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102
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Woodward G, Speirs DC, Hildrew AG. Quantification and Resolution of a Complex, Size-Structured Food Web. ADV ECOL RES 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2504(05)36002-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
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103
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Reuman DC, Cohen JE. Estimating Relative Energy Fluxes Using the Food Web, Species Abundance, and Body Size. ADV ECOL RES 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2504(05)36003-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
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104
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Abstract
Weeds and arthropods interact in agricultural systems. Weeds can directly serve as food sources or provide other ecosystem resources for herbivorous arthropods, and indirectly serve carnivorous (beneficial) arthropods by providing food and shelter to their prey. Weeds can serve as alternative hosts for pest and beneficial arthropods when their preferred crop host is absent. Herbivory on crops by pest arthropods reduces the competitive ability of crop plants, leading to increased weed growth. Interactions between weeds and arthropods have several implications to integrated pest management (IPM). Pest and beneficial arthropod populations can be maintained in the absence of crop hosts. This statement also applies to all other pests that use weeds as a food source, including pathogens, nematodes, mollusks, and vertebrates. Weeds outside crop fields that maintain overwintering populations of arthropod pests are the major reason for the development of area-wide IPM programs for certain mobile arthropod pests. Weeds can serve as a source of increased diversity in agroecosystems. Increased diversity has been the rationale for enhancing biological control of arthropod pests through habitat management. The consequences of such approaches are difficult to predict on a multispecies IPM basis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert F Norris
- Department of Vegetable Crops and Weed Science, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA.
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106
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Williams RJ, Martinez ND. Limits to Trophic Levels and Omnivory in Complex Food Webs: Theory and Data. Am Nat 2004; 163:458-68. [PMID: 15026980 DOI: 10.1086/381964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 232] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2002] [Accepted: 07/01/2003] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
While trophic levels have found broad application throughout ecology, they are also in much contention on analytical and empirical grounds. Here, we use a new generation of data and theory to examine long-standing questions about trophic-level limits and degrees of omnivory. The data include food webs of the Chesapeake Bay, U.S.A., the island of Saint Martin, a U.K. grassland, and a Florida seagrass community, which appear to be the most trophically complete food webs available in the primary literature due to their inclusion of autotrophs and empirically derived estimates of the relative energetic contributions of each trophic link. We show that most (54%) of the 212 species in the four food webs can be unambiguously assigned to a discrete trophic level. Omnivory among the remaining species appears to be quite limited, as judged by the standard deviation of omnivores' energy-weighted food-chain lengths. This allows simple algorithms based on binary food webs without energetic details to yield surprisingly accurate estimates of species' trophic and omnivory levels. While maximum trophic levels may plausibly exceed historically asserted limits, our analyses contradict both recent empirical claims that these limits are exceeded and recent theoretical claims that rampant omnivory eliminates the scientific utility of the trophic-level concept.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Williams
- Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory, P.O. Box 519, Crested Butte, Colorado 81224, USA.
