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Johansson MM, Lundin E, Qian X, Mirzazadeh M, Halvardson J, Darj E, Feuk L, Nilsson M, Jazin E. Spatial sexual dimorphism of X and Y homolog gene expression in the human central nervous system during early male development. Biol Sex Differ 2016; 7:5. [PMID: 26759715 PMCID: PMC4710049 DOI: 10.1186/s13293-015-0056-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2015] [Accepted: 12/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Renewed attention has been directed to the functions of the Y chromosome in the central nervous system during early human male development, due to the recent proposed involvement in neurodevelopmental diseases. PCDH11Y and NLGN4Y are of special interest because they belong to gene families involved in cell fate determination and formation of dendrites and axon. METHODS We used RNA sequencing, immunocytochemistry and a padlock probing and rolling circle amplification strategy, to distinguish the expression of X and Y homologs in situ in the human brain for the first time. To minimize influence of androgens on the sex differences in the brain, we focused our investigation to human embryos at 8-11 weeks post-gestation. RESULTS We found that the X- and Y-encoded genes are expressed in specific and heterogeneous cellular sub-populations of both glial and neuronal origins. More importantly, we found differential distribution patterns of X and Y homologs in the male developing central nervous system. CONCLUSIONS This study has visualized the spatial distribution of PCDH11X/Y and NLGN4X/Y in human developing nervous tissue. The observed spatial distribution patterns suggest the existence of an additional layer of complexity in the development of the male CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin M Johansson
- Department of Organismal Biology, EBC, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Elin Lundin
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Xiaoyan Qian
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Jonatan Halvardson
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Elisabeth Darj
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, International Maternal and Child Health, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.,Department of Public Health and General Practice, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Lars Feuk
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Mats Nilsson
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Elena Jazin
- Department of Organismal Biology, EBC, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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102
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de Wit J, Ghosh A. Specification of synaptic connectivity by cell surface interactions. Nat Rev Neurosci 2015; 17:22-35. [PMID: 26656254 DOI: 10.1038/nrn.2015.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The molecular diversification of cell surface molecules has long been postulated to impart specific surface identities on neuronal cell types. The existence of unique cell surface identities would allow neurons to distinguish one another and connect with their appropriate target cells. Although progress has been made in identifying cell type-specific surface molecule repertoires and in characterizing their extracellular interactions, determining how this molecular diversity contributes to the precise wiring of neural circuitry has proven challenging. Here, we review the role of the cadherin, neurexin, immunoglobulin and leucine-rich repeat protein superfamilies in the specification of connectivity. The emerging evidence suggests that the concerted actions of these proteins may critically contribute to the assembly of neural circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joris de Wit
- VIB Center for the Biology of Disease and Center for Human Genetics, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Anirvan Ghosh
- Neuroscience Discovery, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffman-La Roche, Grenzacherstrasse 124, 4070 Basel, Switzerland
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103
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Bell RL, Hauser SR, McClintick J, Rahman S, Edenberg HJ, Szumlinski KK, McBride WJ. Ethanol-Associated Changes in Glutamate Reward Neurocircuitry: A Minireview of Clinical and Preclinical Genetic Findings. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2015; 137:41-85. [PMID: 26809998 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2015.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Herein, we have reviewed the role of glutamate, the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, in a number of neurochemical, -physiological, and -behavioral processes mediating the development of alcohol dependence. The findings discussed include results from both preclinical as well as neuroimaging and postmortem clinical studies. Expression levels for a number of glutamate-associated genes and/or proteins are modulated by alcohol abuse and dependence. These changes in expression include metabotropic receptors and ionotropic receptor subunits as well as different glutamate transporters. Moreover, these changes in gene expression parallel the pharmacologic manipulation of these same receptors and transporters. Some of these gene expression changes may have predated alcohol abuse and dependence because a number of glutamate-associated polymorphisms are related to a genetic predisposition to develop alcohol dependence. Other glutamate-associated polymorphisms are linked to age at the onset of alcohol-dependence and initial level of response/sensitivity to alcohol. Finally, findings of innate and/or ethanol-induced glutamate-associated gene expression differences/changes observed in a genetic animal model of alcoholism, the P rat, are summarized. Overall, the existing literature indicates that changes in glutamate receptors, transporters, enzymes, and scaffolding proteins are crucial for the development of alcohol dependence and there is a substantial genetic component to these effects. This indicates that continued research into the genetic underpinnings of these glutamate-associated effects will provide important novel molecular targets for treating alcohol abuse and dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard L Bell
- Department of Psychiatry, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA.
