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A Bioassay-Guided Fractionation of Rosemary Leaf Extract Identifies Carnosol as a Major Hypertrophy Inducer in Human Skeletal Muscle Cells. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13124190. [PMID: 34959741 PMCID: PMC8706380 DOI: 10.3390/nu13124190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
A good quality of life requires maintaining adequate skeletal muscle mass and strength, but therapeutic agents are lacking for this. We developed a bioassay-guided fractionation approach to identify molecules with hypertrophy-promoting effect in human skeletal muscle cells. We found that extracts from rosemary leaves induce muscle cell hypertrophy. By bioassay-guided purification we identified the phenolic diterpene carnosol as the compound responsible for the hypertrophy-promoting activity of rosemary leaf extracts. We then evaluated the impact of carnosol on the different signaling pathways involved in the control of muscle cell size. We found that activation of the NRF2 signaling pathway by carnosol is not sufficient to mediate its hypertrophy-promoting effect. Moreover, carnosol inhibits the expression of the ubiquitin ligase E3 Muscle RING Finger protein-1 that plays an important role in muscle remodeling, but has no effect on the protein synthesis pathway controlled by the protein kinase B/mechanistic target of rapamycin pathway. By measuring the chymotrypsin-like activity of the proteasome, we found that proteasome activity was significantly decreased by carnosol and Muscle RING Finger 1 inactivation. These results strongly suggest that carnosol can induce skeletal muscle hypertrophy by repressing the ubiquitin-proteasome system-dependent protein degradation pathway through inhibition of the E3 ubiquitin ligase Muscle RING Finger protein-1.
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102
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Fukada SI, Ito N. Regulation of muscle hypertrophy: Involvement of the Akt-independent pathway and satellite cells in muscle hypertrophy. Exp Cell Res 2021; 409:112907. [PMID: 34793776 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2021.112907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Skeletal muscles are composed of multinuclear cells called myofibers and have unique abilities, one of which is plasticity. In response to the mechanical load induced by physical activity, skeletal muscle exerts several local adaptations, including an increase in myofiber size and myonuclear number, known as muscle hypertrophy. Protein synthesis and muscle satellite cells (MuSCs) are mainly responsible for these adaptations. However, the upstream signaling pathways that promote protein synthesis remain controversial. Further, the necessity of MuSCs in muscle hypertrophy is also a highly debated issue. In this review, we summarized the insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1)/Akt-independent activation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling in muscle hypertrophy and the involvement of mTOR signaling in age-related loss of skeletal muscle function and mass and in sarcopenia. The roles and behaviors of MuSCs, characteristics of new myonuclei in muscle hypertrophy, and their relevance to sarcopenia have also been updated in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- So-Ichiro Fukada
- Project for Muscle Stem Cell Biology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan.
| | - Naoki Ito
- Laboratory of Molecular Life Science, Institute of Biomedical Research and Innovation (IBRI), Foundation for Biomedical Research and Innovation at Kobe (FBRI), Kobe, Japan
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103
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Angiotensin II inhibition: a potential treatment to slow the progression of sarcopenia. Clin Sci (Lond) 2021; 135:2503-2520. [PMID: 34751393 DOI: 10.1042/cs20210719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Sarcopenia is defined as the progressive and generalized loss of skeletal muscle mass and strength, which is associated with increased likelihood of adverse outcomes including falls, fractures, physical disability, and mortality. The etiology of sarcopenia has been postulated to be multifactorial with genetics, aging, immobility, nutritional deficiencies, inflammation, stress, and endocrine factors all contributing to the imbalance of muscle anabolism and catabolism. The prevalence of sarcopenia is estimated to range from 13 to 24% in adults over 60 years of age and up to 50% in persons aged 80 and older. As the population continues to age, the prevalence of sarcopenia continues to increase and is expected to affect 500 million people by the year 2050. Sarcopenia impacts the overall health of patients through limitations in functional status, increase in hospital readmissions, poorer hospital outcomes, and increase in overall mortality. Thus, there exists a need to prevent or reduce the occurrence of sarcopenia. Here, we explore the potential mechanisms and current studies regarding angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors on reducing the development of sarcopenia through the associated changes in cardiovascular function, renal function, muscle fiber composition, inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, metabolic efficiency, and mitochondrial function.
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104
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The Activin/FLRG pathway associates with poor COVID-19 outcomes in hospitalized patients. Mol Cell Biol 2021; 42:e0046721. [PMID: 34723652 PMCID: PMC8773081 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.00467-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
A subset of hospitalized COVID-19 patients, particularly the aged and those with comorbidities, develop the most severe form of the disease, characterized by acute respiratory disease syndrome (ARDS), coincident with experiencing a “cytokine storm.” Here, we demonstrate that cytokines which activate the NF-κB pathway can induce activin A. Patients with elevated activin A, activin B, and FLRG at hospital admission were associated with the most severe outcomes of COVID-19, including the requirement for mechanical ventilation, and all-cause mortality. A prior study showed that activin A could decrease viral load, which indicated there might be a risk to giving COVID-19 patients an inhibitor of activin. To evaluate this, the role for activin A was examined in a hamster model of SARS-CoV-2 infection, via blockade of activin A signaling. The hamster model demonstrated that use of an anti-activin A antibody did not worsen the disease and there was no evidence for increase in lung viral load and pathology. The study indicates blockade of activin signaling may be beneficial in treating COVID-19 patients experiencing ARDS.
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105
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Srivastava S, Rathor R, Singh SN, Suryakumar G. Emerging role of MyomiRs as biomarkers and therapeutic targets in skeletal muscle diseases. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2021; 321:C859-C875. [PMID: 34586896 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00057.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Several chronic diseases lead to skeletal muscle loss and a decline in physical performance. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, noncoding RNAs, which have exhibited their role in the development and diseased state of the skeletal muscle. miRNA regulates gene expression by binding to the 3' untranslated region of its target mRNA. Due to the robust stability in biological fluids, miRNAs are ideal candidate as biomarker. These miRNAs provide a novel avenue in strengthening our awareness and knowledge about the factors governing skeletal muscle functions such as development, growth, metabolism, differentiation, and cell proliferation. It also helps in understanding the therapeutic strategies in improving or conserving skeletal muscle health. This review outlines the evidence regarding the present knowledge on the role miRNA as a potential biomarker in skeletal muscle diseases and their exploration might be a unique and potential therapeutic strategy for various skeletal muscle disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Richa Rathor
- Defence Institute of Physiology & Allied Sciences (DIPAS), Delhi, India
| | - Som Nath Singh
- Defence Institute of Physiology & Allied Sciences (DIPAS), Delhi, India
| | - Geetha Suryakumar
- Defence Institute of Physiology & Allied Sciences (DIPAS), Delhi, India
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Kim JE, Kwon EY, Han Y. Allulose Attenuated Age-Associated Sarcopenia via Regulating IGF-1 and Myostatin in Aged Mice. Mol Nutr Food Res 2021; 66:e2100549. [PMID: 34710274 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.202100549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
SCOPE Allulose is shown to increase the muscle weight in diet-induced obese mice. However, there are no studies on the effects of allulose in age-associated sarcopenia. This study aims to elucidate the mechanisms of action for allulose in age associated by analyzing the transcriptional patterns in aged mice. METHODS AND RESULTS The 48-week-old mice are fed with AIN-93diet containing allulose for 12 weeks. Allulose supplementation increases the muscle mass and grip strength in aged mice. Allulose increases the insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and its downstream factor expressions which 40 are related protein synthesis, while inhibits the myostatin expression related protein degradation. In mRNA-seq analysis, allulose supplementation significantly decreases in Adiponectin, Adipsin, cell death inducing DFFA like effector (CIDEC), Haptoglobin, Neuroglobin, and stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 (SCD1) and increases in cytokine-inducible SH2-containing protein (CISH) and ceramide synthase 1 (CerS1) that are regulate protein turn over in gastrocnemius. Also, allulose alleviates autophagy in muscle with regulated mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway and increases the anti-oxidant enzyme activity. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that allulose improves the age-associated sarcopenia with enhancing antioxidant properties by altering mRNA and protein expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Eun Kim
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Kyungpook National University, 1370 San-Kyuk Dong, Puk-Ku, Daegu, 702-701, Republic of Korea.,Center for Food and Nutritional Genomics Research, Kyungpook National University, 1370 San-Kyuk Dong, Puk-Ku, Daegu, 702-701, Republic of Korea.,Center for Beautiful Aging, Kyungpook National University, 1370 San-Kyuk Dong, Puk-Ku, Daegu, 702-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Young Kwon
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Kyungpook National University, 1370 San-Kyuk Dong, Puk-Ku, Daegu, 702-701, Republic of Korea.,Center for Food and Nutritional Genomics Research, Kyungpook National University, 1370 San-Kyuk Dong, Puk-Ku, Daegu, 702-701, Republic of Korea.,Center for Beautiful Aging, Kyungpook National University, 1370 San-Kyuk Dong, Puk-Ku, Daegu, 702-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Youngji Han
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Kyungpook National University, 1370 San-Kyuk Dong, Puk-Ku, Daegu, 702-701, Republic of Korea.,Center for Food and Nutritional Genomics Research, Kyungpook National University, 1370 San-Kyuk Dong, Puk-Ku, Daegu, 702-701, Republic of Korea.,Center for Beautiful Aging, Kyungpook National University, 1370 San-Kyuk Dong, Puk-Ku, Daegu, 702-701, Republic of Korea
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107
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Yazid MD, Hung-Chih C. Perturbation of PI3K/Akt signaling affected autophagy modulation in dystrophin-deficient myoblasts. Cell Commun Signal 2021; 19:105. [PMID: 34706731 PMCID: PMC8554905 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-021-00785-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The absence of dystrophin has gave a massive impact on myotube development in Muscular Dystrophy pathogenesis. One of the conserved signaling pathways involved in skeletal muscle differentiation is the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway that plays a vital role in autophagy regulation. To further understand and establish targeted therapy in dystrophin-deficient myoblasts, protein expression profiling has been determined which provides information on perturbed autophagy modulation and activation. METHODS In this study, a dystrophin-deficient myoblast cell line established from the skeletal muscle of a dystrophic (mdx) mouse was used as a model. The dfd13 (dystrophin-deficient) and C2C12 (non-dystrophic) myoblasts were cultured in low mitogen conditions for 10 days to induce differentiation. The cells were subjected to total protein extraction prior to Western blotting assay technique. Protein sub-fractionation has been conducted to determine protein localization. The live-cell analysis of autophagy assay was done using a flow cytometer. RESULTS In our culture system, the dfd13 myoblasts did not achieve terminal differentiation. PTEN expression was profoundly increased in dfd13 myoblasts throughout the differentiation day subsequently indicates perturbation of PI3K/Akt/mTOR regulation. In addition, rictor-mTORC2 was also found inactivated in this event. This occurrence has caused FoxO3 misregulation leads to higher activation of autophagy-related genes in dfd13 myoblasts. Autophagosome formation was increased as LC3B-I/II showed accumulation upon differentiation. However, the ratio of LC3B lipidation and autophagic flux were shown decreased which exhibited dystrophic features. CONCLUSION Perturbation of the PTEN-PI3K/Akt pathway triggers excessive autophagosome formation and subsequently reduced autophagic flux within dystrophin-deficient myoblasts where these findings are of importance to understand Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) patients. We believe that some manipulation within its regulatory signaling reported in this study could help restore muscle homeostasis and attenuate disease progression. Video Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Dain Yazid
- Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, UKM Medical Centre, Jalan Yaacob Latiff, 56000 Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT UK
| | - Chen Hung-Chih
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT UK
- Academia Sinica, No. 28, Lane 70, Section 2, Yanjiuyuan Rd, Nangang District, Taipei City, 115 Taiwan
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Masuzawa R, Takahashi K, Takano K, Nishino I, Sakai T, Endo T. DA-Raf and the MEK inhibitor trametinib reverse skeletal myocyte differentiation inhibition or muscle atrophy caused by myostatin and GDF11 through the non-Smad Ras-ERK pathway. J Biochem 2021; 171:109-122. [PMID: 34676394 DOI: 10.1093/jb/mvab116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Myostatin (Mstn) and GDF11 are critical factors that are involved in muscle atrophy in the young and sarcopenia in the elderly, respectively. These TGF-β superfamily proteins activate not only Smad signaling but also non-Smad signaling including the Ras-mediated ERK pathway (Raf-MEK-ERK phosphorylation cascade). Although Mstn and GDF11 have been shown to induce muscle atrophy or sarcopenia by Smad2/3-mediated Akt inhibition, participation of the non-Smad Ras-ERK pathway in atrophy and sarcopenia has not been well determined. We show here that both Mstn and GDF11 prevented skeletal myocyte differentiation but that the MEK inhibitor U0126 or trametinib restored differentiation in Mstn- or GDF11-treated myocytes. These MEK inhibitors induced the expression of DA-Raf1 (DA-Raf), which is a dominant-negative antagonist of the Ras-ERK pathway. Exogenous expression of DA-Raf in Mstn- or GDF11-treated myocytes restored differentiation. Furthermore, administration of trametinib to aged mice resulted in an increase in myofiber size, or recovery from muscle atrophy. The trametinib administration downregulated ERK activity in these muscles. These results imply that the Mstn/GDF11-induced Ras-ERK pathway plays critical roles in the inhibition of myocyte differentiation and muscle regeneration, which leads to muscle atrophy. Trametinib and similar approved drugs might be applicable to the treatment of muscle atrophy in sarcopenia or cachexia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryuichi Masuzawa
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Chiba University, 1-33 Yayoicho, Inageku, Chiba, Chiba 263-8522, Japan
| | - Kazuya Takahashi
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Chiba University, 1-33 Yayoicho, Inageku, Chiba, Chiba 263-8522, Japan
| | - Kazunori Takano
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Chiba University, 1-33 Yayoicho, Inageku, Chiba, Chiba 263-8522, Japan
| | - Ichizo Nishino
- Department of Neuromuscular Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry (NCNP), Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8502, Japan
| | - Toshiyuki Sakai
- Drug Discovery Center and Department of Drug Discovery Medicine, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
| | - Takeshi Endo
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Chiba University, 1-33 Yayoicho, Inageku, Chiba, Chiba 263-8522, Japan
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109
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Ma J, Ye M, Li Y, Chai S, Huang H, Lian X, Huang H. Zhuanggu Zhitong Capsule alleviates osteosarcopenia in rats by up-regulating PI3K/Akt/Bcl2 signaling pathway. Biomed Pharmacother 2021; 142:111939. [PMID: 34311171 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2021.111939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 07/10/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Osteosarcopenia (OS), characterized by the coexistence of osteoporosis (OP) and sarcopenia (SP), is associated with high morbidity and mortality in the elderly. Nevertheless, its pathogenesis and treatment remain unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect and mechanism of Zhuanggu Zhitong Capsule (ZGZT) in OS rats. METHODS All the related targets of OS, corresponding targets for bioactive ingredients of ZGZT, intersection targets of ZGZT against OS, and signaling pathways were predicted and analyzed by network pharmacology. Next, a rat OS model was established by ovariectomy (OVX) and injection of dexamethasone (DXM). Rats were then randomly divided into a Control group, a Sham operation group, an OS model group, an OS+ZGZT group, and an OS+E2 group. The drug was given for 12 weeks. During treatment, body weight, forelimb grip and body composition were measured. In addition, bone mineral density (BMD) and micro CT were used to assess the left femur. After treatment, the left femur, left gastrocnemius, and left soleus, as well as uterus, liver, and kidney, were separated and analyzed using Histomorphology, Western blot, and quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). RESULTS ZGZT could effectively improve the phenotypes of OS by increasing forelimb grip strength, percentage lean mass of the whole body (SMI) or appendicular lean (RSMI), BMD, levels of bone formation markers, improving the microstructure of femur, and decreasing apoptotic rate in femur and gastrocnemius in OS rats by up-regulating PI3K/Akt/Bcl2 signal pathway. CONCLUSIONS ZGZT may be a new treatment option for the prevention and treatment of OS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiangtao Ma
- The Third Clinical Medical College of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510405, China; Luoyang Orthopedic-Traumatological Hospital of Henan Province (Henan provincial Orthopedic Hospital), Zhengzhou 450046, China; Laboratory of Orthopaedics and Traumatology of Chinese Medicine of Lingnan Medical Research Center of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510405, China
| | - Maolin Ye
- Luoyang Orthopedic-Traumatological Hospital of Henan Province (Henan provincial Orthopedic Hospital), Zhengzhou 450046, China
| | - Ying Li
- The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510375, China
| | - Shuang Chai
- Luoyang Orthopedic-Traumatological Hospital of Henan Province (Henan provincial Orthopedic Hospital), Zhengzhou 450046, China
| | - Hong Huang
- College of Nursing, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Xiaohang Lian
- The Third Clinical Medical College of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510405, China; Laboratory of Orthopaedics and Traumatology of Chinese Medicine of Lingnan Medical Research Center of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510405, China
| | - Hongxing Huang
- The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510375, China.
