The regionalization of pediatric health care

The availability, spatial accessibility, service utilisation and retrieval cost of paediatric intensive care services for children in rural, regional and remote Queensland: study protocol

Background

Specialist health services are often organised on a regionalised basis whereby clinical resources and expertise are concentrated in areas of high population. Through a high volume caseload, regionalised facilities may provide improved clinical outcomes for patients. In some cases, regionalisation may be the only economically viable way to organise specialist care. While regionalisation may have benefits, it may also disadvantage some population groups, particularly in circumstances where distance and time are impediments to access.

Queensland is a large Australian state with a distributed population. Providing equitable access to specialist healthcare services to the population is challenging. Specialist care for critically ill or injured children is provided by the Queensland Paediatric Intensive Care Service which comprises two tertiary paediatric intensive care units. The two units are located 6 km (3.7 miles) apart by road in the state capital of Brisbane and provide state-wide telephone advice and specialist retrieval services. Services also extend into the northern area of the adjacent state of New South Wales. In some cases children may be managed locally in adult intensive care units in regional hospitals.

The aim of this study is to describe the effect of geography and service organisation for children who need intensive care services but who present outside of metropolitan centres in Queensland.

Methods/design

Using health services and population data, the availability and spatial accessibility to paediatric intensive care services will be analysed. Retrieval utilisation and the associated costs to the health service will be analysed to provide an indication of service utilisation by non-metropolitan patients.

Discussion

While the regionalisation or centralisation of specialist services is recognised as an economical way to provide specialist health services, the extent to which these models serve critically ill children who live some distance from tertiary care has not been described. This study will provide new information on the effect of the regionalisation of specialist healthcare for critically ill children in Queensland and will have relevance to other regionalised health services. This study, which is focussed on describing the organisation, supply and demands on the health service, will provide the foundation for future work to explore clinical outcomes for non-metropolitan children who require intensive care.

Increased risk of death among uninsured neonates

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the contribution of health insurance status to the risk of death among hospitalized neonates.

DATA SOURCES

Kids' Inpatient Databases (KID) for 2003, 2006, and 2009.

STUDY DESIGN

KID 2006 subpopulation of neonatal discharges was analyzed by weighted frequency distribution and multivariable logistic regression analyses for the outcome of death, adjusted for insurance status and other variables. Multivariable linear regression analyses were conducted for the outcomes mean adjusted length of stay and hospital charges. The death analysis was repeated with KID 2003 and 2009.

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Of 4,318,121 estimated discharges in 2006, 5.4 percent were uninsured. There were 17,892 deaths; 9.5 percent were uninsured. The largest risks of death were five clinical conditions with adjusted odds ratios (AOR) of 13.7-3.1. Lack of insurance had an AOR of 2.6 (95 percent CI: 2.4, 2.8), greater than many clinical conditions; AOR estimates in alternate models were 2.1-2.7. Compared with insureds, uninsureds were less likely to have been admitted in transfer, more likely to have died in rural hospitals and to have received fewer resources. Similar death outcome results were observed for 2003 and 2009.

CONCLUSIONS

Uninsured neonates had decreased care and increased risk of dying.

Trends in bronchiolitis hospitalizations in the United States, 2000-2009

OBJECTIVE

To examine temporal trend in the national incidence of bronchiolitis hospitalizations, use of mechanical ventilation, and hospital charges between 2000 and 2009.

METHODS

We performed a serial, cross-sectional analysis of a nationally representative sample of children hospitalized with bronchiolitis. The Kids Inpatient Database was used to identify children <2 years of age with bronchiolitis by International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification code 466.1. Primary outcome measures were incidence of bronchiolitis hospitalizations, mechanical ventilation (noninvasive or invasive) use, and hospital charges. Temporal trends were evaluated accounting for sampling weights.

RESULTS

The 4 separated years (2000, 2003, 2006, and 2009) of national discharge data included 544 828 weighted discharges with bronchiolitis. Between 2000 and 2009, the incidence of bronchiolitis hospitalization decreased from 17.9 to 14.9 per 1000 person-years among all US children aged <2 years (17% decrease; P(trend) < .001). By contrast, there was an increase in children with high-risk medical conditions (5.9%-7.9%; 34% increase; P(trend) < .001) and use of mechanical ventilation (1.9%-2.3%; 21% increase; P(trend) = .008). Nationwide hospital charges increased from $1.34 billion to $1.73 billion (30% increase; P(trend) < .001); this increase was driven by a rise in the geometric mean of hospital charges per case from $6380 to $8530 (34% increase; P(trend) < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

Between 2000 and 2009, we found a significant decline in bronchiolitis hospitalizations among US children. By contrast, use of mechanical ventilation and hospital charges for bronchiolitis significantly increased over this same period.

Outcomes in pediatric surgery by hospital volume: a population-based comparison

PURPOSE

The volume-outcome relationship has not been well-defined in pediatric surgery. Our aim was to determine the association between hospital-volume and outcomes for common procedures in children.