| | - Sheketha R Hauser
- Department of Psychiatry, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Jeanette McClintick
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana , USA
| | - Shafiqur Rahman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, USA
| | - Howard J Edenberg
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana , USA
| | - Karen K Szumlinski
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California, USA
| | - William J McBride
- Department of Psychiatry, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
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104
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Zhang B, Chen LY, Liu X, Maxeiner S, Lee SJ, Gokce O, Südhof TC. Neuroligins Sculpt Cerebellar Purkinje-Cell Circuits by Differential Control of Distinct Classes of Synapses. Neuron 2015; 87:781-96. [PMID: 26291161 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2015.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2015] [Revised: 05/25/2015] [Accepted: 07/22/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Neuroligins are postsynaptic cell-adhesion molecules that bind presynaptic neurexins and are genetically linked to autism. Neuroligins are proposed to organize synaptogenesis and/or synaptic transmission, but no systematic analysis of neuroligins in a defined circuit is available. Here, we show that conditional deletion of all neuroligins in cerebellar Purkinje cells caused loss of distal climbing-fiber synapses and weakened climbing-fiber but not parallel-fiber synapses, consistent with alternative use of neuroligins and cerebellins as neurexin ligands for the excitatory climbing-fiber versus parallel-fiber synapses. Moreover, deletion of neuroligins increased the size of inhibitory basket/stellate-cell synapses but simultaneously severely impaired their function. Multiple neuroligin isoforms differentially contributed to climbing-fiber and basket/stellate-cell synapse functions, such that inhibitory synapse-specific neuroligin-2 was unexpectedly essential for maintaining normal climbing-fiber synapse numbers. Using systematic analyses of all neuroligins in a defined neural circuit, our data thus show that neuroligins differentially contribute to various Purkinje-cell synapses in the cerebellum in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Zhang
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University Medical School, 265 Campus Drive, Room G1021, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Lulu Y Chen
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University Medical School, 265 Campus Drive, Room G1021, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Xinran Liu
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Stephan Maxeiner
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University Medical School, 265 Campus Drive, Room G1021, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Sung-Jin Lee
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University Medical School, 265 Campus Drive, Room G1021, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Ozgun Gokce
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University Medical School, 265 Campus Drive, Room G1021, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Thomas C Südhof
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University Medical School, 265 Campus Drive, Room G1021, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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105
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Maiti P, Manna J, Ilavazhagan G, Rossignol J, Dunbar GL. Molecular regulation of dendritic spine dynamics and their potential impact on synaptic plasticity and neurological diseases. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2015; 59:208-37. [PMID: 26562682 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2015] [Revised: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 09/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The structure and dynamics of dendritic spines reflect the strength of synapses, which are severely affected in different brain diseases. Therefore, understanding the ultra-structure, molecular signaling mechanism(s) regulating dendritic spine dynamics is crucial. Although, since last century, dynamics of spine have been explored by several investigators in different neurological diseases, but despite countless efforts, a comprehensive understanding of the fundamental etiology and molecular signaling pathways involved in spine pathology is lacking. The purpose of this review is to provide a contextual framework of our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms of dendritic spine signaling, as well as their potential impact on different neurodegenerative and psychiatric diseases, as a format for highlighting some commonalities in function, as well as providing a format for new insights and perspectives into this critical area of research. Additionally, the potential strategies to restore spine structure-function in different diseases are also pointed out. Overall, these informations should help researchers to design new drugs to restore the structure-function of dendritic spine, a "hot site" of synaptic plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panchanan Maiti
- Field Neurosciences Institute, St. Mary's of Michigan, Saginaw, MI, USA; Department of Psychology and Neurosciences Program, Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, MI, USA.
| | - Jayeeta Manna
- Department of Physiology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA.
| | - G Ilavazhagan
- Hindustan University, Rajiv Gandhi Salai (OMR), Padur, Kelambakam, Chennai, TN, India.
| | - Julien Rossignol
- Department of Psychology and Neurosciences Program, Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, MI, USA; College of Medicine, Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, MI, USA.
| | - Gary L Dunbar
- Field Neurosciences Institute, St. Mary's of Michigan, Saginaw, MI, USA; Department of Psychology and Neurosciences Program, Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, MI, USA.