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Wang R, Bhat-Nakshatri P, Zhong X, Zimmers T, Nakshatri H. Hormonally Regulated Myogenic miR-486 Influences Sex-specific Differences in Cancer-induced Skeletal Muscle Defects. Endocrinology 2021; 162:6321973. [PMID: 34265069 PMCID: PMC8335968 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqab142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Cancer-induced skeletal muscle defects show sex-specific differences in severity with men performing poorly compared to women. Hormones and sex chromosomal differences are suggested to mediate these differences, but the functional skeletal muscle markers to document these differences are unknown. We show that the myogenic microRNA miR-486 is a marker of sex-specific differences in cancer-induced skeletal muscle defects. Cancer-induced loss of circulating miR-486 was more severe in men with bladder, lung, and pancreatic cancers compared to women with the same cancer types. In a syngeneic model of pancreatic cancer, circulating and skeletal muscle loss of miR-486 was more severe in male mice compared to female mice. Estradiol (E2) and the clinically used selective estrogen receptor modulator toremifene increased miR-486 in undifferentiated and differentiated myoblast cell line C2C12 and E2-inducible expression correlated with direct binding of estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) to the regulatory region of the miR-486 gene. E2 and toremifene reduced the actions of cytokines such as myostatin, transforming growth factor β, and tumor necrosis factor α, which mediate cancer-induced skeletal muscle wasting. E2- and toremifene-treated C2C12 myoblast/myotube cells contained elevated levels of active protein kinase B (AKT) with a corresponding decrease in the levels of its negative regulator PTEN, which is a target of miR-486. We propose an ERα:E2-miR-486-AKT signaling axis, which reduces the deleterious effects of cancer-induced cytokines/chemokines on skeletal muscle mass and/or function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruizhong Wang
- Department of Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | | | - Xiaoling Zhong
- Department of Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | - Teresa Zimmers
- Department of Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
- Richard L Roudebush VA Medical Center, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | - Harikrishna Nakshatri
- Department of Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
- Richard L Roudebush VA Medical Center, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
- Corresponding Author: Harikrishna Nakshatri, BVSc., PhD, C218C, 980 West Walnut St., Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA, 317 278 2238,
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Sanvee GM, Hitzfeld L, Bouitbir J, Krähenbühl S. mTORC2 is an important target for simvastatin-associated toxicity in C2C12 cells and mouse skeletal muscle - Roles of Rap1 geranylgeranylation and mitochondrial dysfunction. Biochem Pharmacol 2021; 192:114750. [PMID: 34461118 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2021.114750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Statins decrease the serum LDL-cholesterol concentration and reduce the risk for cardiovascular diseases but can cause myopathy, which may be related to mTORC inhibition. In the current study, we investigated which mTORC is inhibited by simvastatin and by which mechanisms. In C2C12 myoblasts and myotubes and mouse gastrocnemius, simvastatin was cytotoxic and inhibited S6rp and Akt Ser473 phosphorylation, indicating inhibition of mTORC1 and mTORC2, respectively. In contrast to simvastatin, the mTORC1 inhibitor rapamycin did not inhibit mTORC2 activity and was not cytotoxic. Like simvastatin, knock-down of Rictor, an essential component of mTORC2, impaired Akt Ser473 and S6rp phosphorylation and was cytotoxic for C2C12 myoblasts, suggesting that mTORC2 inhibition is an important myotoxic mechanism. The investigation of the mechanism of mTORC2 inhibition showed that simvastatin impaired Ras farnesylation, which was prevented by farnesol but without restoring mTORC2 activity. In comparison, Rap1 knock-down reduced mTORC2 activity and was cytotoxic for C2C12 myoblasts. Simvastatin impaired Rap1 geranylgeranylation and function, which was prevented by geranylgeraniol. In addition, simvastatin and the complex III inhibitor antimycin A caused mitochondrial superoxide accumulation and impaired the activity of mTORC2, which could partially be prevented by the antioxidant MitoTEMPO. In conclusion, mTORC2 inhibition is an important mechanism of simvastatin-induced myotoxicity. Simvastatin inhibits mTORC2 by impairing geranylgeranylation of Rap1 and by inducing mitochondrial dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerda M Sanvee
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital, Basel, Switzerland; Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Switzerland
| | - Leonie Hitzfeld
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jamal Bouitbir
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital, Basel, Switzerland; Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Switzerland; Division of Molecular and Systemic Toxicology, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, Switzerland; Swiss Centre for Applied Human Research (SCAHT), Switzerland
| | - Stephan Krähenbühl
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital, Basel, Switzerland; Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Switzerland; Swiss Centre for Applied Human Research (SCAHT), Switzerland.
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112
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Eftestøl E, Franchi MV, Kasper S, Flück M. JNK activation in TA and EDL muscle is load-dependent in rats receiving identical excitation patterns. Sci Rep 2021; 11:16405. [PMID: 34385505 PMCID: PMC8361015 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-94930-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
As the excitation-contraction coupling is inseparable during voluntary exercise, the relative contribution of the mechanical and neural input on hypertrophy-related molecular signalling is still poorly understood. Herein, we use a rat in-vivo strength exercise model with an electrically-induced standardized excitation pattern, previously shown to induce a load-dependent increase in myonuclear number and hypertrophy, to study acute effects of load on molecular signalling. We assessed protein abundance and specific phosphorylation of the four protein kinases FAK, mTOR, p70S6K and JNK after 2, 10 and 28 min of a low- or high-load contraction, in order to assess the effects of load, exercise duration and muscle-type on their response to exercise. Specific phosphorylation of mTOR, p70S6K and JNK was increased after 28 min of exercise under the low- and high-load protocol. Elevated phosphorylation of mTOR and JNK was detectable already after 2 and 10 min of exercise, respectively, but greatest after 28 min of exercise, and JNK phosphorylation was highly load-dependent. The abundance of all four kinases was higher in TA compared to EDL muscle, p70S6K abundance was increased after exercise in a load-independent manner, and FAK and JNK abundance was reduced after 28 min of exercise in both the exercised and control muscles. In conclusion, the current study shows that JNK activation after a single resistance exercise is load-specific, resembling the previously reported degree of myonuclear accrual and muscle hypertrophy with repetition of the exercise stimulus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Einar Eftestøl
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Kristine Bonnevies hus, Blindernveien 31, 0371, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Martino V Franchi
- Laboratory for Muscle Plasticity, Department of Orthopaedics, University of Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Stephanie Kasper
- Laboratory for Muscle Plasticity, Department of Orthopaedics, University of Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Martin Flück
- Laboratory for Muscle Plasticity, Department of Orthopaedics, University of Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Parveen A, Bohnert KR, Tomaz da Silva M, Wen Y, Bhat R, Roy A, Kumar A. MyD88-mediated signaling intercedes in neurogenic muscle atrophy through multiple mechanisms. FASEB J 2021; 35:e21821. [PMID: 34325487 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202100777rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Skeletal muscle atrophy is a debilitating complication of many chronic disease states and disuse conditions including denervation. However, molecular and signaling mechanisms of muscle wasting remain less understood. Here, we demonstrate that the levels of several toll-like receptors (TLRs) and their downstream signaling adaptor, myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88), are induced in skeletal muscle of mice in response to sciatic nerve denervation. Muscle-specific ablation of MyD88 mitigates denervation-induced skeletal muscle atrophy in mice. Targeted ablation of MyD88 suppresses the components of ubiquitin-proteasome system, autophagy, and FOXO transcription factors in skeletal muscle during denervation. We also found that specific inhibition of MyD88 reduces the activation of canonical nuclear factor-kappa (NF-κB) pathway and expression of receptors for inflammatory cytokines in denervated muscle. In contrast, inhibition of MyD88 stimulates the activation of non-canonical NF-κB signaling in denervated skeletal muscle. Ablation of MyD88 also inhibits the denervation-induced increase in phosphorylation of AMPK without having any effect on the phosphorylation of mTOR. Moreover, targeted ablation of MyD88 inhibits the activation of a few components of the unfolded protein response (UPR) pathways, especially X-box protein 1 (XBP1). Importantly, myofiber-specific ablation of XBP1 mitigates denervation-induced skeletal muscle atrophy in mice. Collectively, our experiments suggest that TLR-MyD88 signaling mediates skeletal muscle wasting during denervation potentially through the activation of canonical NF-κB signaling, AMPK and UPR pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arshiya Parveen
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Houston College of Pharmacy, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Kyle R Bohnert
- Kinesiology Department, St. Ambrose University, Davenport, IA, USA
| | - Meiricris Tomaz da Silva
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Houston College of Pharmacy, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Yefei Wen
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Houston College of Pharmacy, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Raksha Bhat
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Houston College of Pharmacy, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Anirban Roy
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Houston College of Pharmacy, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Ashok Kumar
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Houston College of Pharmacy, Houston, TX, USA
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Singh A, Yadav A, Phogat J, Dabur R. Dynamics of autophagy and ubiquitin proteasome system coordination and interplay in skeletal muscle atrophy. Curr Mol Pharmacol 2021; 15:475-486. [PMID: 34365963 DOI: 10.2174/1874467214666210806163851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Skeletal muscles are considered the largest reservoirs of the protein pool in the body and are critical for the maintenances of body homeostasis. Skeletal muscle atrophy is supported by various physiopathological conditions that lead to loss of muscle mass and contractile capacity of the skeletal muscle. Lysosomal mediated autophagy and ubiquitin-proteasomal system (UPS) concede the major intracellular systems of muscle protein degradation that result in the loss of mass and strength. Both systems recognize ubiquitination as a signal of degradation through different mechanisms, a sign of dynamic interplay between systems. Hence, growing shreds of evidence suggest the interdependency of autophagy and UPS in the progression of skeletal muscle atrophy under various pathological conditions. Therefore, understanding the molecular dynamics as well associated factors responsible for their interdependency is a necessity for the new therapeutic insights to counteract the muscle loss. Based on current literature, the present review summarizes the factors interplay in between the autophagy and UPS in favor of enhanced proteolysis of skeletal muscle and how they affect the anabolic signaling pathways under various conditions of skeletal muscle atrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ajay Singh
- Clinical Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak-124001, Haryana. India
| | - Aarti Yadav
- Clinical Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak-124001, Haryana. India
| | - Jatin Phogat
- Clinical Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak-124001, Haryana. India
| | - Rajesh Dabur
- Clinical Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak-124001, Haryana. India
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115
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Djeddi S, Reiss D, Menuet A, Freismuth S, de Carvalho Neves J, Djerroud S, Massana-Muñoz X, Sosson AS, Kretz C, Raffelsberger W, Keime C, Dorchies OM, Thompson J, Laporte J. Multi-omics comparisons of different forms of centronuclear myopathies and the effects of several therapeutic strategies. Mol Ther 2021; 29:2514-2534. [PMID: 33940157 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2021.04.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Omics analyses are powerful methods to obtain an integrated view of complex biological processes, disease progression, or therapy efficiency. However, few studies have compared different disease forms and different therapy strategies to define the common molecular signatures representing the most significant implicated pathways. In this study, we used RNA sequencing and mass spectrometry to profile the transcriptomes and proteomes of mouse models for three forms of centronuclear myopathies (CNMs), untreated or treated with either a drug (tamoxifen), antisense oligonucleotides reducing the level of dynamin 2 (DNM2), or following modulation of DNM2 or amphiphysin 2 (BIN1) through genetic crosses. Unsupervised analysis and differential gene and protein expression were performed to retrieve CNM molecular signatures. Longitudinal studies before, at, and after disease onset highlighted potential disease causes and consequences. Main pathways in the common CNM disease signature include muscle contraction, regeneration and inflammation. The common therapy signature revealed novel potential therapeutic targets, including the calcium regulator sarcolipin. We identified several novel biomarkers validated in muscle and/or plasma through RNA quantification, western blotting, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) assays, including ANXA2 and IGFBP2. This study validates the concept of using multi-omics approaches to identify molecular signatures common to different disease forms and therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Djeddi
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IGBMC), CNRS UMR7104, INSERM U1258, Université de Strasbourg, 67404 Illkirch, France
| | - David Reiss
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IGBMC), CNRS UMR7104, INSERM U1258, Université de Strasbourg, 67404 Illkirch, France
| | - Alexia Menuet
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IGBMC), CNRS UMR7104, INSERM U1258, Université de Strasbourg, 67404 Illkirch, France
| | - Sébastien Freismuth
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IGBMC), CNRS UMR7104, INSERM U1258, Université de Strasbourg, 67404 Illkirch, France
| | - Juliana de Carvalho Neves
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IGBMC), CNRS UMR7104, INSERM U1258, Université de Strasbourg, 67404 Illkirch, France
| | - Sarah Djerroud
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IGBMC), CNRS UMR7104, INSERM U1258, Université de Strasbourg, 67404 Illkirch, France
| | - Xènia Massana-Muñoz
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IGBMC), CNRS UMR7104, INSERM U1258, Université de Strasbourg, 67404 Illkirch, France
| | - Anne-Sophie Sosson
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IGBMC), CNRS UMR7104, INSERM U1258, Université de Strasbourg, 67404 Illkirch, France
| | - Christine Kretz
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IGBMC), CNRS UMR7104, INSERM U1258, Université de Strasbourg, 67404 Illkirch, France
| | - Wolfgang Raffelsberger
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IGBMC), CNRS UMR7104, INSERM U1258, Université de Strasbourg, 67404 Illkirch, France
| | - Céline Keime
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IGBMC), CNRS UMR7104, INSERM U1258, Université de Strasbourg, 67404 Illkirch, France
| | - Olivier M Dorchies
- Pharmaceutical Biochemistry, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland (ISPSO), University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Julie Thompson
- Complex Systems and Translational Bioinformatics (CSTB), ICube Laboratory-CNRS, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Jocelyn Laporte
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IGBMC), CNRS UMR7104, INSERM U1258, Université de Strasbourg, 67404 Illkirch, France.