METHODS

Retrospective population-based cohort study of patients <18 years of age hospitalized between 1989 and 2009 for common surgical procedures in Washington State. The association between annual hospital case volume and post-operative outcomes (readmission and reoperation within 30-days, post-operative complications) was assessed using multivariate logistic regression.

RESULTS

The three most common procedures over the study period were appendectomy (n = 36,525), skin and soft tissue debridement (n = 9,813), and pyloromyotomy (n = 3,323). A greater proportion of patients with comorbidities were treated at higher-volume hospitals. After adjustment, outcomes did not differ significantly across hospital-volume quartiles except that debridement patients had lower odds of readmission (OR = 0.63, 95 % CI 0.46-0.88) and re-operation (OR = 0.53, 95 % CI 0.35-0.81) at medium-high-volume compared with high-volume centers.

CONCLUSIONS

This work suggests that risks of readmission and post-operative complications for common procedures may be similar across hospital-volume categories, but appropriate risk-stratification is essential. In order to optimize safety, we must identify the resources required for low-, medium-, and high-risk surgical patients, and implement these standards into practice.

Quality care in pediatric trauma

Infrastructure, processes of care and outcome measurements are the cornerstone of quality care for pediatric trauma. This review aims to evaluate current evidence on system organization and concentration of pediatric expertise in the delivery of pediatric trauma care. It discusses key quality indicators for all phases of care, from pre-hospital to post-discharge recovery. In particular, it highlights the importance of measuring quality of life and psychosocial recovery for the injured child.

Mapping US pediatric hospitals and subspecialty critical care for public health preparedness and disaster response, 2008

OBJECTIVE

The objective is to describe by geographic proximity the extent to which the US pediatric population (aged 0-17 years) has access to pediatric and other specialized critical care facilities, and to highlight regional differences in population and critical resource distribution for preparedness planning and utilization during a mass public health disaster.

METHODS

The analysis focused on pediatric hospitals and pediatric and general medical/surgical hospitals with specialized pediatric critical care capabilities, including pediatric intensive care units (PICU), pediatric cardiac ICUs (PCICU), level I and II trauma and pediatric trauma centers, and general and pediatric burn centers. The proximity analysis uses a geographic information system overlay function: spatial buffers or zones of a defined radius are superimposed on a dasymetric map of the pediatric population. By comparing the population living within the zones to the total population, the proportion of children with access to each type of specialized unit can be estimated. The project was conducted in three steps: preparation of the geospatial layer of the pediatric population using dasymetric mapping methods; preparation of the geospatial layer for each resource zone including the identification, verification, and location of hospital facilities with the target resources; and proximity analysis of the pediatric population within these zones.

RESULTS

Nationally, 63.7% of the pediatric population lives within 50 miles of a pediatric hospital; 81.5% lives within 50 miles of a hospital with a PICU; 76.1% lives within 50 miles of a hospital with a PCICU; 80.2% lives within 50 miles of a level I or II trauma center; and 70.8% lives within 50 miles of a burn center. However, state-specific proportions vary from less than 10% to virtually 100%. Restricting the burn and trauma centers to pediatric units only decreases the national proportion to 26.3% for pediatric burn centers and 53.1% for pediatric trauma centers.

CONCLUSIONS

This geospatial analysis describes the current state of pediatric critical care hospital resources and provides a visual and analytic overview of existing gaps in local pediatric hospital coverage. It also highlights the use of dasymetric mapping as a tool for public health preparedness planning.

The differential impact of delivery hospital on the outcomes of premature infants

BACKGROUND

Because greater percentages of women deliver at hospitals without high-level NICUs, there is little information on the effect of delivery hospital on the outcomes of premature infants in the past 2 decades, or how these effects differ across states with different perinatal regionalization systems.

METHODS

A retrospective population-based cohort study was constructed of all hospital-based deliveries in Pennsylvania and California between 1995 and 2005 and Missouri between 1995 and 2003 with a gestational age between 23 and 37 weeks (N = 1328132). The effect of delivery at a high-level NICU on in-hospital death and 5 complications of premature birth was calculated by using an instrumental variables approach to control for measured and unmeasured differences between hospitals.

RESULTS

Infants who were delivered at a high-level NICU had significantly fewer in-hospital deaths in Pennsylvania (7.8 fewer deaths/1000 deliveries, 95% confidence interval [CI] 4.1-11.5), California (2.7 fewer deaths/1000 deliveries, 95% CI 0.9-4.5), and Missouri (12.6 fewer deaths/1000 deliveries, 95% CI 2.6-22.6). Deliveries at high-level NICUs had similar rates of most complications, with the exception of lower bronchopulmonary dysplasia rates at Missouri high-level NICUs (9.5 fewer cases/1000 deliveries, 95% CI 0.7-18.4) and higher infection rates at high-level NICUs in Pennsylvania and California. The association between delivery hospital, in-hospital mortality, and complications differed across the 3 states.

CONCLUSIONS

There is benefit to neonatal outcomes when high-risk infants are delivered at high-level NICUs that is larger than previously reported, although the effects differ between states, which may be attributable to different methods of regionalization.

