs) in brain stem and spinal cord of wobbler (WR) mutant mice affected by progressive neurodegeneration and astrogliosis. MT1-MMP, TIMP-1 and TIMP-3 mRNA levels were elevated, whereas TIMP-2 and TIMP-4 expression was not affected. MT1-MMP was expressed in reactive astrocytes of WR. In primary astrocyte cultures, MT1-MMP mRNA was upregulated by exogeneous tumor necrosis factor alpha. Increased plasma membrane and secreted MMP activities were found in primary WR astrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Rathke-Hartlieb
- Developmental Biology and Molecular Pathology, WY, University of Bielefeld, D-33501 Bielefeld, Germany
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104
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Abstract
Injury to the CNS induces complex cellular and molecular interactions referred to as reactive gliosis. Alterations in the extracellular microenvironment associated with the gliotic response are believed to be the primary cause of regenerative failure of the mature CNS. For injured neurons to reestablish severed connections their processes must explore the extracellular milieu. Thus far, experiments have focused on extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins whose expression is upregulated after CNS injury and that exert inhibitory effects on neurite outgrowth. An intricate balance between ECM synthesis and degradation must be maintained during the tissue remodeling associated with injury. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are believed to be the main mediators of ECM degradation. MMP activity is tightly regulated by interaction with tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs). To determine whether TIMPs are expressed during injury-induced matrix remodeling, TIMP expression was examined during reactive gliosis. A stab injury to the mature rat brain leads to the differential regulation of TIMP mRNA expression. Timp-1 and Timp-2 mRNA are significantly upregulated after injury, while the expression of Timp-3 and Timp-4 is unaltered. The expression of Timp-1 in reactive astrocytes and Timp-2 in microglia and neurons suggests these TIMPs may serve distinct functions in response to injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- D M Jaworski
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont 05405, USA.
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105
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Giraudon P, Szymocha R, Buart S, Bernard A, Cartier L, Belin MF, Akaoka H. T lymphocytes activated by persistent viral infection differentially modify the expression of metalloproteinases and their endogenous inhibitors, TIMPs, in human astrocytes: relevance to HTLV-I-induced neurological disease. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2000; 164:2718-27. [PMID: 10679113 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.164.5.2718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Activation of T lymphocytes by human pathogens is a key step in the development of immune-mediated neurologic diseases. Because of their ability to invade the CNS and their increased secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, activated CD4+ T cells are thought to play a crucial role in pathogenesis. In the present study, we examined the expression of inflammatory mediators the cytokine-induced metalloproteinases (MMP-2, -3, and -9) and their endogenous inhibitors, tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMP-1, -2, and -3), in human astrocytes in response to activated T cells. We used a model system of CD4+ T lymphocytes activated by persistent viral infection (human T lymphotropic virus, HTLV-I) in transient contact with human astrocytes. Interaction with T cells resulted in increased production of MMP-3 and active MMP-9 in astrocytes despite increased expression of endogenous inhibitors, TIMP-1 and TIMP-3. These data suggest perturbation of the MMP/TIMP balance. These changes in MMP and TIMP expression were mediated, in part, by soluble factors (presumably cytokines) secreted by activated T cells. Integrin-mediated cell adhesion is also involved in the change in MMP level, since blockade of integrin subunits (alpha1, alpha3, alpha5, and beta1) on T cells resulted in less astrocytic MMP-9-induced expression. Interestingly, in CNS tissues from neurological HTLV-I-infected patients, MMP-9 was detected in neural cells within the perivascular space, which is infiltrated by mononuclear cells. Altogether, these data emphasize the importance of the MMP-TIMP axis in the complex interaction between the CNS and invading immune cells in the context of virally mediated T cell activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Giraudon
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U433, Faculté de Médecine R. Laënnec, Lyon, France.