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106
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Wei H, Ding C, Jin G, Yin H, Liu J, Hu F. Abnormal glutamate release in aged BTBR mouse model of autism. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL PATHOLOGY 2015; 8:10689-10697. [PMID: 26617779 PMCID: PMC4637594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2015] [Accepted: 08/22/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by abnormal reciprocal social interactions, communication deficits, and repetitive behaviors with restricted interests. Most of the available research on autism is focused on children and young adults and little is known about the pathological alternation of autism in older adults. In order to investigate the neurobiological alternation of autism in old age stage, we compared the morphology and synaptic function of excitatory synapses between the BTBR mice with low level sociability and B6 mice with high level sociability. The results revealed that the number of excitatory synapse colocalized with pre- and post-synaptic marker was not different between aged BTBR and B6 mice. The aged BTBR mice had a normal structure of dendritic spine and the expression of Shank3 protein in the brain as well as that in B6 mice. The baseline and KCl-evoked glutamate release from the cortical synaptoneurosome in aged BTBR mice was lower than that in aged B6 mice. Overall, the data indicate that there is a link between disturbances of the glutamate transmission and autism. These findings provide new evidences for the hypothesis of excitation/inhibition imbalance in autism. Further work is required to determine the cause of this putative abnormality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongen Wei
- Central Laboratory, Shanxi Provincial People’s Hospital, Affiliate of Shanxi Medical UniversityTaiyuan, China
| | - Caiyun Ding
- Central Laboratory, Shanxi Provincial People’s Hospital, Affiliate of Shanxi Medical UniversityTaiyuan, China
| | - Guorong Jin
- Central Laboratory, Shanxi Provincial People’s Hospital, Affiliate of Shanxi Medical UniversityTaiyuan, China
| | - Haizhen Yin
- Central Laboratory, Shanxi Provincial People’s Hospital, Affiliate of Shanxi Medical UniversityTaiyuan, China
| | - Jianrong Liu
- Central Laboratory, Shanxi Provincial People’s Hospital, Affiliate of Shanxi Medical UniversityTaiyuan, China
| | - Fengyun Hu
- Department of Neurology, Shanxi Provincial People’s Hospital, Affiliate of Shanxi Medical UniversityTaiyuan, China
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107
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Xu X, Jaehne EJ, Greenberg Z, McCarthy P, Saleh E, Parish CL, Camera D, Heng J, Haas M, Baune BT, Ratnayake U, van den Buuse M, Lopez AF, Ramshaw HS, Schwarz Q. 14-3-3ζ deficient mice in the BALB/c background display behavioural and anatomical defects associated with neurodevelopmental disorders. Sci Rep 2015. [PMID: 26207352 PMCID: PMC4513550 DOI: 10.1038/srep12434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Sequencing and expression analyses implicate 14-3-3ζ as a genetic risk factor for neurodevelopmental disorders such as schizophrenia and autism. In support of this notion, we recently found that 14-3-3ζ−/− mice in the Sv/129 background display schizophrenia-like defects. As epistatic interactions play a significant role in disease pathogenesis we generated a new congenic strain in the BALB/c background to determine the impact of genetic interactions on the 14-3-3ζ−/− phenotype. In addition to replicating defects such as aberrant mossy fibre connectivity and impaired spatial memory, our analysis of 14-3-3ζ−/− BALB/c mice identified enlarged lateral ventricles, reduced synaptic density and ectopically positioned pyramidal neurons in all subfields of the hippocampus. In contrast to our previous analyses, 14-3-3ζ−/− BALB/c mice lacked locomotor hyperactivity that was underscored by normal levels of the dopamine transporter (DAT) and dopamine signalling. Taken together, our results demonstrate that dysfunction of 14-3-3ζ gives rise to many of the pathological hallmarks associated with the human condition. 14-3-3ζ-deficient BALB/c mice therefore provide a novel model to address the underlying biology of structural defects affecting the hippocampus and ventricle, and cognitive defects such as hippocampal-dependent learning and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangjun Xu
- Centre for Cancer Biology, SA Pathology and University of South Australia, Frome Road, Adelaide, 5000, Australia
| | - Emily J Jaehne
- Discipline of Psychiatry, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
| | - Zarina Greenberg
- Centre for Cancer Biology, SA Pathology and University of South Australia, Frome Road, Adelaide, 5000, Australia
| | - Peter McCarthy
- Centre for Cancer Biology, SA Pathology and University of South Australia, Frome Road, Adelaide, 5000, Australia
| | - Eiman Saleh
- Centre for Cancer Biology, SA Pathology and University of South Australia, Frome Road, Adelaide, 5000, Australia
| | - Clare L Parish
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, 3010, Australia
| | - Daria Camera
- School of Medical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, 3083, Australia
| | - Julian Heng
- 1] Harry Perkins Institute of Medical Research, Perth, Australia [2] School of Medicine and Pharmacology, University of Western Australia, Crawley, 6009, Australia
| | - Matilda Haas
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
| | - Bernhard T Baune
- Discipline of Psychiatry, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
| | - Udani Ratnayake
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, 3010, Australia
| | - Maarten van den Buuse
- 1] The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, 3010, Australia [2] Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
| | - Angel F Lopez
- Centre for Cancer Biology, SA Pathology and University of South Australia, Frome Road, Adelaide, 5000, Australia
| | - Hayley S Ramshaw
- Centre for Cancer Biology, SA Pathology and University of South Australia, Frome Road, Adelaide, 5000, Australia
| | - Quenten Schwarz
- Centre for Cancer Biology, SA Pathology and University of South Australia, Frome Road, Adelaide, 5000, Australia
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108