From comparative effectiveness research to patient-centered outcomes research: integrating emergency care goals, methods, and priorities

Federal legislation placed comparative effectiveness research and patient-centered outcomes research at the center of current and future national investments in health care research. The role of this research in emergency care has not been well described. This article proposes an agenda for researchers and health care providers to consider comparative effectiveness research and patient-centered outcomes research methods and results to improve the care for patients who seek, use, and require emergency care. This objective will be accomplished by (1) exploring the definitions, frameworks, and nomenclature for comparative effectiveness research and patient-centered outcomes research; (2) describing a conceptual model for comparative effectiveness research in emergency care; (3) identifying specific opportunities and examples of emergency care-related comparative effectiveness research; and (4) categorizing current and planned funding for comparative effectiveness research and patient-centered outcomes research that can include emergency care delivery.

The Role of Telemedicine in Treating the Critically Ill

Telemedicine use has been increasing exponentially and is expected to become a common tool in remote emergency departments, inpatient wards, and ICUs for acute care. Telemedicine involves real-time, live interactive high-definition video and audio communication that allows critical care physicians to have a virtual presence at the bedside of any critically ill patient. There is increasing data to support new care models that incorporate telemedicine in caring for the critically ill, resulting in higher care quality; more efficient resource use with improved cost-effectiveness; and higher patient, family, and remote provider satisfaction. As further research is conducted, the best use of telemedicine will be better defined and will result in increased access to critical care expertise to a larger population of patients requiring ICU services.

The impact of certificate of need programs on neonatal intensive care units

OBJECTIVE

To determine the impact of state certificate of need programs (CON) on the number of hospitals with neonatal intensive care units (NICU) and the number of NICU beds.

STUDY DESIGN

The presence of a CON program was verified from each state's department of health. Multivariable regression models determined the association between the absence of a CON program and each outcome after controlling for socioeconomic and demographic differences between states.

RESULT

A total of 30 states had CON programs that oversaw NICUs in 2008. Absence of such programs was associated with more hospitals with a NICU (Rate Ratio (RR) 2.06, 95% CI 1.74 to 2.45) and NICU beds (RR 1.96, 95% CI 1.89 to 2.03) compared with states with CON legislation, and increased all-infant mortality rates in states with a large metropolitan area.

CONCLUSION

There has been an erosion of CON programs that oversee NICUs. CON programs are associated with more efficient delivery of neonatal care.

Regionalization of pediatric emergency care in Korea

In order to care for an ill or injured child, it is crucial that every emergency department (ED) has a minimum set of personnel and resources because the majority of children are brought to the geographically nearest ED. In addition to adequate preparation for basic pediatric emergency care, a comprehensive, specialized healthcare system should be in place for a critically-ill or injured victim. Regionalization of healthcare means a system providing high-quality and cost-effective care for victims who present with alow frequency, but critical condition, such as multiple trauma or cardiac arrest. Within the pediatric field, neonatal intensive care and pediatric trauma care are good examples of regionalization. For successful regionalized pediatric emergency care, all aspects of a pediatric emergency system, from pre-hospital field to hospital care, should be categorized and coordinated. Efforts to set up the pediatric emergency care regionalization program based on a nationwide healthcare system are urgently needed in Korea.

Patient volume and quality of care for young children hospitalized with acute gastroenteritis

OBJECTIVE

To explore the relationship between the volume of children admitted to the hospital with acute gastroenteritis and adherence to recommended quality indicators.

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study.

SETTING

Premier Perspective clinical and financial information systems database (Premier Inc, Charlotte, North Carolina).

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 12,604 otherwise healthy children aged 3 months to 10 years hospitalized between January 1, 2007, and December 31, 2009, at 280 US hospitals with International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision diagnosis codes indicating acute gastroenteritis.

MAIN EXPOSURE

Volume of hospital admissions per year of children with acute gastroenteritis.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Quality indicators for overuse and misuse of care in the management of acute gastroenteritis based on nationally published guidelines. These include blood testing, stool studies, use of antibiotics, and use of nonrecommended antiemetic or antidiarrheal medications (hereafter referred to as nonrecommended medications).

RESULTS

Selected blood, stool, and rotavirus tests (overuse indicators) were performed in 85%, 46%, and 56% of children, respectively. Six percent of children received nonrecommended medications, and 26% received antibiotics (misuse indicators). Higher volumes of hospital admission for acute gastroenteritis were associated with less use of blood tests (odds ratio [OR], 0.67 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 0.50-0.89]), nonrecommended medications (OR, 0.84 [95% CI, 0.76-0.93]), and antibiotics (OR, 0.93 [95% CI, 0.86-0.99]). Children admitted to hospitals in the 25th vs 75th percentile of patient volume had a 10%, 30%, and 10% increased chance of having blood tests, nonrecommended medications, and antibiotics ordered, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

In a nationally representative sample of hospitals that care for children with acute gastroenteritis, higher patient volumes were associated with greater adherence to established quality indicators. Further investigation is needed to identify the hospital characteristics driving the volume-quality relationship for this common pediatric condition.