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Breen MS, Uhlmann A, Nday CM, Glatt SJ, Mitt M, Metsalpu A, Stein DJ, Illing N. Candidate gene networks and blood biomarkers of methamphetamine-associated psychosis: an integrative RNA-sequencing report. Transl Psychiatry 2016; 6:e802. [PMID: 27163203 PMCID: PMC5070070 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2016.67] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Revised: 01/21/2016] [Accepted: 01/24/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The clinical presentation, course and treatment of methamphetamine (METH)-associated psychosis (MAP) are similar to that observed in schizophrenia (SCZ) and subsequently MAP has been hypothesized as a pharmacological and environmental model of SCZ. However, several challenges currently exist in diagnosing MAP accurately at the molecular and neurocognitive level before the MAP model can contribute to the discovery of SCZ biomarkers. We directly assessed subcortical brain structural volumes and clinical parameters of MAP within the framework of an integrative genome-wide RNA-Seq blood transcriptome analysis of subjects diagnosed with MAP (N=10), METH dependency without psychosis (MA; N=10) and healthy controls (N=10). First, we identified discrete groups of co-expressed genes (that is, modules) and tested them for functional annotation and phenotypic relationships to brain structure volumes, life events and psychometric measurements. We discovered one MAP-associated module involved in ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis downregulation, enriched with 61 genes previously found implicated in psychosis and SCZ across independent blood and post-mortem brain studies using convergent functional genomic (CFG) evidence. This module demonstrated significant relationships with brain structure volumes including the anterior corpus callosum (CC) and the nucleus accumbens. Furthermore, a second MAP and psychoticism-associated module involved in circadian clock upregulation was also enriched with 39 CFG genes, further associated with the CC. Subsequently, a machine-learning analysis of differentially expressed genes identified single blood-based biomarkers able to differentiate controls from methamphetamine dependents with 87% accuracy and MAP from MA subjects with 95% accuracy. CFG evidence validated a significant proportion of these putative MAP biomarkers in independent studies including CLN3, FBP1, TBC1D2 and ZNF821 (RNA degradation), ELK3 and SINA3 (circadian clock) and PIGF and UHMK1 (ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis). Finally, focusing analysis on brain structure volumes revealed significantly lower bilateral hippocampal volumes in MAP subjects. Overall, these results suggest similar molecular and neurocognitive mechanisms underlying the pathophysiology of psychosis and SCZ regardless of substance abuse and provide preliminary evidence supporting the MAP paradigm as an exemplar for SCZ biomarker discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Breen
- Department of Clinical and
Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton,
Southampton, UK
| | - A Uhlmann
- Department of Psychiatry and MRC Unit
on Anxiety and Stress Disorders, Groote Schuur Hospital (J-2), University of
Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - C M Nday
- Department of Molecular and Cellular
Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South
Africa
| | - S J Glatt
- Psychiatric Genetic Epidemiology and
Neurobiology Laboratory, Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
and Neuroscience and Physiology, Medical Genetics Research Center, SUNY
Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY,
USA
| | - M Mitt
- The Estonian Genome Center,
University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - A Metsalpu
- The Estonian Genome Center,
University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - D J Stein
- Department of Psychiatry and MRC Unit
on Anxiety and Stress Disorders, Groote Schuur Hospital (J-2), University of
Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - N Illing
- Department of Molecular and Cellular
Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South
Africa
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102
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McKetin R, Dawe S, Burns RA, Hides L, Kavanagh DJ, Teesson M, McD Young R, Voce A, Saunders JB. The profile of psychiatric symptoms exacerbated by methamphetamine use. Drug Alcohol Depend 2016; 161:104-9. [PMID: 26874915 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2015] [Revised: 01/20/2016] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Methamphetamine use can produce symptoms almost indistinguishable from schizophrenia. Distinguishing between the two conditions has been hampered by the lack of a validated symptom profile for methamphetamine-induced psychiatric symptoms. We use data from a longitudinal cohort study to examine the profile of psychiatric symptoms that are acutely exacerbated by methamphetamine use. METHODS 164 methamphetamine users, who did not meet DSM-IV criteria for a lifetime primary psychotic disorder, were followed monthly for one year to assess the relationship between days of methamphetamine use and symptom severity on the 24-item Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale. Exacerbation of psychiatric symptoms with methamphetamine use was quantified using random coefficient models. The dimensions of symptom exacerbation were examined using principal axis factoring and a latent profile analysis. RESULTS Symptoms exacerbated by methamphetamine loaded on three factors: positive psychotic symptoms (suspiciousness, unusual thought content, hallucinations, bizarre behavior); affective symptoms (depression, suicidality, guilt, hostility, somatic concern, self-neglect); and psychomotor symptoms (tension, excitement, distractibility, motor hyperactivity). Methamphetamine use did not significantly increase negative symptoms. Vulnerability to positive psychotic and affective symptom exacerbation was shared by 28% of participants, and this vulnerability aligned with a past year DSM-IV diagnosis of substance-induced psychosis (38% vs. 22%, χ(2)(df1)=3.66, p=0.056). CONCLUSION Methamphetamine use produced a symptom profile comprised of positive psychotic and affective symptoms, which aligned with a diagnosis of substance-induced psychosis, with no evidence of a negative syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca McKetin
- National Drug Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Australia; National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia; Centre for Research on Ageing, Health and Wellbeing, Research School of Population Health, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.