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116
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Spradlin RA, Vassilakos G, Matheny MK, Jones NC, Goldman JL, Lei H, Barton ER. Deletion of muscle Igf1 exacerbates disuse atrophy weakness in mice. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2021; 131:881-894. [PMID: 34292789 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00090.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Muscle atrophy occurs as a result of prolonged periods of reduced mechanical stimulation associated with injury or disease. The growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor-1 (GH/IGF-1) axis and load sensing pathways can both aid in recovery from disuse through their shared downstream signaling, but their relative contributions to these processes are not fully understood. The goal of this study was to determine whether reduced muscle IGF-1 altered the response to disuse and reloading. Adult male mice with inducible muscle-specific IGF-1 deletion (MID) induced 1 wk before suspension and age-matched controls (CON) were subjected to hindlimb suspension and reloading. Analysis of muscle force, morphology, gene expression, signaling, and tissue weights was performed in nonsuspended (NS) mice, and those suspended for 7 days or reloaded following suspension for 3, 7, and 14 days. MID mice displayed diminished IGF-1 protein levels and muscle atrophy before suspension. Muscles from suspended CON mice displayed a similar extent of atrophy and depletion of IGF-1, yet combined loss of load and IGF-1 was not additive with respect to muscle mass. In contrast, soleus force generation capacity was diminished to the greatest extent when both suspension and IGF-1 deletion occurred. Recovery of mass, force, and gene expression patterns following suspension were similar in CON and MID mice, even though IGF-1 levels increased only in muscles from CON mice. Diminished strength in disuse atrophy is exacerbated with the loss of muscle IGF-1 production, whereas recovery of mass and strength upon reloading can occur even IGF-1 is low.NEW & NOTEWORTHY A mouse model with skeletal muscle-specific inducible deletion of Igf1 was used to address the importance of this growth factor for the consequences of disuse atrophy. Rapid and equivalent loss of IGF-I and mass occurred with deletion or disuse. Decrements in strength were most severe with combined loss of load and IGF-1. Return of mass and strength upon reloading was independent of IGF-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ray A Spradlin
- Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, College of Health and Human Performance, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Georgios Vassilakos
- Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, College of Health and Human Performance, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Michael K Matheny
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Nathan C Jones
- Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, College of Health and Human Performance, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Jessica L Goldman
- Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, College of Health and Human Performance, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Hanqin Lei
- Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, College of Health and Human Performance, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Elisabeth R Barton
- Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, College of Health and Human Performance, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
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117
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He S, Fu T, Yu Y, Liang Q, Li L, Liu J, Zhang X, Zhou Q, Guo Q, Xu D, Chen Y, Wang X, Chen Y, Liu J, Gan Z, Liu Y. IRE1α regulates skeletal muscle regeneration through Myostatin mRNA decay. J Clin Invest 2021; 131:143737. [PMID: 34283807 PMCID: PMC8409588 DOI: 10.1172/jci143737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle can undergo a regenerative process from injury or disease to preserve muscle mass and function, which is critically influenced by cellular stress responses. Inositol-requiring enzyme 1 (IRE1) is an ancient endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress sensor and mediates a key branch of the unfolded protein response (UPR). In mammals, IRE1α is implicated in the homeostatic control of stress responses during tissue injury and regeneration. Here, we show that IRE1α serves as a myogenic regulator in skeletal muscle regeneration in response to injury and muscular dystrophy. We found in mice that IRE1α was activated during injury-induced muscle regeneration, and muscle-specific IRE1α ablation resulted in impaired regeneration upon cardiotoxin-induced injury. Gain- and loss-of-function studies in myocytes demonstrated that IRE1αacts to sustain both differentiation in myoblasts and hypertrophy in myotubes through regulated IRE1-dependent decay (RIDD) of mRNA encoding Myostatin, a key negative regulator of muscle repair and growth. Furthermore, in the mouse model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), loss of muscle IRE1α resulted in augmented Myostatin signaling and exacerbated the dystrophic phenotypes. Thus, these results reveal a pivotal role for the RIDD output of IRE1α in muscle regeneration, offering new insight into potential therapeutic strategies for muscle loss diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengqi He
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Cell Homeostasis, College of Life Sciences, The Institute for Advanced Studies, Frontier Science Center for Immunology and Metabolism, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Tingting Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and MOE Key Laboratory of Model Animals for Disease Study, Department of Spine Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Chemistry and Biomedicine Innovation Center (ChemBIC), Model Animal Research Center, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yue Yu
- Division of Ophthalmology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Qinhao Liang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Cell Homeostasis, College of Life Sciences, The Institute for Advanced Studies, Frontier Science Center for Immunology and Metabolism, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Luyao Li
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Cell Homeostasis, College of Life Sciences, The Institute for Advanced Studies, Frontier Science Center for Immunology and Metabolism, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Jing Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and MOE Key Laboratory of Model Animals for Disease Study, Department of Spine Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Chemistry and Biomedicine Innovation Center (ChemBIC), Model Animal Research Center, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xuan Zhang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Cell Homeostasis, College of Life Sciences, The Institute for Advanced Studies, Frontier Science Center for Immunology and Metabolism, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Qian Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and MOE Key Laboratory of Model Animals for Disease Study, Department of Spine Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Chemistry and Biomedicine Innovation Center (ChemBIC), Model Animal Research Center, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Qiqi Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and MOE Key Laboratory of Model Animals for Disease Study, Department of Spine Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Chemistry and Biomedicine Innovation Center (ChemBIC), Model Animal Research Center, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Dengqiu Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and MOE Key Laboratory of Model Animals for Disease Study, Department of Spine Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Chemistry and Biomedicine Innovation Center (ChemBIC), Model Animal Research Center, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yong Chen
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Cell Homeostasis, College of Life Sciences, The Institute for Advanced Studies, Frontier Science Center for Immunology and Metabolism, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiaolong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Yulin Chen
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Jianmiao Liu
- Cellular Signaling Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics of Ministry of Education, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhenji Gan
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and MOE Key Laboratory of Model Animals for Disease Study, Department of Spine Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Chemistry and Biomedicine Innovation Center (ChemBIC), Model Animal Research Center, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yong Liu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Cell Homeostasis, College of Life Sciences, The Institute for Advanced Studies, Frontier Science Center for Immunology and Metabolism, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
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118
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Liu R, Li G, Ma H, Zhou X, Wang P, Zhao Y. Transcriptome profiling of the diaphragm in a controlled mechanical ventilation model reveals key genes involved in ventilator-induced diaphragmatic dysfunction. BMC Genomics 2021; 22:472. [PMID: 34172008 PMCID: PMC8227366 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-021-07741-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ventilator-induced diaphragmatic dysfunction (VIDD) is associated with weaning difficulties, intensive care unit hospitalization (ICU), infant mortality, and poor long-term clinical outcomes. The expression patterns of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) and mRNAs in the diaphragm in a rat controlled mechanical ventilation (CMV) model, however, remain to be investigated. RESULTS The diaphragms of five male Wistar rats in a CMV group and five control Wistar rats were used to explore lncRNA and mRNA expression profiles by RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq). Muscle force measurements and immunofluorescence (IF) staining were used to verify the successful establishment of the CMV model. A total of 906 differentially expressed (DE) lncRNAs and 2,139 DE mRNAs were found in the CMV group. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses were performed to determine the biological functions or pathways of these DE mRNAs. Our results revealed that these DE mRNAs were related mainly related to complement and coagulation cascades, the PPAR signaling pathway, cholesterol metabolism, cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, and the AMPK signaling pathway. Some DE lncRNAs and DE mRNAs determined by RNA-seq were validated by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), which exhibited trends similar to those observed by RNA-sEq. Co-expression network analysis indicated that three selected muscle atrophy-related mRNAs (Myog, Trim63, and Fbxo32) were coexpressed with relatively newly discovered DE lncRNAs. CONCLUSIONS This study provides a novel perspective on the molecular mechanism of DE lncRNAs and mRNAs in a CMV model, and indicates that the inflammatory signaling pathway and lipid metabolism may play important roles in the pathophysiological mechanism and progression of VIDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruining Liu
- Emergency Center, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, 430071, Wuhan, China.,Hubei Clinical Research Center for Emergency and Resuscitation, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, 430071, Wuhan, China
| | - Gang Li
- Department of Biological Repositories, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, 430071, Wuhan, China
| | - Haoli Ma
- Department of Biological Repositories, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, 430071, Wuhan, China
| | - Xianlong Zhou
- Emergency Center, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, 430071, Wuhan, China.,Hubei Clinical Research Center for Emergency and Resuscitation, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, 430071, Wuhan, China
| | - Pengcheng Wang
- Emergency Center, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, 430071, Wuhan, China.,Hubei Clinical Research Center for Emergency and Resuscitation, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, 430071, Wuhan, China
| | - Yan Zhao
- Emergency Center, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, 430071, Wuhan, China. .,Hubei Clinical Research Center for Emergency and Resuscitation, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, 430071, Wuhan, China.
