Investigating the differential effects of social networking site addiction and Internet gaming disorder on psychological health

The Use of Digital Technologies, Impulsivity and Psychopathological Symptoms in Adolescence

Background and aims: Past research on the associations between psychopathological symptoms and technological-based addictions, i.e., Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) and Social Media Addiction (SMA), showed contradictory results in adolescents and adult populations. The present study investigated correlations between adolescents’ psychopathological risks and impulsivity, IGD and SMA. Methods: A sample of 656 participants (338 males; M_age = 16.32 years) was divided into three age groups (early, mid-, and late adolescence) and completed a battery of scales comprising the (i) Internet Gaming Disorder Scale–Short Form, (ii) Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale, (iii) Barratt Impulsiveness Scale for Adolescents, and (iv) Symptom Checklist-90-R. Results: The significance of the correlations was not corroborated in the basic tables. Significant associations appeared only in the adolescent subgroups, sometimes for bivariate and sometimes for partial correlations and with different patterns of associations between males and females. Moreover, both technological addictions were correlated with impulsiveness in bivariate and partial correlations. Discussion and conclusions: Following a developmentally-oriented approach to determine the patterns of associations between technological behavioral addictions and psychopathology in the specific sub-phases of early-, mid- and late-adolescence, this exploratory research showed how these associations might change depending on the developmental phase and gender of the individual. Future research is needed to provide empirical evidence of specific emotional–psychopathological correlations.

A Comparison of Risk and Protective Factors for Excessive Internet Game Play between Koreans in Korea and Immigrant Koreans in the United States

BACKGROUND

Studying immigrants may have the potential to explore how cultural and environmental changes affect the internet game play patterns of individuals in the two countries. We planned to compare risk and preventive factors for Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) between Korean adolescents in Korea and immigrant Koreans in the US.

METHODS

Ninety-four Koreans and 133 immigrant Koreans were recruited. Independent factors consisted of five domains including demographic data, physical activity, academic, art, and music activities, psychological factors, and game and media play. The dependent variable in the current study was the high-risk group of IGD, which was assessed with Young's Internet Addiction Scale scores. To determine the protective and risk factors for IGD, we performed a multiple logistic regression analysis using the high-risk group as the dependent variable.

RESULTS

Five domains affected the risk for IGD in Korean and immigrant Korean groups. Vigorous physical activity was the strongest protective factor for IGD in the Korean group, while media activity was the strongest protective factor for IGD in immigrant Koreans in the US.

CONCLUSION

The results indicate that internet gaming problems might be affected by environmental factors and it is recommended that gaming activity is substituted with physical activity, extracurricular classes, books, and music.

Measurement and Conceptualization of Gaming Disorder According to the World Health Organization Framework: the Development of the Gaming Disorder Test

Previous research on gaming disorder (GD) has highlighted key methodological and conceptual hindrances stemming from the heterogeneity of nomenclature and the use of non-standardized psychometric tools to assess this phenomenon. The recent recognition of GD as an official mental health disorder and behavioral addiction by the World Health Organization (WHO) in the 11th Revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) opens up new possibilities to investigate further the psychosocial and mental health implications due to excessive and disordered gaming. However, before further research on GD can be conducted in a reliable way and within a robust cross-cultural context, a valid and reliable standardized psychometric tool to assess the construct as defined by the WHO should be developed. The aim of this study was to develop The Gaming Disorder Test (GDT), a brief four-item measure to assess GD and to further explore its psychometric properties. A sample of 236 Chinese (47% male, mean age 19.22 years, SD = 1.57) and 324 British (49.4% male, mean age 26.74 years, SD = 7.88) gamers was recruited online. Construct validity of the GDT was examined via factorial validity, nomological validity, alongside convergent and discriminant validity. Concurrent validity was also examined using the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale—Short-Form (IGDS9-SF). Finally, reliability indicators involving the Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability coefficients were estimated. Overall, the results indicated that GDT is best conceptualized within a single-factor structure. Additionally, the four items of the GDT are valid, reliable, and proved to be highly suitable for measuring GD within a cross-cultural context.