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107
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Affiliation(s)
- C. B. MULler
- Department of Biology and NERC Centre for Population Biology, Imperial College at Silwood Park, Ascot, Berkshire SL5 7PY, UK
| | - I. C. T. Adriaanse
- Department of Biology and NERC Centre for Population Biology, Imperial College at Silwood Park, Ascot, Berkshire SL5 7PY, UK
| | - R. Belshaw
- Department of Biology and NERC Centre for Population Biology, Imperial College at Silwood Park, Ascot, Berkshire SL5 7PY, UK
| | - H. C. J. Godfray
- Department of Biology and NERC Centre for Population Biology, Imperial College at Silwood Park, Ascot, Berkshire SL5 7PY, UK
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108
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Banasek-Richter C, Cattin MF, Bersier LF. Sampling effects and the robustness of quantitative and qualitative food-web descriptors. J Theor Biol 2004; 226:23-32. [PMID: 14637051 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-5193(03)00305-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Food-web descriptors serve as a means for among-web comparisons that are necessary for the discovery of regularities in respect to food-web structure. Qualitative descriptors were however found to be highly sensitive to varying levels of sampling effort. To circumvent these shortcomings, quantitative counterparts were proposed which take the magnitude of trophic interaction between species into consideration. For 14 properties we examined the performance with increasing sampling effort of a qualitative, an unweighted quantitative (giving the same weight to each taxon), and a weighted quantitative version (weighing each taxon by the amount of incoming and outgoing flows). The evaluation of 10 extensively documented quantitative webs formed the basis for this analysis. The quantitative versions were found to be much more robust against variable sampling effort. This increase in accuracy is accomplished at the cost of a slight decrease in precision as compared to the qualitative properties. Conversely, the quantitative descriptors also proved less sensitive to differences in evenness in the distribution of link magnitude. By more adequately incorporating the information inherent to quantitative food-web compilations, quantitative descriptors are able to better represent the web, and are thus more suitable for the elucidation of general trends in food-web structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolin Banasek-Richter
- Zoological Institute, University of Neuchâtel, Rue Emile-Argand 11 CP2, CH-2007 Neuchâtel, Switzerland
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109
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110
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111
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Leaper R, Huxham M. Size constraints in a real food web: predator, parasite and prey body-size relationships. OIKOS 2003. [DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-0706.2002.10888.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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112
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113
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Luczkovich JJ, Ward GP, Johnson JC, Christian RR, Baird D, Neckles H, Rizzo WM. Determining the trophic guilds of fishes and macroinvertebrates in a seagrass food web. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2002. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02692212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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114
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Woodward G, Hildrew AG. Body-size determinants of niche overlap and intraguild predation within a complex food web. J Anim Ecol 2002. [DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2656.2002.00669.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 306] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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115
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Lewis OT, Memmott J, Lasalle J, Lyal CH, Whitefoord C, Godfray HCJ. Structure of a diverse tropical forest insect–parasitoid community. J Anim Ecol 2002. [DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2656.2002.00651.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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116
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117
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Feeding habits of the blackwidow spider Latrodectus lilianae (Araneae: Theridiidae) in an arid zone of south-east Spain. J Zool (1987) 2002. [DOI: 10.1017/s0952836902000699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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118
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Schönrogge K, Crawley MJ. Quantitative webs as a means of assessing the impact of alien insects. J Anim Ecol 2001; 69:841-868. [PMID: 29313993 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2656.2000.00443.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- K Schönrogge
- Department of Biology, Imperial College at Silwood Park, Ascot, Berkshire SL5 7PY, UK
| | - M J Crawley
- Department of Biology, Imperial College at Silwood Park, Ascot, Berkshire SL5 7PY, UK
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119
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Abstract
A detailed analysis of three species-rich ecosystem food webs has shown that they display skewed distributions of connections. Such graphs of interaction are, in fact, shared by a number of biological and technological networks, which have been shown to display a very high homeostasis against random removals of nodes. Here, we analyse the responses of these ecological graphs to both random and selective perturbations (directed against the most-connected species). Our results suggest that ecological networks are very robust against random removals but can be extremely fragile when selective attacks are used. These observations have important consequences for biodiversity dynamics and conservation issues, current estimations of extinction rates and the relevance and definition of keystone species.
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Affiliation(s)
- R V Solé
- Complex Systems Research Group, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya Campus Nord B4, 08034 Barcelona, Spain.