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119
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Kim S, Kim K, Park J, Jun W. Curcuma longa L. Water Extract Improves Dexamethasone-Induced Sarcopenia by Modulating the Muscle-Related Gene and Oxidative Stress in Mice. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:1000. [PMID: 34201533 PMCID: PMC8300838 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10071000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Dexamethasone (DEX) promotes proteolysis, which causes muscle atrophy. Muscle atrophy is connected to sarcopenia. We evaluated the effect of Curcuma longa L. water extract (CLW) on DEX-induced muscle atrophy. ICR mice were divided into three groups (eight mice per group) to investigate the capability of CLW in inhibiting muscle atrophy. The control group (Ex-CON) was administered distilled water (DW) by gavage and subjected to exercise; the muscle atrophy group (Ex-DEX) was administered DW by gavage, an injection of DEX (1 mg/kg body weight/day) intraperitoneally (IP), and subjected to exercise; and the treatment group (Ex-CLW) was administered CLW (1 g/kg body weight/day) by gavage, DEX IP injection, and subjected to exercise. Following the injection of DEX, the expression levels of myostatin, MuRF-1, and Atrogin-1 were increased. However, these expression levels were decreased in the Ex-CLW group, thereby leading to the conclusion that CLW inhibits muscle atrophy. ROS (that was overproduced by DEX) decreased antioxidant enzyme activity and increased malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, which led to muscle atrophy. When CLW was ingested, the antioxidant enzyme activities increased while the MDA levels decreased. These findings suggest that CLW could serve as a natural product for the prevention of muscle atrophy by modulating muscle atrophy-related genes and increasing antioxidant potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shintae Kim
- Division of Food and Nutrition, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61187, Korea;
| | - Kyungmi Kim
- Department of Biofood Analysis, Korea Bio Polytechnic, Ganggyung 32946, Korea;
| | - Jeongjin Park
- Division of Food and Nutrition, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61187, Korea;
- Research Institute for Human Ecology, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61187, Korea
| | - Woojin Jun
- Division of Food and Nutrition, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61187, Korea;
- Research Institute for Human Ecology, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61187, Korea
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Abstract
Trauma, burn injury, sepsis, and ischemia lead to acute and chronic loss of skeletal muscle mass and function. Healthy muscle is essential for eating, posture, respiration, reproduction, and mobility, as well as for appropriate function of the senses including taste, vision, and hearing. Beyond providing support and contraction, skeletal muscle also exerts essential roles in temperature regulation, metabolism, and overall health. As the primary reservoir for amino acids, skeletal muscle regulates whole-body protein and glucose metabolism by providing substrate for protein synthesis and supporting hepatic gluconeogenesis during illness and starvation. Overall, greater muscle mass is linked to greater insulin sensitivity and glucose disposal, strength, power, and longevity. In contrast, low muscle mass correlates with dysmetabolism, dysmobility, and poor survival. Muscle mass is highly plastic, appropriate to its role as reservoir, and subject to striking genetic control. Defining mechanisms of muscle growth regulation holds significant promise to find interventions that promote health and diminish morbidity and mortality after trauma, sepsis, inflammation, and other systemic insults. In this invited review, we summarize techniques and methods to assess and manipulate muscle size and muscle mass in experimental systems, including cell culture and rodent models. These approaches have utility for studies of myopenia, sarcopenia, cachexia, and acute muscle growth or atrophy in the setting of health or injury.
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121
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Mannelli M, Gamberi T, Magherini F, Fiaschi T. A Metabolic Change towards Fermentation Drives Cancer Cachexia in Myotubes. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9060698. [PMID: 34203023 PMCID: PMC8234377 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9060698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cachexia is a disorder associated with several pathologies, including cancer. In this paper, we describe how cachexia is induced in myotubes by a metabolic shift towards fermentation, and the block of this metabolic modification prevents the onset of the cachectic phenotype. Cachectic myotubes, obtained by the treatment with conditioned medium from murine colon carcinoma cells CT26, show increased glucose uptake, decreased oxygen consumption, altered mitochondria, and increased lactate production. Interestingly, the block of glycolysis by 2-deoxy-glucose or lactate dehydrogenase inhibition by oxamate prevents the induction of cachexia, thus suggesting that this metabolic change is greatly involved in cachexia activation. The treatment with 2-deoxy-glucose or oxamate induces positive effects also in mitochondria, where mitochondrial membrane potential and pyruvate dehydrogenase activity became similar to control myotubes. Moreover, in myotubes treated with interleukin-6, cachectic phenotype is associated with a fermentative metabolism, and the inhibition of lactate dehydrogenase by oxamate prevents cachectic features. The same results have been achieved by treating myotubes with conditioned media from human colon HCT116 and human pancreatic MIAPaCa-2 cancer cell lines, thus showing that what has been observed with murine-conditioned media is a wide phenomenon. These findings demonstrate that cachexia induction in myotubes is linked with a metabolic shift towards fermentation, and inhibition of lactate formation impedes cachexia and highlights lactate dehydrogenase as a possible new tool for counteracting the onset of this pathology.
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Ghafouri-Fard S, Abak A, Khademi S, Shoorei H, Bahroudi Z, Taheri M, Akbari Dilmaghani N. Functional roles of non-coding RNAs in atrophy. Biomed Pharmacother 2021; 141:111820. [PMID: 34146849 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2021.111820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2021] [Revised: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Atrophy is defined as a reduction in cell, organ, or tissue size after reaching their normal mature sizes because of loss of organelles, cytoplasmic compartments, and proteins. This process is also involved in the pathogenesis of human disorders. Inadequate nourishment, poor circulation, inadequate hormonal support, defects in nerve supply of the tissue, disproportionate induction of apoptosis in the tissue, and absence of exercise are some underlying causes of atrophy. Recently, several non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) have been identified that regulate atrophy, thus participating in the pathobiology of related disorders such as neurodegenerative/ neuromuscular diseases, age-related muscle atrophy, and cardiac tissue atrophy. In the current review, we have focused on two classes of ncRNAs namely long ncRNAs (lncRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs) to unravel their participation in atrophy-associated disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soudeh Ghafouri-Fard
- Department of Medical Genetics, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Atefe Abak
- Men's Health and Reproductive Health Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shiva Khademi
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Hamed Shoorei
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Birjand, Iran
| | - Zahra Bahroudi
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Taheri
- Urology and Nephrology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Nader Akbari Dilmaghani
- Skull Base Research Center, Loghman Hakim Hospital, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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Carrasco-Ruiz Á, Sánchez-García O, Pacheco P, Martínez-Gómez M, Cuevas-Romero E, Castelán F. Differential estrogen-related responses in myofiber cross-sectional area of pelvic floor muscles in female rats. Gynecol Endocrinol 2021; 37:528-533. [PMID: 33501865 DOI: 10.1080/09513590.2021.1875427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the role of estrogens in myofiber cross-sectional area (CSA) of the pubococcyegeus (Pcm) and iliococcygeus muscles (Icm). METHODS In Experiment 1, we excised the Pcm and Icm during the metestrus and proestrus stages of the estrous cycle to measure the myofiber CSA. In Experiment 2, we allocated other rats into the following groups: sham (Sh), ovariectomized (OVX), OVX plus 1,4,6-androstatriene-3,17-dione (ATD; OVX + ATD), an aromatase inhibitor, and OVX plus estradiol benzoate (OVX + EB). We carried out appropriate statistical tests to determine significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) in variables measured for both Experiments. RESULTS The Pcm myofiber CSA at proestrus was higher than at metestrus, while the Icm myofiber CSA did not change. Ovariectomy increased the Pcm myofiber CSA, which was exacerbated with the ATD administration. The EB supplementation successfully reversed the ovariectomy-induced enlargement of the CSA. No significant changes were detected for the Icm myofiber CSA. CONCLUSIONS Fluctuating ovarian steroid levels at the estrus cycle significantly influence the CSA myofiber of the Pcm but not that of the Icm. Estrogen actions, having a gonadal or extragonadal origin, influence importantly the CSA of the Pcm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ángeles Carrasco-Ruiz
- Centro Tlaxcala de Biología de la Conducta, Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala, Tlaxcala, México
| | - Octavio Sánchez-García
- Programa Educativo de Química Clínica, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala, Tlaxcala, México
| | - Pablo Pacheco
- Instituto de Neuroetología, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Mexico
- Depto. de Biología Celular y Fisiología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Tlaxcala, México
| | - Margarita Martínez-Gómez
- Centro Tlaxcala de Biología de la Conducta, Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala, Tlaxcala, México
- Depto. de Biología Celular y Fisiología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Tlaxcala, México
| | - Estela Cuevas-Romero
- Centro Tlaxcala de Biología de la Conducta, Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala, Tlaxcala, México
| | - Francisco Castelán
- Centro Tlaxcala de Biología de la Conducta, Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala, Tlaxcala, México
- Depto. de Biología Celular y Fisiología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Tlaxcala, México
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124
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Siff T, Parajuli P, Razzaque MS, Atfi A. Cancer-Mediated Muscle Cachexia: Etiology and Clinical Management. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2021; 32:382-402. [PMID: 33888422 PMCID: PMC8102392 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2021.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Muscle cachexia has a major detrimental impact on cancer patients, being responsible for 30% of all cancer deaths. It is characterized by a debilitating loss in muscle mass and function, which ultimately deteriorates patients' quality of life and dampens therapeutic treatment efficacy. Muscle cachexia stems from widespread alterations in whole-body metabolism as well as immunity and neuroendocrine functions and these global defects often culminate in aberrant signaling within skeletal muscle, causing muscle protein breakdown and attendant muscle atrophy. This review summarizes recent landmark discoveries that significantly enhance our understanding of the molecular etiology of cancer-driven muscle cachexia and further discuss emerging therapeutic approaches seeking to simultaneously target those newly discovered mechanisms to efficiently curb this lethal syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Siff
- Cellular and Molecular Pathogenesis Division, Department of Pathology and Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
| | - Parash Parajuli
- Cellular and Molecular Pathogenesis Division, Department of Pathology and Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
| | - Mohammed S Razzaque
- Department of Pathology, Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine, Erie, PA 16509, USA
| | - Azeddine Atfi
- Cellular and Molecular Pathogenesis Division, Department of Pathology and Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA; Sorbonne Universités, Inserm, Centre de Recherche Saint-Antoine, CRSA, F-75012, Paris, France.
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125
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Qi R, Sun J, Qiu X, Zhang Y, Wang J, Wang Q, Huang J, Ge L, Liu Z. The intestinal microbiota contributes to the growth and physiological state of muscle tissue in piglets. Sci Rep 2021; 11:11237. [PMID: 34045661 PMCID: PMC8160342 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-90881-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2020] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Although the importance of the intestinal microbiota in host growth and health is well known, the relationship between microbiota colonization and muscle development is unclear. In this study, the direct causal effects of the colonization of gut microorganisms on the muscle tissue of piglets were investigated. The body weight and lean mass of germ-free (GF) piglets were approximately 40% lower than those of normal piglets. The deletion of the intestinal microbiota led to weakened muscle function and a reduction in myogenic regulatory proteins, such as MyoG and MyoD, in GF piglets. In addition, the blinded IGF1/AKT/mTOR pathway in GF piglets caused muscle atrophy and autophagy, which were characterized by the high expression of Murf-1 and KLF15. Gut microbiota introduced to GF piglets via fecal microbiota transplantation not only colonized the gut but also partially restored muscle growth and development. Furthermore, the proportion of slow-twitch muscle fibers was lower in the muscle of GF piglets, which was caused by the reduced short-chain fatty acid content in the circulation and impaired mitochondrial function in muscle. Collectively, these findings suggest that the growth, development and function of skeletal muscle in animals are mediated by the intestinal microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renli Qi
- Chongqing Academy of Animal Science, Rongchang, Chongqing, 402460, China. .,Key Laboratory of Pig Industry Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Areas, Rongchang, Chongqing, 402460, China. .,Chongqing Key Laboratory of Pig Industry Sciences, Rongchang, Chongqing, 402460, China.
| | - Jing Sun
- Chongqing Academy of Animal Science, Rongchang, Chongqing, 402460, China
| | - Xiaoyu Qiu
- Key Laboratory of Pig Industry Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Areas, Rongchang, Chongqing, 402460, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, 621010, Sichuan, China
| | - Jing Wang
- Chongqing Academy of Animal Science, Rongchang, Chongqing, 402460, China
| | - Qi Wang
- Chongqing Academy of Animal Science, Rongchang, Chongqing, 402460, China
| | - Jinxiu Huang
- Chongqing Academy of Animal Science, Rongchang, Chongqing, 402460, China.,Key Laboratory of Pig Industry Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Areas, Rongchang, Chongqing, 402460, China
| | - Liangpeng Ge
- Chongqing Academy of Animal Science, Rongchang, Chongqing, 402460, China. .,Key Laboratory of Pig Industry Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Areas, Rongchang, Chongqing, 402460, China. .,Chongqing Key Laboratory of Pig Industry Sciences, Rongchang, Chongqing, 402460, China.
| | - Zuohua Liu
- Chongqing Academy of Animal Science, Rongchang, Chongqing, 402460, China. .,Key Laboratory of Pig Industry Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Areas, Rongchang, Chongqing, 402460, China.