Performance of the DSM-5-based criteria for Internet addiction: A factor analytical examination of three samples

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The diagnosis "Internet Gaming Disorder" (IGD) has been included in the fifth edition of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. However, the nine criteria have not been sufficiently reviewed for their diagnostic value. This study focuses on a broader approach of Internet addiction (IA) including other Internet activities. It is not yet clear what the construct of IA is in terms of dimensionality and homogeneity and how the individual criteria contribute to explained variance.

METHODS

Three separate exploratory factor analyses and multinomial logistic regression analyses were carried out based on information collected from a general population-based sample (n = 196), a sample of people recruited at job centers (n = 138), and a student sample (n = 188).

RESULTS

Both of the adult samples show a distinct single-factor solution. The analysis of the student sample suggests a two-factor solution. Only one item (criterion 8: escape from a negative mood) can be assigned to the second factor. Altogether, high endorsement rates of the eighth criterion in all three samples indicate low discriminatory power.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Overall, the analysis shows that the construct of IA is represented one dimensionally by the diagnostic criteria of the IGD. However, the student sample indicates evidence of age-specific performance of the criteria. The criterion "Escape from a negative mood" might be insufficient in discriminating between problematic and non-problematic Internet use. The findings deserve further examination, in particular with respect to the performance of the criteria in different age groups as well as in non-preselected samples.

Internet Gaming Disorder in Adolescents With Psychiatric Disorder: Two Case Reports Using a Developmental Framework

Internet gaming disorder (IGD) has been a controversial entity with various opinions about its clinical relevance as an independent mental disorder. This debate has also included discussions about the relationships between problematic gaming, various psychiatric disorders, and personality traits and dimensions. This paper outlines a developmental-theory based model of Internet gaming misuse inspired by the treatment of two adolescent inpatients. The two clinical vignettes illustrate distinct developmental pathways: an "internalized pathway" via the development of social anxiety, emotional and behavioral avoidance; and an "externalized pathway" with a low level of emotional regulation strategies and impulsivity. In both clinical cases, attachment issues played a key role to understand the specific associations of risk and maintaining factors for IGD, and gaming behaviors may be seen as specific forms of maladaptive self-regulatory strategies for these two youths. These clinical observations support the assumption that gaming use problematic in adolescents should be viewed with a developmental approach, including key aspects of emotional development that represent significant targets for therapeutic interventions.

The Development of the Turkish Social Media Craving Scale (SMCS): a Validation Study

Over the past decade, the use of social media applications have increased worldwide. In parallel with this, abuse of social media has also increased. In recent years, many disorders related to social media use have been conceptualized. One of the common consequences of these disorders is the intense desire (i.e., craving) to use social media. The aim of the present study was to develop the Social Media Craving Scale (SMCS) by adapting the Penn Alcohol Craving Scale (PACS). The study comprised 423 university students (242 females and 181 males) across five different samples. The psychometric instruments used included the Social Media Craving Scale, Social Media Disorder Scale, Brief Self-Control Scale, and Personal Information Form. In the present study, structural validity and reliability of the SMCS were investigated. The structural validity of SMCS was investigated with Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and criterion validity. The reliability of SMCS was evaluated using Cronbach α internal consistency reliability coefficient, corrected item total correlation coefficients, and test-retest method. As a result of EFA, the SMCS was found to be unidimensional scale. This unidimensional structure explained approximately half of the total variance. The unidimensional structure of SMCS was tested in two different samples with CFA. As a result of CFA, SMCS models were found to have acceptable fit values. The criterion validity of the SMCS was evaluated by assessing social media disorder, self-discipline, impulsiveness, daily social media use duration, social media usage history, frequency of checking social media accounts during the day, number of social media accounts, and number of daily shares. Analysis demonstrated that the SMCS was associated with all these variables in the expected direction. According to the reliability analysis (Cronbach’s α internal consistency coefficients, corrected item total correlation coefficients, and test-retest method), the SMCS was found to be a reliable scale. When validity and reliability analyses of the SMCS are considered as a whole, it is concluded that the SMCS is a valid and reliable scale in assessing social media craving.