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106
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Jaworski J, Biedermann IW, Lapinska J, Szklarczyk A, Figiel I, Konopka D, Nowicka D, Filipkowski RK, Hetman M, Kowalczyk A, Kaczmarek L. Neuronal excitation-driven and AP-1-dependent activation of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 gene expression in rodent hippocampus. J Biol Chem 1999; 274:28106-12. [PMID: 10497161 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.274.40.28106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding of biological function of AP-1 transcription factor in central nervous system may greatly benefit from identifying its target genes. In this study, we present several lines of evidence implying AP-1 in regulating expression of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 (timp-1) gene in rodent hippocampus in response to increased neuronal excitation. Such a notion is supported by the findings that timp-1 mRNA accumulation occurs in the rat hippocampus after either kainate- or pentylenetetrazole-evoked seizures with a delayed, in comparison with AP-1 components, time course, as well as with spatial overlap with c-Fos protein (major inducible AP-1 component) expression. Furthermore, AP-1 sequence derived from timp-1 promoter is specifically bound by hippocampal AP-1 proteins after treating the rats with either pro-convulsive agent. Finally, timp-1 promoter responds to excitatory activation both in vivo, in transgenic mice harboring the timp-LacZ gene construct, and in vitro in neurons of the hippocampal dentate gyrus cultures. These findings suggest that the AP-1 transcription factor may exert its role in the brain through affecting extracellular matrix remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Jaworski
- Nencki Institute, Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Pasteura 3, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland
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107
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Jankowsky JL, Patterson PH. Differential regulation of cytokine expression following pilocarpine-induced seizure. Exp Neurol 1999; 159:333-46. [PMID: 10506506 DOI: 10.1006/exnr.1999.7137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
While the pathological changes that occur in the brain following seizure have been well characterized, the molecular mechanisms underlying these events are poorly understood. Cell death, reactive gliosis, and axonal sprouting are among the best studied alterations in the epileptic brain. Previous work in both the peripheral and the central nervous systems suggests that cytokines are capable of affecting each of these processes. To better understand the role of cytokines in seizures and their sequelae, we have characterized cytokine expression in an animal model of epilepsy. Using pilocarpine to chemically induce seizures, and RNase protection assays to assess mRNA levels, we have quantified changes in expression of several members of the neuropoietic cytokine family following a single, prolonged seizure. Levels of oncostatin M (OSM), leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), cardiotrophin-1, and ciliary neurotrophic factor were all increased in the hippocampus after seizure, though to differing extents and with markedly different time courses. Cells expressing the most dramatically up-regulated cytokines, LIF and OSM, were identified by combined in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. The majority of LIF(+) cells in the hippocampus were glial fibrillary acidic protein(+) astrocytes, while the majority of OSM(+) cells had the morphology of interneurons and were occasionally colabeled with neurofilament markers. Both the time course and the localization of cytokine up-regulation following seizure suggest possible roles for these intercellular signaling molecules in epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Jankowsky
- Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
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108
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Indyk J, Chen ZL, Strickland S. Proteases and degradation of extracellular matrix in neurodegeneration. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1999. [DOI: 10.1016/s0268-9499(99)90081-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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109
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Zhang JW, Deb S, Gottschall PE. Regional and differential expression of gelatinases in rat brain after systemic kainic acid or bicuculline administration. Eur J Neurosci 1998; 10:3358-68. [PMID: 9824449 DOI: 10.1046/j.1460-9568.1998.00347.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Indirect evidence from in vitro studies implicates a functional role for matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in the central nervous system (CNS), including induction of neuronal migration during development and enhancement of neurite extension. Few reports have documented the expression of these enzymes in the brain, especially after injury in vivo. The objective of this study was to determine whether MMPs are expressed in various regional areas of rat brain after administration of the neurotoxin, kainic acid. Limbic motor seizures and neuronal degeneration were induced in Sprague-Dawley rats by systemic administration of kainate (10 mg/kg). Rats were subsequently divided into convulsive and non-convulsive groups, after observing their behaviour in response to the drug. Animals were killed 6, 12, 24, 72 and 168 h (7 days) after injection of kainate. Gelatinases were