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Mosca TJ. On the Teneurin track: a new synaptic organization molecule emerges. Front Cell Neurosci 2015; 9:204. [PMID: 26074772 PMCID: PMC4444827 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2015.00204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2015] [Accepted: 05/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
To achieve proper synaptic development and function, coordinated signals must pass between the pre- and postsynaptic membranes. Such transsynaptic signals can be comprised of receptors and secreted ligands, membrane associated receptors, and also pairs of synaptic cell adhesion molecules. A critical open question bridging neuroscience, developmental biology, and cell biology involves identifying those signals and elucidating how they function. Recent work in Drosophila and vertebrate systems has implicated a family of proteins, the Teneurins, as a new transsynaptic signal in both the peripheral and central nervous systems. The Teneurins have established roles in neuronal wiring, but studies now show their involvement in regulating synaptic connections between neurons and bridging the synaptic membrane and the cytoskeleton. This review will examine the Teneurins as synaptic cell adhesion molecules, explore how they regulate synaptic organization, and consider how some consequences of human Teneurin mutations may have synaptopathic origins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J Mosca
- Department of Biology, Stanford University Stanford, CA, USA
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109
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Loke YJ, Hannan AJ, Craig JM. The Role of Epigenetic Change in Autism Spectrum Disorders. Front Neurol 2015; 6:107. [PMID: 26074864 PMCID: PMC4443738 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2015.00107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2015] [Accepted: 04/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a heterogeneous group of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by problems with social communication, social interaction, and repetitive or restricted behaviors. ASD are comorbid with other disorders including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, epilepsy, Rett syndrome, and Fragile X syndrome. Neither the genetic nor the environmental components have been characterized well enough to aid diagnosis or treatment of non-syndromic ASD. However, genome-wide association studies have amassed evidence suggesting involvement of hundreds of genes and a variety of associated genetic pathways. Recently, investigators have turned to epigenetics, a prime mediator of environmental effects on genomes and phenotype, to characterize changes in ASD that constitute a molecular level on top of DNA sequence. Though in their infancy, such studies have the potential to increase our understanding of the etiology of ASD and may assist in the development of biomarkers for its prediction, diagnosis, prognosis, and eventually in its prevention and intervention. This review focuses on the first few epigenome-wide association studies of ASD and discusses future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuk Jing Loke
- Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Royal Children's Hospital and Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne , Parkville, VIC , Australia
| | - Anthony John Hannan
- Melbourne Brain Centre, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne , Parkville, VIC , Australia
| | - Jeffrey Mark Craig
- Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Royal Children's Hospital and Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne , Parkville, VIC , Australia
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110
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Bruckner JJ, Zhan H, O'Connor-Giles KM. Advances in imaging ultrastructure yield new insights into presynaptic biology. Front Cell Neurosci 2015; 9:196. [PMID: 26052269 PMCID: PMC4440913 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2015.00196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2015] [Accepted: 05/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Synapses are the fundamental functional units of neural circuits, and their dysregulation has been implicated in diverse neurological disorders. At presynaptic terminals, neurotransmitter-filled synaptic vesicles are released in response to calcium influx through voltage-gated calcium channels activated by the arrival of an action potential. Decades of electrophysiological, biochemical, and genetic studies have contributed to a growing understanding of presynaptic biology. Imaging studies are yielding new insights into how synapses are organized to carry out their critical functions. The development of techniques for rapid immobilization and preservation of neuronal tissues for electron microscopy (EM) has led to a new renaissance in ultrastructural imaging that is rapidly advancing our understanding of synapse structure and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J Bruckner
- Cell and Molecular Biology Training Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison Madison, WI, USA
| | - Hong Zhan
- Laboratory of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Wisconsin-Madison Madison, WI, USA
| | - Kate M O'Connor-Giles
- Cell and Molecular Biology Training Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison Madison, WI, USA ; Laboratory of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Wisconsin-Madison Madison, WI, USA ; Laboratory of Genetics, University of Wisconsin-Madison Madison, WI, USA
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111
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Wang H, Doering LC. Autism spectrum disorders: emerging mechanisms and mechanism-based treatment. Front Cell Neurosci 2015; 9:183. [PMID: 26029053 PMCID: PMC4428121 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2015.00183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2015] [Accepted: 04/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Hansen Wang
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Laurie C Doering
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University Hamilton, ON, Canada
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