Using Eye Tracking to Explore Facebook Use and Associations with Facebook Addiction, Mental Well-being, and Personality

Social networking sites (SNSs) have become ubiquitous in our everyday lives, and for all its communicative benefits, excessive SNS use has been associated with a range of negative health implications. In the present study, the authors use eye-tracking methodology to explore the relationship between individual differences in personality, mental well-being, SNS usage, and the focus of Facebook users’ visual attention. Participants (n = 69, mean age = 23.09, SD = 7.54) completed questionnaire measures for personality and to examine changes in depression, anxiety, stress, and self-esteem. They then engaged in a Facebook session while their eye movements and fixations were recorded. These fixations were coded as being directed to social and update areas of interest (AOI) of the Facebook interface. An exploratory analysis of personality factors revealed a negative correlation between openness to experience and inspection times for the updates AOI and an unexpected negative relationship between extraversion and inspection times for social AOI. There were correlations between changes in depression score and inspection of updates AOI, with reduced depression scores associated with increased inspection of updates. Finally, self-reported duration of participants’ typical Facebook sessions did not correlate with eye-tracking measures but were associated with increased Facebook addiction scores and greater increases in depression scores. These initial findings indicate that there are differences in the outcomes of interacting with Facebook which can vary based on Facebook addiction, personality variables, and the Facebook features that individuals interact with.

Evaluating the Psychometric Properties of the 7-Item Persian Game Addiction Scale for Iranian Adolescents

The 7-item Gaming Addiction Scale (GAS) is a brief instrument based on DSM criteria to assess gaming addiction. Although the psychometric properties of the GAS have been tested using classical test theory, its psychometric properties have never been tested using modern test theory (e.g., Rasch analysis). The present study used a large adolescent sample in Iran to test the psychometric properties of the Persian GAS through both classical test and modern test theories. Adolescents (n = 4442; mean age = 15.3 years; 50.3% males) were recruited from Qazvin, Iran. In addition to the GAS, all of them completed the following instruments: the nine-item Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form (IGDS-SF9), Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS), Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), and a generic quality of life instrument. Two weeks later, all participants completed the GAS again. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and Rasch analysis were used to test the unidimensionality of the GAS. Pearson correlation coefficients were used to test the test-retest reliability, and a regression model was used to test the criterion-related validity of the GAS. Both CFA and Rasch analysis supported the unidimensionality of the GAS. Pearson correlations coefficients showed satisfactory test-retest reliability of the GAS (r = 0.78 to 0.86), and the regression model demonstrated the criterion-related validity of the GAS (β = 0.31 with IGDS-SF9; 0.41 with PSQI). Based on the results, the Persian GAS is a reliable and valid instrument for healthcare providers to assess the level of gaming addiction among Persian-speaking adolescents.

The Moderating Role of State Attachment Anxiety and Avoidance Between Social Anxiety and Social Networking Sites Addiction

This study aims to explore the relationships among social anxiety, social networking sites (SNS) addiction, and SNS addiction tendency and further to examine the moderating role of state attachment anxiety and state attachment avoidance. A sample of Chinese young adults (N = 437, M_age = 24.21 ± 3.25, 129 males) participated in this study, the data were collected through self-reports. Results revealed that participants' social anxiety was positively associated with SNS addiction and SNS addiction tendency. State attachment anxiety moderated these two relationships after controlling gender, age, and state attachment avoidance, while state attachment avoidance showed no significant moderating effect. Specifically, the positive relationships between social anxiety and SNS addiction (tendency) were restricted to individuals with low state attachment anxiety. While for individuals with high state attachment anxiety, social anxiety was no longer associated with SNS addiction or SNS addiction tendency. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of state attachment's moderating role in terms of the relationships between social anxiety and SNS addiction (tendency).