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Gouvêa AL, Gracindo Silva M, Cabral B, Martinez CG, Lauthartte LC, Rodrigues Bastos W, Kurtenbach E. Progressive resistance exercise prevents muscle strength loss due to muscle atrophy induced by methylmercury systemic intoxication. JCSM CLINICAL REPORTS 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/crt2.34] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- André Luiz Gouvêa
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro 21941‐902 Brazil
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro 21941‐902 Brazil
| | - Marcia Gracindo Silva
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro 21941‐902 Brazil
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro 21941‐902 Brazil
| | - Bruno Cabral
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro 21941‐902 Brazil
| | - Camila Guerra Martinez
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro 21941‐902 Brazil
| | | | - Waderley Rodrigues Bastos
- Laboratório de Biogeoquímica Ambiental Universidade Federal de Rondônia Porto Velho Rondônia 76801‐974 Brazil
| | - Eleonora Kurtenbach
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro 21941‐902 Brazil
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Memme JM, Slavin M, Moradi N, Hood DA. Mitochondrial Bioenergetics and Turnover during Chronic Muscle Disuse. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22105179. [PMID: 34068411 PMCID: PMC8153634 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22105179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Periods of muscle disuse promote marked mitochondrial alterations that contribute to the impaired metabolic health and degree of atrophy in the muscle. Thus, understanding the molecular underpinnings of muscle mitochondrial decline with prolonged inactivity is of considerable interest. There are translational applications to patients subjected to limb immobilization following injury, illness-induced bed rest, neuropathies, and even microgravity. Studies in these patients, as well as on various pre-clinical rodent models have elucidated the pathways involved in mitochondrial quality control, such as mitochondrial biogenesis, mitophagy, fission and fusion, and the corresponding mitochondrial derangements that underlie the muscle atrophy that ensues from inactivity. Defective organelles display altered respiratory function concurrent with increased accumulation of reactive oxygen species, which exacerbate myofiber atrophy via degradative pathways. The preservation of muscle quality and function is critical for maintaining mobility throughout the lifespan, and for the prevention of inactivity-related diseases. Exercise training is effective in preserving muscle mass by promoting favourable mitochondrial adaptations that offset the mitochondrial dysfunction, which contributes to the declines in muscle and whole-body metabolic health. This highlights the need for further investigation of the mechanisms in which mitochondria contribute to disuse-induced atrophy, as well as the specific molecular targets that can be exploited therapeutically.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - David A. Hood
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-(416)-736-2100 (ext. 66640)
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Ku SK, Lim JM, Cho HR, Bashir KMI, Kim YS, Choi JS. Tart Cherry (Fruit of Prunus cerasus) Concentrated Powder (TCcp) Ameliorates Glucocorticoid-Induced Muscular Atrophy in Mice. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 57:medicina57050485. [PMID: 34066110 PMCID: PMC8151970 DOI: 10.3390/medicina57050485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Revised: 05/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Background and Objectives: The present study investigated the beneficial effects of tart cherry (fruit of Prunus cerasus) concentrated powder (TCcp) on glucocorticoid (GLU)-induced catabolic muscular atrophy in the skeletal muscle of mice. Furthermore, its potential mechanism was also studied. Materials and Methods: Changes in calf thickness, calf muscle weight, calf muscle strength, body weight, gastrocnemius muscle histology, immunohistochemistry, serum creatinine, creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, and antioxidant defense systems were measured. Malondialdehyde, reactive oxygen species, glutathione content, catalase, and superoxide dismutase activities in the gastrocnemius muscle, and muscle-specific mRNA expressions were evaluated. Results: After 24 days, GLU control mice showed muscular atrophy at all criteria of indexes. The muscular atrophy symptoms were significantly inhibited by oral treatment with 250 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg of TCcp through antioxidative and anti-inflammatory modulated expression of genes involved in muscle protein degradation (myostatin, atrogin-1, SIRT1, and MuRF1) and synthesis (A1R, Akt1, TRPV4, and PI3K). Conclusions: This study shows that the TCcp (500 mg/kg and 250 mg/kg) could improve muscular atrophies caused by various etiologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sae-Kwang Ku
- Department of Anatomy and Histology, College of Korean Medicine, Daegu Haany University, 1, Hanuidae-ro, Gyeongsan-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do 38610, Korea;
| | - Jong-Min Lim
- Glucan Corporation, 25-15, Worasan-ro 950beon-gil, Munsan-eup, Jinju-si, Gyeongsangnam-do 52840, Korea; (J.-M.L.); (H.-R.C.)
| | - Hyung-Rae Cho
- Glucan Corporation, 25-15, Worasan-ro 950beon-gil, Munsan-eup, Jinju-si, Gyeongsangnam-do 52840, Korea; (J.-M.L.); (H.-R.C.)
| | - Khawaja Muhammad Imran Bashir
- German Engineering Research and Development Center for Life Science Technologies in Medicine and Environment, 31, Gwahaksandan 1-ro, 60 bean-gil, Gangseo-gu, Busan 46742, Korea;
| | - Young Suk Kim
- Glucan Corporation, 25-15, Worasan-ro 950beon-gil, Munsan-eup, Jinju-si, Gyeongsangnam-do 52840, Korea; (J.-M.L.); (H.-R.C.)
- Correspondence: (Y.S.K.); (J.-S.C.); Tel.: +82-55-762-0275 (Y.S.K.); +82-51-999-5647 (J.-S.C.)
| | - Jae-Suk Choi
- Department of Food Biotechnology, College of Medical and Life Sciences, Silla University, 140, Baegyang-daero 700beon-gil, Sasang-gu, Busan 46958, Korea
- Correspondence: (Y.S.K.); (J.-S.C.); Tel.: +82-55-762-0275 (Y.S.K.); +82-51-999-5647 (J.-S.C.)
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Heart failure (HF) is a structural or functional cardiac abnormality which leads to failure of the heart to deliver oxygen commensurately with the requirements of the tissues and it may progress to a generalized wasting of skeletal muscle, fat tissue, and bone tissue (cardiac cachexia). Clinically, dyspnea, fatigue, and exercise intolerance are some typical signs and symptoms that characterize HF patients. This review focused on the phenotypic characteristics of HF-induced skeletal myopathy as well as the mechanisms of muscle wasting due to HF and highlighted possible therapeutic strategies for skeletal muscle wasting in HF. RECENT FINDINGS The impaired exercise capacity of those patients is not attributed to the reduced blood flow in the exercising muscles, but rather to abnormal metabolic responses, myocyte apoptosis and atrophy of skeletal muscle. Specifically, the development of skeletal muscle wasting in chronic HF is characterized by structural, metabolic, and functional abnormalities in skeletal muscle and may be a result not only of reduced physical activity, but also of metabolic or hormonal derangements that favour catabolism over anabolism. In particular, abnormal energy metabolism, mitochondrial dysfunction, transition of myofibers from type I to type II, muscle atrophy, and reduction in muscular strength are included in skeletal muscle abnormalities which play a central role in the decreased exercise capacity of HF patients. Skeletal muscle alterations and exercise intolerance observed in HF are reversible by exercise training, since it is the only demonstrated intervention able to improve skeletal muscle metabolism, growth factor activity, and functional capacity and to reverse peripheral abnormalities.
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130
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Lee MK, Choi YH, Nam TJ. Pyropia yezoensis protein protects against TNF‑α‑induced myotube atrophy in C2C12 myotubes via the NF‑κB signaling pathway. Mol Med Rep 2021; 24:486. [PMID: 33955507 PMCID: PMC8127067 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2021.12125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The protein extracted from red algae Pyropia yezoensis has various biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidant, and antiobesity properties. However, the effects of P. yezoensis protein (PYCP) on tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)-induced muscle atrophy are unknown. Therefore, the present study investigated the protective effects and related mechanisms of PYCP against TNF-α-induced myotube atrophy in C2C12 myotubes. Treatment with TNF-α (20 ng/ml) for 48 h significantly reduced myotube viability and diameter and increased intracellular reactive oxygen species levels; these effects were significantly reversed in a dose-dependent manner following treatment with 25–100 µg/ml PYCP. PYCP inhibited the expression of TNF receptor-1 in TNF-α-induced myotubes. In addition, PYCP markedly downregulated the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) by inhibiting the phosphorylation of inhibitor of κB. Furthermore, PYCP treatment suppressed 20S proteasome activity, IL-6 production, and the expression of the E3 ubiquitin ligases, atrogin-1/muscle atrophy F-box and muscle RING-finger protein-1. Finally, PYCP treatment increased the protein expression levels of myoblast determination protein 1 and myogenin in TNF-α-induced myotubes. The present findings indicate that PYCP may protect against TNF-α-induced myotube atrophy by inhibiting the proinflammatory NF-κB pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min-Kyeong Lee
- Institute of Fisheries Sciences, Pukyong National University, Busan 46041, Republic of Korea
| | - Youn Hee Choi
- Institute of Fisheries Sciences, Pukyong National University, Busan 46041, Republic of Korea
| | - Taek-Jeong Nam
- Institute of Fisheries Sciences, Pukyong National University, Busan 46041, Republic of Korea
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131
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Liu Y, Wang Q, Zhang Z, Fu R, Zhou T, Long C, He T, Yang D, Li Z, Peng S. Magnesium supplementation enhances mTOR signalling to facilitate myogenic differentiation and improve aged muscle performance. Bone 2021; 146:115886. [PMID: 33592327 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2021.115886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Magnesium (Mg2+), as an essential mineral, supports and sustains the health and activity of the organs of the human body. Despite some clinical evidence on the association of Mg2+ deficiency with muscle regeneration dysfunction and sarcopenia in older-aged individuals, there is no consensus on the action mode and molecular mechanism by which Mg2+ influences aged muscle size and function. Here, we identified the appropriate Mg2+ environment that promotes the myogenic differentiation and myotube hypertrophy in both C2C12 myoblast and primary aged muscle stem cell (MuSC). Through animal experiments, we demonstrated that Mg2+ supplementation in aged mice significantly promotes muscle regeneration and conserves muscle mass and strength. Mechanistically, Mg2+ stimulation activated the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signalling, inducing the myogenic differentiation and protein synthesis, which consequently offers protections against the age-related decline in muscle regenerative potential and muscle mass. These findings collectively provide a promising therapeutic strategy for MuSC dysfunction and sarcopenia through Mg2+ supplementation in the elderly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuantong Liu
- Department of Spine Surgery, Shenzhen People's Hospital, The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University, Shenzhen 518020, China; The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510630, China
| | - Qinghe Wang
- Department of Spine Surgery, Shenzhen People's Hospital, The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University, Shenzhen 518020, China
| | - Zengfu Zhang
- School of Medicine, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China
| | - Runhan Fu
- School of Medicine, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China
| | - Tianjian Zhou
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Tissue and Functional Reconstruction of Sports System, The First Affiliated Hospital of Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518020, China
| | - Canling Long
- Department of Spine Surgery, Shenzhen People's Hospital, The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University, Shenzhen 518020, China
| | - Tongzhong He
- Department of Spine Surgery, Shenzhen People's Hospital, The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University, Shenzhen 518020, China
| | - Dazhi Yang
- Department of Spine Surgery, Shenzhen People's Hospital, The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University, Shenzhen 518020, China.
| | - Zhizhong Li
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510630, China.
| | - Songlin Peng
- Department of Spine Surgery, Shenzhen People's Hospital, The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University, Shenzhen 518020, China; Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Tissue and Functional Reconstruction of Sports System, The First Affiliated Hospital of Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518020, China.
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132
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Moon JY, Kim HS. α-Syntrophin alleviates ER stress to maintain protein homeostasis during myoblast differentiation. FEBS Lett 2021; 595:1656-1670. [PMID: 33834492 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Revised: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
We have previously shown evidence that α-syntrophin plays an important role in myoblast differentiation. In this study, we focused on abnormal myotube formation of the α-syntrophin knockdown C2 cell line (SNKD). The overall amount of intracellular protein and muscle-specific proteins in SNKD cells were significantly lower than those in the control. Akt-mTOR signaling, an important pathway for protein synthesis and muscle hypertrophy, was downregulated. In addition, the levels of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress markers increased in SNKD cells. The decrease in intracellular protein synthesis and reduction in the myotube diameter in SNKD cells were restored by 4-phenylbutyric acid, a chemical chaperone, or overexpression of α-syntrophin. These results suggest a novel role for α-syntrophin in protein homeostasis during myoblast differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae Yun Moon
- Department of Biological Science, Ajou University, Suwon, Korea
| | - Hye Sun Kim
- Department of Biological Science, Ajou University, Suwon, Korea
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133
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Kim Y. Emerging Treatment Options for Sarcopenia in Chronic Liver Disease. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11030250. [PMID: 33803020 PMCID: PMC8002763 DOI: 10.3390/life11030250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Revised: 03/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Sarcopenia is characterized by a skeletal muscle disorder with progressive and generalized loss of muscle mass and function, and it increases the risk of adverse outcomes with considerable prevalence in patients with chronic liver disease. Sarcopenia in chronic liver disease underlies complicated and multifactorial mechanisms for pathogenesis, including alterations in protein turnover, hyperammonemia, energy disposal, hormonal changes, and chronic inflammation. The key contribution to sarcopenia in patients with chronic liver diseases can be the hyperammonemia-induced upregulation of myostatin, which causes muscle atrophy via the expression of atrophy-related genes. Several clinical studies on emerging treatment options for sarcopenia have been reported, but only a few have focused on patients with chronic liver diseases, with mostly nutritional and behavioral interventions being carried out. The inhibition of the myostatin-activin receptor signaling pathway and hormonal therapy might be the most promising therapeutic options in combination with an ammonia-lowering approach in sarcopenic patients with chronic liver diseases. This review focuses on current and emerging treatment options for sarcopenia in chronic liver diseases with underlying mechanisms to counteract this condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Kim