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120
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Winemiller K, Pianka E, Vitt L, Joern A. Food Web Laws or Niche Theory? Six Independent Empirical Tests. Am Nat 2001; 158:193-9. [DOI: 10.1086/321315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Chen X, Chen X, Cohen JE, Cohen JE. Support of the hyperbolic connectance hypothesis by qualitative stability of model food webs. COMMUNITY ECOL 2001. [DOI: 10.1556/comec.1.2000.2.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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125
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Schmitz OJ, Hambäck PA, Beckerman AP. Trophic Cascades in Terrestrial Systems: A Review of the Effects of Carnivore Removals on Plants. Am Nat 2000; 155:141-153. [PMID: 10686157 DOI: 10.1086/303311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 519] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
We present a quantitative synthesis of trophic cascades in terrestrial systems using data from 41 studies, reporting 60 independent tests. The studies covered a wide range of taxa in various terrestrial systems with varying degrees of species diversity. We quantified the average magnitude of direct effects of carnivores on herbivore prey and indirect effects of carnivores on plants. We examined how the effect magnitudes varied with type of carnivores in the study system, food web diversity, and experimental protocol. A metaanalysis of the data revealed that trophic cascades were common among the studies. Exceptions to this general trend did arise. In some cases, trophic cascades were expected not to occur, and they did not. In other cases, the direct effects of carnivores on herbivores were stronger than the indirect effects of carnivores on plants, indicating that top-down effects attenuated. Top-down effects usually attenuated whenever plants contained antiherbivore defenses or when herbivore species diversity was high. Conclusions about the strength of top-down effects of carnivores varied with the type of carnivore and with the plant-response variable measured. Vertebrate carnivores generally had stronger effects than invertebrate carnivores. Carnivores, in general, had stronger effects when the response was measured as plant damage rather than as plant biomass or plant reproductive output. We caution, therefore, that conclusions about the strength of top-down effects could be an artifact of the plant-response variable measured. We also found that mesocosm experiments generally had weaker effect magnitudes than open-plot field experiments or observational experiments. Trophic cascades in terrestrial systems, although not a universal phenomenon, are a consistent response throughout the published studies reviewed here. Our analysis thus suggests that they occur more frequently in terrestrial systems than currently believed. Moreover, the mechanisms and strengths of top-down effects of carnivores are equivalent to those found in other types of systems (e.g., aquatic environments).
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126
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Memmott J, Martinez N, Cohen J. Predators, parasitoids and pathogens: species richness, trophic generality and body sizes in a natural food web. J Anim Ecol 2000. [DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2656.2000.00367.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 213] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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127
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Bersier LF, Dixon P, Sugihara G. Scale-Invariant or Scale-Dependent Behavior of the Link Density Property in Food Webs: A Matter of Sampling Effort? Am Nat 1999; 153:676-682. [PMID: 29585644 DOI: 10.1086/303200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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128
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Christian RR, Luczkovich JJ. Organizing and understanding a winter’s seagrass foodweb network through effective trophic levels. Ecol Modell 1999. [DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3800(99)00022-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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129
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131
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133
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134
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Abstract
Carbon stocks and flows give a picture of marine and continental biotas different from that based on food webs. Measured per unit of volume or per unit of surface area, biomass is thousands to hundreds of thousands of times more dilute in the oceans than on the continents. The number of described species is lower for the oceans than for the continents. One might expect that each species of organism would therefore feed on or be consumed by fewer other species in the oceans than on the continents. Yet in reported food webs, the average oceanic species interacts trophically with more other species than the average terrestrial or aquatic species. Carbon turnover times imply that the mean adult body length of oceanic organisms is 240 to 730 times shorter than that of continental organisms. By contrast, in reported food webs, marine animal predators are larger than continental animal predators, and marine animal prey are larger than continental animal prey, by as much as one to two orders of magnitude. Estimates of net primary productivity (NPP) per unit of surface area or per unit of occupied volume indicate that the oceans are several to hundreds of times less productive than the continents, on average. If NPP limited mean chain length in food webs, oceanic food chains should be shorter than continental chains. Yet average chain lengths reported in published food webs are longer in oceans than on land or in fresh water. In reconciling these unexpected contrasts, the challenge is to determine which (if any) of the many plausible explanations is or are correct.
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135
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Hawkins BA, Martinez ND, Gilbert F. Source food webs as estimators of community web structure. ACTA OECOLOGICA-INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s1146-609x(97)80042-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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136
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137
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138
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139
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140
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Impacts of Disturbance on Detritus Food Webs in Agro-Ecosystems of Contrasting Tillage and Weed Management Practices. ADV ECOL RES 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2504(08)60065-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 269] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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141
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Christian RR. Aggregation and disaggregation of microbial food webs. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 1994; 28:327-329. [PMID: 24186461 DOI: 10.1007/bf00166824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Models of the microbial food web have generally used compartments aggregated by general body size and gross taxonomy. It has been assumed that these also reflect guilds or holons. Generally, results of simulation or analysis based on this structure have been reasonably well validated. Herein I summarize why the aggregations may be justified and what may be learned from disaggregation.
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Affiliation(s)
- R R Christian
- Biology Department, East Carolina University, 27858, Greenville, North Carolina, USA
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