Relationships between Internet addiction and clinicodemographic and behavioral factors

BACKGROUNDS AND AIMS

While the Internet became an indispensable component of our contemporary life, public and academic attention is also gathered to its negative impact, namely Internet addiction (IA). Although clinicodemographic and behavioral factors are hypothetically implicated in the mechanism of IA, it still remains largely unknown how such factors are linked to IA severity. Thus, this study sought to examine relationships among IA severity and factors potentially associated with IA in Japanese students in different educational stages.

METHODS

We conducted a questionnaire-based survey, which included questions about types of online activities and clinicodemographic information, the IA test for IA severity, and the K6 scale for psychological distress in 3,224 students at elementary, junior, and senior high schools, and universities. A multiple regression analysis was performed to predict IA severity with clinicodemographic and behavioral factors.

RESULTS

IA severity was significantly positively related to the following factors: e-messaging, social networking services (SNS), games, holiday Internet usage, and K6 scores, while IA severity had negative correlation with using Internet for educational purposes, age of first exposure to the Internet, and sleep duration. Age was not related to IA severity among participants using both SNS and e-messaging.

CONCLUSIONS

IA was linked to various online activities and the degree of psychological distress. This indicates the importance of comprehensive assessment of online behavior and psychological factors for further understanding of IA.

How social networking site addiction drives university students’ academic achievement: The mediating role of learning engagement

The main aim of this study was to explore the mediating role of learning engagement on the relationship between social networking site (SNS) addiction and academic achievement among 406 university students. The Social Networking Site Addiction Scale, Utrecht Work Engagement Scale for Students, and Chinese Students Academic Achievement Scale were used to evaluate students’ SNS addiction, learning engagement, and academic achievement. Correlation analysis indicated that SNS addiction, learning engagement, and academic achievement were significantly correlated with each other. The causal steps regression and bootstrap analysis show that learning engagement mediated the relationship between SNS addiction and academic achievement. Implications for research and instructions for how to improve university students’ academic achievement are discussed.

Psychometric evaluation of the Persian Internet Disorder Scale among adolescents

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Given the growing epidemiological research interest concerning Internet addiction, brief instruments with a robust theoretical basis are warranted. The Internet Disorder Scale (IDS-15) is one such instrument that can be used to quickly assess the Internet addiction in an individual. However, only two language versions of the IDS-15 have been developed. This study translated the IDS-15 into Persian and examined its psychometric properties using comprehensive psychometric testing.

METHODS

After ensuring the linguistic validity of the Persian IDS-15, 1,272 adolescents (mean age = 15.53 years; 728 males) completed the IDS-15, Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS), Internet Gaming Disorder Scale - Short Form (IGDS9-SF), and the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), Rasch models, regression analysis, and latent profile analysis (LPA) were carried out to test the psychometric properties of the Persian IDS-15.

RESULTS

Both CFA and Rasch supported the construct validity of the Persian IDS-15. Multigroup analysis in CFA and differential item functioning in Rasch indicated that male and female adolescents interpreted the IDS-15 items similarly. Regression analysis showed that the IDS-15 correlated with IGDS9-SF and BSMAS (ΔR² = .12 and .36, respectively) is stronger than the DASS (ΔR² = .03-.05). LPA based on IDS-15 suggests three subgroups for the sample. Significant differences in depression, anxiety, IGDS9-SF, and BSMAS were found among the three LPA subgroups.

CONCLUSION

The Persian IDS-15 has robust psychometric properties as evidenced by both classical test theory and Rasch analysis.