- Hanyang Medicine-Engineering-Bio Collaborative & Comprehensive Center for Drug Development, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Korea
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Yan X, Niu Q, Gao X, Shen S, He N, Wang H, Fang R, Gao Y, Chang H. Differential Protein Metabolism and Regeneration in Gastrocnemius Muscles in High-fat Diet Fed Mice and Pre-hibernation Daurian Ground Squirrels: A Comparison between Pathological and Healthy Obesity. Zool Stud 2021; 60:e6. [PMID: 34386092 PMCID: PMC8315926 DOI: 10.6620/zs.2021.60-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
We focused on pathological obesity induced by excessive fat intake (nutritional obesity) in non-hibernator and healthy obesity due to pre-hibernation (PRE) fat storage in hibernator to study the effects of different types of obesity on skeletal muscle protein metabolism and cell regeneration. Kunming mice were fed with high-fat diet for 3 months to construct a pathological obesity model. Daurian ground squirrels fattened naturally before hibernation were used as a healthy obesity model. Body weight, adipose tissue wet weight, gastrocnemius muscle wet weight, muscle fiber cross-sectional area (CSA) and fiber type distribution were measured. The protein expression levels related to protein degradation (MuRF-1, atrogin-1, calpain1, calpain2, calpastatin, desmin, troponin T, Beclin-1, LC3-II), protein synthesis (P-Akt, P-mTORC1, P-S6K1, P-4E-BP1) and cell regeneration (MyoD, myogenin, myostatin) were detected by Western blot. As a result, the body weight and adipose tissue wet weight were both significantly increased in high fat obese (OB) mice and pre-hibernation fat (PRE) ground squirrels. The muscle wet weight, ratio of muscle wet weight to body weight, and muscle fiber CSA were significantly decreased, while the percentage of MHC I fiber isoform was significantly increased in gastrocnemius muscle of OB mice compared with the control (CON) group. The protein expression levels of P-Akt, P-mTORC1, P-4E-BP1 and myogenin were significantly decreased, while those of calpain1, calpain2, MuRF-1 and myostatin were significantly increased in the OB mice. In the ground squirrels, the muscle wet weight, muscle fiber CSA and percentage of MHC I fiber isoform all showed no change in the gastrocnemius muscle in the PRE group compared with the summer active (SA) group. The protein expression levels of P-Akt, P-mTORC1, P-S6K1 and MyoD were significantly increased, while those of Beclin-1 and LC3-II were significantly decreased in the PRE ground squirrels. This study demonstrated that the decrease in protein expression levels in the Akt/mTOR pathway (P-Akt, P-mTORC1 and P-4E-BP1) and cell regeneration (myogenin) and the increase in protein expression levels of the calpain pathway (calpain1 and calpain2) and ubiquitin-proteasome pathway (MuRF-1) were involved in the mechanism of muscle atrophy in gastrocnemius muscle of the pathologically obese Kunming mice induced by high-fat diet. In contrast, the increased protein expression levels of the Akt/mTOR pathway (P-Akt, P-mTORC1 and P-S6K1) and cell regeneration (MyoD), and the decreased protein expression levels of the autophagy lysosomal pathway (Beclin-1 and LC3-II) were involved in the mechanism of anti-atrophy in gastrocnemius muscle of the healthy obese ground squirrels fattened before hibernation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Yan
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Animal Conservation, Northwest University, Xi'an, 710069, P.R. China. E-mail: (Chang); (Y. Gao); (Yan); (X. Gao); (Wang)
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China (College of Life Sciences, Northwest University), Ministry of Education, Xi'an, 710069, P.R. China. E-mail: (Niu); (Shen); (Fang)
| | - Qiaohua Niu
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China (College of Life Sciences, Northwest University), Ministry of Education, Xi'an, 710069, P.R. China. E-mail: (Niu); (Shen); (Fang)
| | - Xuli Gao
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Animal Conservation, Northwest University, Xi'an, 710069, P.R. China. E-mail: (Chang); (Y. Gao); (Yan); (X. Gao); (Wang)
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China (College of Life Sciences, Northwest University), Ministry of Education, Xi'an, 710069, P.R. China. E-mail: (Niu); (Shen); (Fang)
| | - Shenyang Shen
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China (College of Life Sciences, Northwest University), Ministry of Education, Xi'an, 710069, P.R. China. E-mail: (Niu); (Shen); (Fang)
| | - Nan He
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China (College of Life Sciences, Northwest University), Ministry of Education, Xi'an, 710069, P.R. China. E-mail: (Niu); (Shen); (Fang)
| | - Huiping Wang
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Animal Conservation, Northwest University, Xi'an, 710069, P.R. China. E-mail: (Chang); (Y. Gao); (Yan); (X. Gao); (Wang)
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China (College of Life Sciences, Northwest University), Ministry of Education, Xi'an, 710069, P.R. China. E-mail: (Niu); (Shen); (Fang)
| | - Rongrong Fang
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China (College of Life Sciences, Northwest University), Ministry of Education, Xi'an, 710069, P.R. China. E-mail: (Niu); (Shen); (Fang)
| | - Yunfang Gao
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Animal Conservation, Northwest University, Xi'an, 710069, P.R. China. E-mail: (Chang); (Y. Gao); (Yan); (X. Gao); (Wang)
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China (College of Life Sciences, Northwest University), Ministry of Education, Xi'an, 710069, P.R. China. E-mail: (Niu); (Shen); (Fang)
| | - Hui Chang
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Animal Conservation, Northwest University, Xi'an, 710069, P.R. China. E-mail: (Chang); (Y. Gao); (Yan); (X. Gao); (Wang)
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China (College of Life Sciences, Northwest University), Ministry of Education, Xi'an, 710069, P.R. China. E-mail: (Niu); (Shen); (Fang)
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135
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Gallot YS, Bohnert KR. Confounding Roles of ER Stress and the Unfolded Protein Response in Skeletal Muscle Atrophy. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:2567. [PMID: 33806433 PMCID: PMC7961896 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22052567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle is an essential organ, responsible for many physiological functions such as breathing, locomotion, postural maintenance, thermoregulation, and metabolism. Interestingly, skeletal muscle is a highly plastic tissue, capable of adapting to anabolic and catabolic stimuli. Skeletal muscle contains a specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER), known as the sarcoplasmic reticulum, composed of an extensive network of tubules. In addition to the role of folding and trafficking proteins within the cell, this specialized organelle is responsible for the regulated release of calcium ions (Ca2+) into the cytoplasm to trigger a muscle contraction. Under various stimuli, such as exercise, hypoxia, imbalances in calcium levels, ER homeostasis is disturbed and the amount of misfolded and/or unfolded proteins accumulates in the ER. This accumulation of misfolded/unfolded protein causes ER stress and leads to the activation of the unfolded protein response (UPR). Interestingly, the role of the UPR in skeletal muscle has only just begun to be elucidated. Accumulating evidence suggests that ER stress and UPR markers are drastically induced in various catabolic stimuli including cachexia, denervation, nutrient deprivation, aging, and disease. Evidence indicates some of these molecules appear to be aiding the skeletal muscle in regaining homeostasis whereas others demonstrate the ability to drive the atrophy. Continued investigations into the individual molecules of this complex pathway are necessary to fully understand the mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yann S. Gallot
- LBEPS, Univ Evry, IRBA, Université Paris Saclay, 91025 Evry, France
| | - Kyle R. Bohnert
- Kinesiology Department, St. Ambrose University, Davenport, IA 52803, USA
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136
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Muscle Diversity, Heterogeneity, and Gradients: Learning from Sarcoglycanopathies. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22052502. [PMID: 33801487 PMCID: PMC7958856 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22052502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle, the most abundant tissue in the body, is heterogeneous. This heterogeneity forms the basis of muscle diversity, which is reflected in the specialized functions of muscles in different parts of the body. However, these different parts are not always clearly delimitated, and this often gives rise to gradients within the same muscle and even across the body. During the last decade, several studies on muscular disorders both in mice and in humans have observed particular distribution patterns of muscle weakness during disease, indicating that the same mutation can affect muscles differently. Moreover, these phenotypical differences reveal gradients of severity, existing alongside other architectural gradients. These two factors are especially prominent in sarcoglycanopathies. Nevertheless, very little is known about the mechanism(s) driving the phenotypic diversity of the muscles affected by these diseases. Here, we will review the available literature on sarcoglycanopathies, focusing on phenotypic differences among affected muscles and gradients, characterization techniques, molecular signatures, and cell population heterogeneity, highlighting the possibilities opened up by new technologies. This review aims to revive research interest in the diverse disease phenotype affecting different muscles, in order to pave the way for new therapeutic interventions.
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137
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Li C, Wu Q, Li Z, Wang Z, Tu Y, Chen C, Sun S, Sun S. Exosomal microRNAs in cancer-related sarcopenia: Tumor-derived exosomal microRNAs in muscle atrophy. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2021; 246:1156-1166. [PMID: 33554647 DOI: 10.1177/1535370221990322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer-associated sarcopenia is a complex metabolic syndrome marked by muscle mass wasting. Muscle wasting is a serious complication that is a primary contributor to cancer-related mortality. The underlying molecular mechanisms of cancer-associated sarcopenia have not been completely described to date. In general, evidence shows that the main pathophysiological alterations in sarcopenia are associated with the degradation of cellular components, an exceptional inflammatory secretome and mitochondrial dysfunction. Importantly, we highlight the prospect that several miRNAs carried by tumor-derived exosomes that have shown the ability to promote inflammatory secretion, activate catabolism, and even participate in the regulation of cellular degradation pathways can be delivered to and exert effects on muscle cells. In this review, we aim to describe the current knowledge about the functions of exosomal miRNAs in the induction of cancer-associated muscle wasting and propose potential treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenyuan Li
- Department of Breast and Thyroid Surgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, PR China
| | - Qi Wu
- Department of Breast and Thyroid Surgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, PR China
| | - Zhiyu Li
- Department of Breast and Thyroid Surgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, PR China
| | - Zhong Wang
- Department of Breast and Thyroid Surgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, PR China
| | - Yi Tu
- Department of Breast and Thyroid Surgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, PR China
| | - Chuang Chen
- Department of Breast and Thyroid Surgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, PR China
| | - Si Sun
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, PR China
| | - Shengrong Sun
- Department of Breast and Thyroid Surgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, PR China
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Kamimura H, Sato T, Natsui K, Kobayashi T, Yoshida T, Kamimura K, Tsuchiya A, Murayama T, Yokoyama J, Kawai H, Takamura M, Terai S. Molecular Mechanisms and Treatment of Sarcopenia in Liver Disease: A Review of Current Knowledge. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22031425. [PMID: 33572604 PMCID: PMC7867020 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22031425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Sarcopenia is characterized by progressive and generalized loss of skeletal muscle mass and strength that occurs with aging or in association with various diseases. The condition is prevalent worldwide and occurs more frequently in patients with chronic diseases owing to the intrinsic relationship of muscles with glucose, lipid, and protein metabolism. Liver cirrhosis is characterized by the progression of necro-inflammatory liver diseases, which leads to fibrosis, portal hypertension, and a catabolic state, which causes loss of muscle tissue. Sarcopenia is of significant concern in the state of liver cirrhosis because sarcopenia has been associated with higher mortality, increased hospital admissions, worse post-liver transplant outcomes, decreased quality of life, and increased risk for other complications associated with cirrhosis. Therefore, sarcopenia is also an important feature of liver cirrhosis, representing a negative prognostic factor and influencing mortality. An increased understanding of sarcopenia could lead to the development of novel therapeutic approaches that could help improve the cognitive impairment of cirrhotic patients; therefore, we present a review of the mechanisms and diagnosis of sarcopenia in liver disease and existing therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroteru Kamimura
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8510, Japan; (T.S.); (K.N.); (T.K.); (T.Y.); (K.K.); (A.T.); (J.Y.); (H.K.); (M.T.); (S.T.)
- Nutrition Support Team, Niigata University Medical and Dental Hospital, Niigata 951-8510, Japan;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-25-227-2207
| | - Takeki Sato
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8510, Japan; (T.S.); (K.N.); (T.K.); (T.Y.); (K.K.); (A.T.); (J.Y.); (H.K.); (M.T.); (S.T.)
| | - Kazuki Natsui
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8510, Japan; (T.S.); (K.N.); (T.K.); (T.Y.); (K.K.); (A.T.); (J.Y.); (H.K.); (M.T.); (S.T.)
| | - Takamasa Kobayashi
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8510, Japan; (T.S.); (K.N.); (T.K.); (T.Y.); (K.K.); (A.T.); (J.Y.); (H.K.); (M.T.); (S.T.)
| | - Tomoaki Yoshida
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8510, Japan; (T.S.); (K.N.); (T.K.); (T.Y.); (K.K.); (A.T.); (J.Y.); (H.K.); (M.T.); (S.T.)
| | - Kenya Kamimura
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8510, Japan; (T.S.); (K.N.); (T.K.); (T.Y.); (K.K.); (A.T.); (J.Y.); (H.K.); (M.T.); (S.T.)
| | - Atsunori Tsuchiya
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8510, Japan; (T.S.); (K.N.); (T.K.); (T.Y.); (K.K.); (A.T.); (J.Y.); (H.K.); (M.T.); (S.T.)
| | - Toshiko Murayama
- Nutrition Support Team, Niigata University Medical and Dental Hospital, Niigata 951-8510, Japan;
| | - Junji Yokoyama
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8510, Japan; (T.S.); (K.N.); (T.K.); (T.Y.); (K.K.); (A.T.); (J.Y.); (H.K.); (M.T.); (S.T.)
- Nutrition Support Team, Niigata University Medical and Dental Hospital, Niigata 951-8510, Japan;
| | - Hirokazu Kawai
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8510, Japan; (T.S.); (K.N.); (T.K.); (T.Y.); (K.K.); (A.T.); (J.Y.); (H.K.); (M.T.); (S.T.)
| | - Masaaki Takamura
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8510, Japan; (T.S.); (K.N.); (T.K.); (T.Y.); (K.K.); (A.T.); (J.Y.); (H.K.); (M.T.); (S.T.)
| | - Shuji Terai
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8510, Japan; (T.S.); (K.N.); (T.K.); (T.Y.); (K.K.); (A.T.); (J.Y.); (H.K.); (M.T.); (S.T.)