extracted from various brain regions and assayed by gelatin-substrate zymography. Levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in corresponding regions were measured by ELISA. In the absence of treatment, MMP-2 and MMP-9 activities were expressed differentially in various brain regions with the highest levels in the hippocampus and the lowest in the cerebellum. In areas from convulsive rats, MMP-9 activity was markedly elevated at 6 h, and reached a maximum at 12 h after injection of kainate (8.1-fold hippocampus, 7.7-fold diencephalon, 7.2-fold striatum, 5.7-fold frontal cortex, 5.5-fold cerebellum, 2.6-fold midbrain). MMP-2 activity was induced more than two-fold in the hippocampus, diencephalon and striatum, to a lesser extent in the frontal cortex and midbrain, and was unchanged in the cerebellum, 72 h after injection. Neither MMP activity was altered in any brain region derived from non-convulsive rats. Treatment with the GABAA antagonist, bicuculline, resulted in increased levels of MMP-9, 12 h after drug administration, but no change in levels of MMP-2 up to 3 days following treatment. GFAP levels were induced 3 days after kainic acid injection in brain regions where MMP-2 was elevated. Nissl staining displayed the classical, regional neurodegeneration in kainate-treated animals that exhibited seizures. No obvious degeneration was detected in kainate-treated, non-convulsive rats or bicuculline-treated animals. These data demonstrate that MMP-9 and MMP-2 are differentially expressed with respect to time after kainic acid injection, and suggest that they are regulated by convulsion and/or neurodegenerative-associated mechanisms, respectively. Although similar in catalytic activity, MMP-9 and MMP-2 may play different roles in response to kainic acid-induced seizure and neuronal degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- J W Zhang
- University of South Florida College of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Tampa 33612-4799, USA
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110
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Rafiki A, Ben-Ari Y, Khrestchatisky M, Represa A. Long-lasting enhanced expression in the rat hippocampus of NMDAR1 splice variants in a kainate model of epilepsy. Eur J Neurosci 1998; 10:497-507. [PMID: 9749712 DOI: 10.1046/j.1460-9568.1998.00054.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Chronic epilepsy is associated with increased excitability which may result from abnormal glutamatergic synaptic transmission involving altered properties of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. To date two gene families encoding NMDA receptor subunits have been cloned, NR1 and NR2. Eight NR1 mRNAs are generated by alternative splicing of exons 5, 21 and 22; the NR1-1 to NR1-4 C-terminal variants exist in the a or b version depending on the presence or absence of the domain encoded by exon 5. Epilepsy was induced in rats by unilateral intra-amygdalar injection of kainate and animals were killed from 6 h to 4 months following the injection. Increased NR1 mRNA levels were observed during status epilepticus (6-24 h after the injection), both psilateral and contralateral, while a second wave of NMDAR1 mRNA increase occurred in chronic epileptic animals, between 21 days and 4 months following kainate injection. Our data show: (i) a permanent increase of the NR1-2a and NR1-2b mRNA species (containing exon 22) in all hippocampal fields, both ipsilateral and contralateral, and (ii) an increase of the NR1-3 (a and b) mRNAs (containing exon 21) in the ipsilateral CA1, and NR1-3a mRNA in the ipsilateral dentate gyrus. No long-term changes were observed for the NR1-1 and NR14 splice variants. In the ipsilateral CA3 area a globally decreased mRNA expression was associated with neuronal loss. A possible contribution to the maintenance of the epileptic state by an increased expression of NMDA receptors is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Rafiki
- Université René Descartes (Paris V), France
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111
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Tsirka SE, Bugge TH, Degen JL, Strickland S. Neuronal death in the central nervous system demonstrates a non-fibrin substrate for plasmin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1997; 94:9779-81. [PMID: 9275201 PMCID: PMC23267 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.94.18.9779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Mice deficient for plasminogen exhibit a variety of pathologies, all of which examined to date are reversed when the animals are also made fibrin(ogen) deficient. These results suggested that the predominant, and perhaps exclusive, physiological role of plasminogen is clearance of fibrin. Plasminogen-deficient mice also display resistance to excitotoxin-induced neurodegeneration, in contrast with wild-type mice, which are sensitive. Based on the genetic interaction between plasminogen and fibrinogen, we investigated whether resistance to neuronal cell death in the plasminogen-deficient mice is dependent on fibrin(ogen). Unexpectedly, mice lacking both plasminogen and fibrinogen are resistant to neurodegeneration to levels comparable to plasminogen-deficient mice. Therefore, plasmin acts on substrates other than fibrin during experimental neuronal degeneration, and may function similarly in other pathological settings in the central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- S E Tsirka
- Department of Pharmacology, University Medical Center at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, NY 11794-8651, USA
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