Psychometric validation of the Turkish nine-item Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form (IGDS9-SF)

The main aims of the current study were to test the factor structure, reliability and validity of the nine-item Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form (IGDS9-SF), a standardized measure to assess symptoms and prevalence of Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD). In the present study participants were assessed with the IGDS9-SF, nine-item Internet Gaming Disorder Scale (IGDS) and the Young's Internet Addiction Test-Short Form (YIAT-SF). Confirmatory factor analyzes demonstrated that the factor structure (i.e., the dimensional structure) of the IGDS9-SF was satisfactory. The scale was also reliable (i.e., internally consistent with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.89) and showed adequate convergent and criterion-related validity, as indicated by statistically significant positive correlations between average time daily spent playing games during last year, IGDS and YIAT-SF scores. By applying the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) threshold for diagnosing IGD (e.g., endorsing at least five criteria), it was found that the prevalence of disordered gamers ranged from 0.96% (whole sample) to 2.57% (e-sports players). These findings support the Turkish version of the IGDS9-SF as a valid and reliable tool for determining the extent of IGD-related problems among young adults and for the purposes of early IGD diagnosis in clinical settings and similar research.

Beyond "Facebook Addiction": The Role of Cognitive-Related Factors and Psychiatric Distress in Social Networking Site Addiction

The use of social networking sites (SNSs) is rapidly increasing as billions of individuals use SNS platforms regularly to communicate with other users, follow the news, and play browser games. Given the widespread use of SNS platforms, investigating the potential predictors of addictive SNS use beyond Facebook use has become paramount given that most studies so far focused on "Facebook addiction." In this study, a total of 511 English-speaking SNS users (58.1% young adults aged 20-35 years; 64.6% female) were recruited online and asked to complete a battery of standardized psychometric tools assessing participants' sociodemographic characteristics, SNS preferences and patterns of use, SNS addiction, preference for online social interaction, maladaptive cognitions, fear of missing out (FoMo), dysfunctional emotion regulation, and general psychiatric distress. Overall, about 4.9% (n = 25) of all participants could be classed as having a high SNS addiction risk profile. Moreover, the results further indicated that FoMo (β = 0.38), maladaptive cognitions (β = 0.25), and psychiatric distress (β = 0.12) significantly predicted SNS addiction (i.e., p < 0.0001) and accounted for about 61% of the total variance in SNS addiction, with FoMo providing the strongest predictive contribution over and above the effects of sociodemographic variables and patterns of SNS use. The implications of the present findings were discussed in light of extant literature on behavioral addictions and Facebook addiction and further considerations were provided regarding the potential clinical implications for cognitive-based psychological treatment approaches to SNS addiction.

Problematic Social Networking Site Use and Comorbid Psychiatric Disorders: A Systematic Review of Recent Large-Scale Studies

Background and Aims: Research has shown a potential association between problematic social networking site (SNS) use and psychiatric disorders. The primary objective of this systematic review was to identify and evaluate studies examining the association between problematic SNS use and comorbid psychiatric disorders. Sampling and Methods: A literature search was conducted using the following databases: PsychInfo, PsycArticles, Medline, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. Problematic SNS use (PSNSU) and its synonyms were included in the search. Information was extracted based on problematic SNS use and psychiatric disorders, including attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), depression, anxiety, and stress. The inclusion criteria for papers to be reviewed were (i) being published since 2014 onwards, (ii) being published in English, (iii) having population-based studies with sample sizes >500 participants, (iv) having specific criteria for problematic SNS use (typically validated psychometric scales), and (v) containing empirical primary data reporting on the correlation between PSNSU and psychiatric variables. A total of nine studies met the predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Results: The findings of the systematic review demonstrated that most research has been conducted in Europe and all comprised cross-sectional survey designs. In eight (of the nine) studies, problematic SNS use was correlated with psychiatric disorder symptoms. Of the nine studies (some of which examined more than one psychiatric symptom), there was a positive association between PSNSU and depression (seven studies), anxiety (six studies), stress (two studies), ADHD (one study), and OCD (one study). Conclusions: Overall, the studies reviewed showed associations between PSNSU and psychiatric disorder symptoms, particularly in adolescents. Most associations were found between PSNSU, depression, and anxiety.