- Nutrition Support Team, Niigata University Medical and Dental Hospital, Niigata 951-8510, Japan;
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139
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Franekova V, Storjord HI, Leivseth G, Nilssen Ø. Protein homeostasis in LGMDR9 (LGMD2I) - The role of ubiquitin-proteasome and autophagy-lysosomal system. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2021; 47:519-531. [PMID: 33338270 DOI: 10.1111/nan.12684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Revised: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Limb-girdle muscular dystrophy R9 (LGMDR9) is an autosomal recessive disorder caused by mutations in the fukutin-related protein gene (FKRP), encoding a glycosyltransferase involved in α-dystroglycan modification. Muscle atrophy, a significant feature of LGMDR9, occurs by a change in the normal balance between protein synthesis and protein degradation. The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) and autophagy-lysosomal system play a key role in protein degradation in skeletal muscle cells, but their involvement in the pathology of LGMDR9 is still largely unknown. We have aimed at clarifying whether proteolysis through the UPS and the autophagy-lysosomal pathway is dysregulated in LGMDR9 patients. METHODS Vastus lateralis biopsies from 8 normal controls and 12 LGMDR9 patients harbouring the c.826C>A/c.826C>A FKRP genotype were assessed for protein markers related to UPS, the autophagy-lysosomal system and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress/unfolded protein response (UPR), followed by ultrastructural analysis by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). RESULTS Protein levels of E3 ubiquitin ligases Atrogin-1 and MuRF1 showed a pattern similar to normal controls. Elevation of the autophagy markers Atg7, LC3B-II, decreased level of p62 as well as downregulation of the negative autophagy regulator mTORC1, indicated an activation of autophagy in LGMDR9. Mitophagy markers Bnip3 and Parkin were decreased. TEM analysis demonstrated accumulation of autophagosome-like structures in LGMDR9 muscle. There was also an increase in the expression of ER stress/UPR markers PDI, peIF2α and CHOP and a decrease in IRE1α. However, GRP94, Bip and Calnexin remained unchanged. CONCLUSION Our findings indicate that autophagy and ER stress are induced in LGMDR9 muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Franekova
- Department of Clinical Medicine, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Hilde I Storjord
- Department of Pathology, University Hospital of North-Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Gunnar Leivseth
- Department of Clinical Medicine, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Øivind Nilssen
- Department of Clinical Medicine, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway.,Department of Medical Genetics, Division of Child and Adolescent Health, University Hospital of North-Norway, Tromsø, Norway
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140
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Kim MJ, O'Connor MB. Drosophila Activin signaling promotes muscle growth through InR/TORC1-dependent and -independent processes. Development 2021; 148:dev190868. [PMID: 33234715 PMCID: PMC7823159 DOI: 10.1242/dev.190868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The Myostatin/Activin branch of the TGF-β superfamily acts as a negative regulator of vertebrate skeletal muscle size, in part, through downregulation of insulin/insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) signaling. Surprisingly, recent studies in Drosophila indicate that motoneuron-derived Activin signaling acts as a positive regulator of muscle size. Here we demonstrate that Drosophila Activin signaling promotes the growth of muscle cells along all three axes: width, thickness and length. Activin signaling positively regulates the insulin receptor (InR)/TORC1 pathway and the level of Myosin heavy chain (Mhc), an essential sarcomeric protein, via increased Pdk1 and Akt1 expression. Enhancing InR/TORC1 signaling in the muscle of Activin pathway mutants restores Mhc levels close to those of the wild type, but only increases muscle width. In contrast, hyperactivation of the Activin pathway in muscles increases overall larval body and muscle fiber length, even when Mhc levels are lowered by suppression of TORC1. Together, these results indicate that the Drosophila Activin pathway regulates larval muscle geometry and body size via promoting InR/TORC1-dependent Mhc production and the differential assembly of sarcomeric components into either pre-existing or new sarcomeric units depending on the balance of InR/TORC1 and Activin signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myung-Jun Kim
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Michael B O'Connor
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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141
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Skoglund E, Grönholdt-Klein M, Rullman E, Thornell LE, Strömberg A, Hedman A, Cederholm T, Ulfhake B, Gustafsson T. Longitudinal Muscle and Myocellular Changes in Community-Dwelling Men Over Two Decades of Successful Aging-The ULSAM Cohort Revisited. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2021; 75:654-663. [PMID: 31002330 DOI: 10.1093/gerona/glz068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Participants of the population-based Uppsala longitudinal study of adult men (ULSAM) cohort reaching more than 88 years of age (survivors, S) were investigated at age 70, 82, and 88-90 and compared at 70 years with non-survivors (NS) not reaching 82 years. Body composition, muscle mass and muscle histology were remarkably stable over 18 years of advanced aging in S. Analysis of genes involved in muscle remodeling showed that S had higher mRNA levels of myogenic differentiation factors (Myogenin, MyoD), embryonic myosin (eMyHC), enzymes involved in regulated breakdown of myofibrillar proteins (Smad2, Trim32, MuRF1,) and NCAM compared with healthy adult men (n = 8). S also had higher mRNA levels of eMyHC, Smad 2, MuRF1 compared with NS. At 88 years, S expressed decreased levels of Myogenin, MyoD, eMyHC, NCAM and Smad2 towards those seen in NS at 70 years. The gene expression pattern of S at 70 years was likely beneficial since they maintained muscle fiber histology and appendicular lean body mass until advanced age. The expression pattern at 88 years may indicate a diminished muscle remodeling coherent with a decline of reinnervation capacity and/or plasticity at advanced age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Skoglund
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Physiology, Karolinska Institutet, and Unit of Clinical Physiology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Public Health and Caring Sciences, Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism, Uppsala University, Sweden.,Department of Integrative Medical Biology, Umeå University, Sweden
| | | | - Eric Rullman
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Physiology, Karolinska Institutet, and Unit of Clinical Physiology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Anna Strömberg
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Physiology, Karolinska Institutet, and Unit of Clinical Physiology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anu Hedman
- Heart Centre East-Tallinn Central Hospital, Estonia
| | - Tommy Cederholm
- Department of Public Health and Caring Sciences, Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | - Brun Ulfhake
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Thomas Gustafsson
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Physiology, Karolinska Institutet, and Unit of Clinical Physiology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
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142
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Liver fibrosis-induced muscle atrophy is mediated by elevated levels of circulating TNFα. Cell Death Dis 2021; 12:11. [PMID: 33414474 PMCID: PMC7791043 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-020-03353-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Liver cirrhosis is a critical health problem associated with several complications, including skeletal muscle atrophy, which adversely affects the clinical outcome of patients independent of their liver functions. However, the precise mechanism underlying liver cirrhosis-induced muscle atrophy has not been elucidated. Here we show that serum factor induced by liver fibrosis leads to skeletal muscle atrophy. Using bile duct ligation (BDL) model of liver injury, we induced liver fibrosis in mice and observed subsequent muscle atrophy and weakness. We developed culture system of human primary myotubes that enables an evaluation of the effects of soluble factors on muscle atrophy and found that serum from BDL mice contains atrophy-inducing factors. This atrophy-inducing effect of BDL mouse serum was mitigated upon inhibition of TNFα signalling but not inhibition of myostatin/activin signalling. The BDL mice exhibited significantly up-regulated serum levels of TNFα when compared with the control mice. Furthermore, the mRNA expression levels of Tnf were markedly up-regulated in the fibrotic liver but not in the skeletal muscles of BDL mice. The gene expression analysis of isolated nuclei revealed that Tnf is exclusively expressed in the non-fibrogenic diploid cell population of the fibrotic liver. These findings reveal the mechanism through which circulating TNFα produced in the damaged liver mediates skeletal muscle atrophy. Additionally, this study demonstrated the importance of inter-organ communication that underlies the pathogenesis of liver cirrhosis.
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143
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Parveen A, Wen Y, Roy A, Kumar A. Therapeutic Targeting of PTEN in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. Mol Ther 2021; 29:8-9. [PMID: 33338398 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2020.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Arshiya Parveen
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - Yefei Wen
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - Anirban Roy
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - Ashok Kumar
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA.
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Hord JM, Garcia MM, Farris KR, Guzzoni V, Lee Y, Lawler MS, Lawler JM. Nox2 signaling and muscle fiber remodeling are attenuated by losartan administration during skeletal muscle unloading. Physiol Rep 2021; 9:e14606. [PMID: 33400850 PMCID: PMC7785102 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.14606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Reduced mechanical loading results in atrophy of skeletal muscle fibers. Increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) are causal in sarcolemmal dislocation of nNOS and FoxO3a activation. The Nox2 isoform of NADPH oxidase and mitochondria release ROS during disuse in skeletal muscle. Activation of the angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1R) can elicit Nox2 complex formation. The AT1R blocker losartan was used to test the hypothesis that AT1R activation drives Nox2 assembly, nNOS dislocation, FoxO3a activation, and thus alterations in morphology in the unloaded rat soleus. Male Fischer 344 rats were divided into four groups: ambulatory control (CON), ambulatory + losartan (40 mg kg-1 day-1 ) (CONL), 7 days of tail-traction hindlimb unloading (HU), and HU + losartan (HUL). Losartan attenuated unloading-induced loss of muscle fiber cross-sectional area (CSA) and fiber-type shift. Losartan mitigated unloading-induced elevation of ROS levels and upregulation of Nox2. Furthermore, AT1R blockade abrogated nNOS dislocation away from the sarcolemma and elevation of nuclear FoxO3a. We conclude that AT1R blockade attenuates disuse remodeling by inhibiting Nox2, thereby lessening nNOS dislocation and activation of FoxO3a.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey M Hord
- Redox Biology & Cell Signaling Laboratory, Department of Health and Kinesiology, Graduate Faculty of Nutrition, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Marcela M Garcia
- Redox Biology & Cell Signaling Laboratory, Department of Health and Kinesiology, Graduate Faculty of Nutrition, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Katherine R Farris
- Redox Biology & Cell Signaling Laboratory, Department of Health and Kinesiology, Graduate Faculty of Nutrition, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Vinicius Guzzoni
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Paraíba, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Yang Lee
- Department of Systems Biology and Translational Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, College Station/Temple, TX, USA
| | - Matthew S Lawler
- Redox Biology & Cell Signaling Laboratory, Department of Health and Kinesiology, Graduate Faculty of Nutrition, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA.,Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - John M Lawler
- Redox Biology & Cell Signaling Laboratory, Department of Health and Kinesiology, Graduate Faculty of Nutrition, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
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145
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Lee J, Kim C, Lee, H, Hwang JK. Inhibitory Effects of Standardized Leonurus japonicus Extract and Its Bioactive Leonurine on TNF-α-Induced Muscle Atrophy in L6 Myotubes. J Microbiol Biotechnol 2020; 30:1896-1904. [PMID: 32627754 PMCID: PMC9728349 DOI: 10.4014/jmb.2005.05023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Revised: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Muscle atrophy, characterized by a reduced number and size of myofibers, occurs due to immobilization, aging, and several chronic diseases. Leonurus japonicus, belonging to the Labiatae family, is widely used as a traditional medicine in Korea, China, and Japan. Previous studies have reported that L. japonicus has various physiological activities, such as anti-bacteria, anti-cancer, and liver protection. Leonurine, which is a major bioactive in L. japonicas, is known to possess biological effects including anti-inflammation, anti-fibrosis, anti-angiogenesis, and anti-diabetes. However, the preventive effects of L. japonicas and leonurine on muscle have not been reported. The current study aimed to determine the inhibitory effects of standardized L. japonicus extract (LJE) and leonurine on muscle atrophy by clarifying their underlying molecular mechanisms in tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)-stimulated L6 myotubes. LJE and leonurine stimulated the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt pathway that was reduced by TNF-α treatment. LJE and leonurine not only increased the mammalian target of rapamycin pathway for protein anabolism but also decreased the mRNA expression of E3 ubiquitin ligases by blocking the translocation of Forkhead box O, which is closely linked with proteolysis. Additionally, LJE and leonurine alleviated inflammatory responses by downregulating TNF-α and interleukin-6 mRNA expression and reducing the protein expression of nuclear factor-kappa B, a major transcriptional factor of proinflammatory cytokines. Collectively, LJE and leonurine have potential as therapeutic candidates for inhibiting the development of skeletal muscle atrophy by activating the PI3K/Akt pathway and reducing inflammatory responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiyeon Lee
- Department of Biomaterials Science and Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea,R&D Center, FND Net, Seoul 05706, Republic of Korea
| | - Changhee Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul 0722, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyerin Lee,
- Graduate Program in Bioindustrial Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Kwan Hwang
- Department of Biomaterials Science and Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea,Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul 0722, Republic of Korea,Graduate Program in Bioindustrial Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea,Corresponding authors Phone: +82-2-362-7265 Fax: +82-2-2123-5881 E-mail:
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146
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Bekfani T, Bekhite Elsaied M, Derlien S, Nisser J, Westermann M, Nietzsche S, Hamadanchi A, Fröb E, Westphal J, Haase D, Kretzschmar T, Schlattmann P, Smolenski UC, Lichtenauer M, Wernly B, Jirak P, Lehmann G, Möbius-Winkler S, Schulze PC. Skeletal Muscle Function, Structure, and Metabolism in Patients With Heart Failure With Reduced Ejection Fraction and Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction. Circ Heart Fail 2020; 13:e007198. [PMID: 33302709 DOI: 10.1161/circheartfailure.120.007198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Reduced exercise capacity in patients with heart failure (HF) could be partially explained by skeletal muscle dysfunction. We compared skeletal muscle function, structure, and metabolism among clinically stable outpatients with HF with preserved ejection fraction, HF with reduced ejection fraction, and healthy controls (HC). Furthermore, the molecular, metabolic, and clinical profile of patients with reduced muscle endurance was described. METHODS Fifty-five participants were recruited prospectively at the University Hospital Jena (17 HF with preserved ejection fraction, 18 HF with reduced ejection fraction, and 20 HC). All participants underwent echocardiography, cardiopulmonary exercise testing, 6-minute walking test, isokinetic muscle function, and skeletal muscle biopsies. Expression levels of fatty acid oxidation, glucose metabolism, atrophy genes, and proteins as well as inflammatory biomarkers were assessed. Mitochondria were evaluated using electron microscopy. RESULTS Patients with HF with preserved ejection fraction showed compared with HF with reduced ejection fraction and HC reduced muscle strength (eccentric extension: 13.3±5.0 versus 18.0±5.9 versus 17.9±5.1 Nm/kg, P=0.04), elevated levels of MSTN-2 (myostatin-2), FBXO-32 (F-box only protein 32 [Atrogin1]) gene and protein, and smaller mitochondrial size (P<0.05). Mitochondrial function and fatty acid and glucose metabolism were impaired in HF-patients compared with HC (P<0.05). In a multiple regression analysis, GDF-15 (growth and differentiation factor 15), CPT1B (carnitine palmitoyltransferase IB)-protein and oral anticoagulation were independent factors for predicting reduced muscle endurance after adjusting for age (log10 GDF-15 [pg/mL] [B, -54.3 (95% CI, -106 to -2.00), P=0.043], log10 CPT1B per fold increase [B, 49.3 (95% CI, 1.90-96.77), P=0.042]; oral anticoagulation present [B, 44.8 (95% CI, 27.90-61.78), P<0.001]). CONCLUSIONS Patients with HF with preserved ejection fraction have worse muscle function and predominant muscle atrophy compared with those with HF with reduced ejection fraction and HC. Inflammatory biomarkers, fatty acid oxidation, and oral anticoagulation were independent factors for predicting reduced muscle endurance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarek Bekfani
- Division of Cardiology, Angiology, Pneumology, and Intensive Medical Care, Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital Magdeburg, Otto-von Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany (T.B.)
| | - Mohamed Bekhite Elsaied
- Division of Cardiology, Pneumology, and Intensive Medical Care, Department of Internal Medicine I (M.B.E., A.H., E.F., J.W., D.H., T.K., S.M.-W., P.C.S.), Friedrich-Schiller-University, Germany
| | - Steffen Derlien
- University Hospital Jena, Institute of Physiotherapy (S.D., J.N., U.C.S.), Friedrich-Schiller-University, Germany
| | - Jenny Nisser
- University Hospital Jena, Institute of Physiotherapy (S.D., J.N., U.C.S.), Friedrich-Schiller-University, Germany
| | - Martin Westermann
- Center of Electron Microscopy (M.W., S.N.), Friedrich-Schiller-University, Germany
| | - Sandor Nietzsche
- Center of Electron Microscopy (M.W., S.N.), Friedrich-Schiller-University, Germany
| | - Ali Hamadanchi
- Division of Cardiology, Pneumology, and Intensive Medical Care, Department of Internal Medicine I (M.B.E., A.H., E.F., J.W., D.H., T.K., S.M.-W., P.C.S.), Friedrich-Schiller-University, Germany
| | - Elisabeth Fröb
- Division of Cardiology, Pneumology, and Intensive Medical Care, Department of Internal Medicine I (M.B.E., A.H., E.F., J.W., D.H., T.K., S.M.-W., P.C.S.), Friedrich-Schiller-University, Germany
| | - Julian Westphal
- Division of Cardiology, Pneumology, and Intensive Medical Care, Department of Internal Medicine I (M.B.E., A.H., E.F., J.W., D.H., T.K., S.M.-W., P.C.S.), Friedrich-Schiller-University, Germany
| | - Daniela Haase
- Division of Cardiology, Pneumology, and Intensive Medical Care, Department of Internal Medicine I (M.B.E., A.H., E.F., J.W., D.H., T.K., S.M.-W., P.C.S.), Friedrich-Schiller-University, Germany
| | - Tom Kretzschmar
- Division of Cardiology, Pneumology, and Intensive Medical Care, Department of Internal Medicine I (M.B.E., A.H., E.F., J.W., D.H., T.K., S.M.-W., P.C.S.), Friedrich-Schiller-University, Germany
| | - Peter Schlattmann
- Institute for Medical Statistics, Computer Science and Data Science (IMSID), Jena University Hospital, Germany (P.S., G.L.)
| | - Ulrich C Smolenski
- University Hospital Jena, Institute of Physiotherapy (S.D., J.N., U.C.S.), Friedrich-Schiller-University, Germany
| | - Michael Lichtenauer
- Clinic of Internal Medicine II, Department of Cardiology, Paracelsus Medical University of Salzburg, Austria (M.L., P.W., P.J.)
| | - Bernhard Wernly
- Clinic of Internal Medicine II, Department of Cardiology, Paracelsus Medical University of Salzburg, Austria (M.L., P.W., P.J.)
| | - Peter Jirak
- Clinic of Internal Medicine II, Department of Cardiology, Paracelsus Medical University of Salzburg, Austria (M.L., P.W., P.J.)
| | - Gabriele Lehmann
- Division of Endocrinology, Nephrology and Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine III (G.L.), Friedrich-Schiller-University, Germany.,Institute for Medical Statistics, Computer Science and Data Science (IMSID), Jena University Hospital, Germany (P.S., G.L.)
| | - Sven Möbius-Winkler
- Division of Cardiology, Pneumology, and Intensive Medical Care, Department of Internal Medicine I (M.B.E., A.H., E.F., J.W., D.H., T.K., S.M.-W., P.C.S.), Friedrich-Schiller-University, Germany
| | - P Christian Schulze
- Division of Cardiology, Pneumology, and Intensive Medical Care, Department of Internal Medicine I (M.B.E., A.H., E.F., J.W., D.H., T.K., S.M.-W., P.C.S.), Friedrich-Schiller-University, Germany
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147
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Yoshioka K, Sasai N, Kurogi Y, Hayakawa K, Itoh Y, Agata N, Murakami T, Inoue-Miyazu M, Sokabe M, Kawakami K. Cessation of electrically-induced muscle contraction activates autophagy in cultured myotubes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2020; 533:410-416. [PMID: 32972749 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2020.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Exercise is known to improve skeletal muscle function. The mechanism involves muscle contraction-induced activation of the mTOR pathway, which plays a central role in protein synthesis. However, mTOR activation blocks autophagy, a recycling mechanism with a critical role in cellular maintenance/homeostasis. These two responses to muscle contraction look contradictory to the functional improvement of exercise. Herein, we investigate these paradoxical muscle responses in a series of active-inactive phases in a cultured myotube model receiving electrical stimulation to induce intermittent muscle contraction. Our model shows that (1) contractile activity induces mTOR activation and muscle hypertrophy but blocks autophagy, resulting in the accumulation of damaged proteins, while (2) cessation of muscle contraction rapidly activates autophagy, removing damaged protein, yet a prolonged inactive state results in muscle atrophy. Our findings provide new insights into muscle biology and suggest that not only muscle contraction, but also the subsequent cessation of contraction plays a substantial role for the improvement of skeletal muscle function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiyoshi Yoshioka
- Department of Physical Therapy, Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan; Institute for Research on Productive Aging, Kobe, Japan
| | - Nobuaki Sasai
- Department of Physical Therapy, Graduate School of Medical Science & Faculty of Health Science, Suzuka University of Medical Science, Suzuka, Japan
| | | | - Kimihide Hayakawa
- Mechanobiology Laboratory, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan; Genble.Inc, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Yuta Itoh
- Faculty of Rehabilitation Science, Nagoya Gakuin University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Nobuhide Agata
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Tokoha University, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Taro Murakami
- Department of Nutrition, Shigakkan University, Ohbu, Japan
| | | | - Masahiro Sokabe
- Mechanobiology Laboratory, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Keisuke Kawakami
- Faculty of Welfare and Health Sciences, Oita University, Oita, Japan.
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148
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Jang YC, Rodriguez K, Lustgarten MS, Muller FL, Bhattacharya A, Pierce A, Choi JJ, Lee NH, Chaudhuri A, Richardson AG, Van Remmen H. Superoxide-mediated oxidative stress accelerates skeletal muscle atrophy by synchronous activation of proteolytic systems. GeroScience 2020; 42:1579-1591. [PMID: 32451848 PMCID: PMC7732940 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-020-00200-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The maintenance of skeletal muscle mass depends on the overall balance between the rates of protein synthesis and degradation. Thus, age-related muscle atrophy and function, commonly known as sarcopenia, may result from decreased protein synthesis, increased proteolysis, or simultaneous changes in both processes governed by complex multifactorial mechanisms. Growing evidence implicates oxidative stress and reactive oxygen species (ROS) as an essential regulator of proteolysis. Our previous studies have shown that genetic deletion of CuZn superoxide dismutase (CuZnSOD, Sod1) in mice leads to elevated oxidative stress, muscle atrophy and weakness, and an acceleration in age-related phenotypes associated with sarcopenia. The goal of this study is to determine whether oxidative stress directly influences the acceleration of proteolysis in skeletal muscle of Sod1-/- mice as a function of age. Compared to control, Sod1-/- muscle showed a significant elevation in protein carbonyls and 3-nitrotyrosine levels, suggesting high oxidative and nitrosative protein modifications were present. In addition, age-dependent muscle atrophy in Sod1-/- muscle was accompanied by an upregulation of the cysteine proteases, calpain, and caspase-3, which are known to play a key role in the initial breakdown of sarcomeres during atrophic conditions. Furthermore, an increase in oxidative stress-induced muscle atrophy was also strongly coupled with simultaneous activation of two major proteolytic systems, the ubiquitin-proteasome and lysosomal autophagy pathways. Collectively, our data suggest that chronic oxidative stress in Sod1-/- mice accelerates age-dependent muscle atrophy by enhancing coordinated activation of the proteolytic systems, thereby resulting in overall protein degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young C Jang
- School of Biological Sciences and Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering & Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - Karl Rodriguez
- Sam & Ann Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging Studies, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Michael S Lustgarten
- Jean Mayer Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging, Tufts University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Florian L Muller
- MD Anderson Cancer Center, University of Texas, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Arunabh Bhattacharya
- School of Osteopathic Medicine, University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | | | - Jeongmoon J Choi
- School of Biological Sciences and Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering & Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Nan Hee Lee
- School of Biological Sciences and Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering & Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | | | - Arlan G Richardson
- Reynolds Oklahoma Center on Aging, Oklahoma Health Science Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
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149
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Kim C, Hwang JK. Flavonoids: nutraceutical potential for counteracting muscle atrophy. Food Sci Biotechnol 2020; 29:1619-1640. [PMID: 33282430 PMCID: PMC7708614 DOI: 10.1007/s10068-020-00816-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle plays a vital role in the conversion of chemical energy into physical force. Muscle atrophy, characterized by a reduction in muscle mass, is a symptom of chronic disease (cachexia), aging (sarcopenia), and muscle disuse (inactivity). To date, several trials have been conducted to prevent and inhibit muscle atrophy development; however, few interventions are currently available for muscle atrophy. Recently, food ingredients, plant extracts, and phytochemicals have received attention as treatment sources to prevent muscle wasting. Flavonoids are bioactive polyphenol compounds found in foods and plants. They possess diverse biological activities, including anti-obesity, anti-diabetes, anti-cancer, anti-oxidation, and anti-inflammation. The effects of flavonoids on muscle atrophy have been investigated by monitoring molecular mechanisms involved in protein turnover, mitochondrial activity, and myogenesis. This review summarizes the reported effects of flavonoids on sarcopenia, cachexia, and disuse muscle atrophy, thus, providing an insight into the understanding of the associated molecular mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changhee Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722 Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Kwan Hwang
- Department of Biotechnology, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722 Republic of Korea
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150
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Wei X, Franke J, Ost M, Wardelmann K, Börno S, Timmermann B, Meierhofer D, Kleinridders A, Klaus S, Stricker S. Cell autonomous requirement of neurofibromin (Nf1) for postnatal muscle hypertrophic growth and metabolic homeostasis. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 2020; 11:1758-1778. [PMID: 33078583 PMCID: PMC7749575 DOI: 10.1002/jcsm.12632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is a multi-organ disease caused by mutations in neurofibromin 1 (NF1). Amongst other features, NF1 patients frequently show reduced muscle mass and strength, impairing patients' mobility and increasing the risk of fall. The role of Nf1 in muscle and the cause for the NF1-associated myopathy are mostly unknown. METHODS To dissect the function of Nf1 in muscle, we created muscle-specific knockout mouse models for NF1, inactivating Nf1 in the prenatal myogenic lineage either under the Lbx1 promoter or under the Myf5 promoter. Mice were analysed during prenatal and postnatal myogenesis and muscle growth. RESULTS Nf1Lbx1 and Nf1Myf5 animals showed only mild defects in prenatal myogenesis. Nf1Lbx1 animals were perinatally lethal, while Nf1Myf5 animals survived only up to approximately 25 weeks. A comprehensive phenotypic characterization of Nf1Myf5 animals showed decreased postnatal growth, reduced muscle size, and fast fibre atrophy. Proteome and transcriptome analyses of muscle tissue indicated decreased protein synthesis and increased proteasomal degradation, and decreased glycolytic and increased oxidative activity in muscle tissue. High-resolution respirometry confirmed enhanced oxidative metabolism in Nf1Myf5 muscles, which was concomitant to a fibre type shift from type 2B to type 2A and type 1. Moreover, Nf1Myf5 muscles showed hallmarks of decreased activation of mTORC1 and increased expression of atrogenes. Remarkably, loss of Nf1 promoted a robust activation of AMPK with a gene expression profile indicative of increased fatty acid catabolism. Additionally, we observed a strong induction of genes encoding catabolic cytokines in muscle Nf1Myf5 animals, in line with a drastic reduction of white, but not brown adipose tissue. CONCLUSIONS Our results demonstrate a cell autonomous role for Nf1 in myogenic cells during postnatal muscle growth required for metabolic and proteostatic homeostasis. Furthermore, Nf1 deficiency in muscle drives cross-tissue communication and mobilization of lipid reserves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyan Wei
- Musculoskeletal Development and Regeneration Group, Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Development and Disease Group, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany
| | - Julia Franke
- Musculoskeletal Development and Regeneration Group, Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Development and Disease Group, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mario Ost
- Department of Physiology of Energy Metabolism, German Institute for Human Nutrition, Nuthetal, Germany.,Department of Neuropathology, University Hospital Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Kristina Wardelmann
- Junior Research Group Central Regulation of Metabolism, German Institute for Human Nutrition, Nuthetal, Germany.,Institute of Nutritional Science, Department of Molecular and Experimental Nutritional Medicine, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Stefan Börno
- Sequencing Core Unit, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany
| | - Bernd Timmermann
- Sequencing Core Unit, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany
| | - David Meierhofer
- Mass Spectrometry Core Unit, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andre Kleinridders
- Junior Research Group Central Regulation of Metabolism, German Institute for Human Nutrition, Nuthetal, Germany.,Institute of Nutritional Science, Department of Molecular and Experimental Nutritional Medicine, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany.,German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Susanne Klaus
- Department of Physiology of Energy Metabolism, German Institute for Human Nutrition, Nuthetal, Germany.,Institute of Nutritional Science, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Sigmar Stricker
- Musculoskeletal Development and Regeneration Group, Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Development and Disease Group, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany
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