| | - Sharon Dawe
- School of Applied Psychology and Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Richard A Burns
- Centre for Research on Ageing, Health and Wellbeing, Research School of Population Health, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Leanne Hides
- Centre for Youth Substance Abuse Research, School of Psychology and Counselling, and Institute of Health & Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - David J Kavanagh
- Centre for Youth Substance Abuse Research, School of Psychology and Counselling, and Institute of Health & Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Maree Teesson
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Ross McD Young
- Centre for Youth Substance Abuse Research, School of Psychology and Counselling, and Institute of Health & Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Alexandra Voce
- Centre for Research on Ageing, Health and Wellbeing, Research School of Population Health, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - John B Saunders
- Centre for Youth Substance Abuse Research, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Disciplines of Psychiatry and Addiction Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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103
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Wang LJ, Lin SK, Chen YC, Huang MC, Chen TT, Ree SC, Chen CK. Differences in Clinical Features of Methamphetamine Users with Persistent Psychosis and Patients with Schizophrenia. Psychopathology 2016; 49:108-15. [PMID: 27071042 DOI: 10.1159/000445065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2015] [Accepted: 02/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Methamphetamine exerts neurotoxic effects and elicits psychotic symptoms. This study attempted to compare clinical differences between methamphetamine users with persistent psychosis (MAP) and patients with schizophrenia. In addition, we examined the discrimination validity by using symptom clusters to differentiate between MAP and schizophrenia. METHODS We enrolled 53 MAP patients and 53 patients with schizophrenia. The psychopathology of participants was assessed using the Chinese version of the Diagnostic Interview for Genetic Studies and the 18-item Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale. Logistic regression was used to examine the predicted probability scores of different symptom combinations on discriminating between MAP and schizophrenia. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analyses and area under the curve (AUC) were further applied to examine the discrimination validity of the predicted probability scores on differentiating between MAP and schizophrenia. RESULTS We found that MAP and schizophrenia demonstrated similar patterns of delusions. Compared to patients with schizophrenia, MAP experienced significantly higher proportions of visual hallucinations and of somatic or tactile hallucinations. However, MAP exhibited significantly lower severity in conceptual disorganization, mannerism/posturing, blunted affect, emotional withdrawal, and motor retardation compared to patients with schizophrenia. The ROC analysis showed that a predicted probability score combining the aforementioned 7 items of symptoms could significantly differentiate between MAP and schizophrenia (AUC = 0.77). CONCLUSION Findings in the current study suggest that nuanced differences might exist in the clinical presentation of secondary psychosis (MAP) and primary psychosis (schizophrenia). Combining the symptoms as a whole may help with differential diagnosis for MAP and schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang-Jen Wang
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, ROC
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104
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Ayhan Y, McFarland R, Pletnikov MV. Animal models of gene-environment interaction in schizophrenia: A dimensional perspective. Prog Neurobiol 2015; 136:1-27. [PMID: 26510407 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2015.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2015] [Revised: 09/07/2015] [Accepted: 10/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia has long been considered as a disorder with multifactorial origins. Recent discoveries have advanced our understanding of the genetic architecture of the disease. However, even with the increase of identified risk variants, heritability estimates suggest an important contribution of non-genetic factors. Various environmental risk factors have been proposed to play a role in the etiopathogenesis of schizophrenia. These include season of birth, maternal infections, obstetric complications, adverse events at early childhood, and drug abuse. Despite the progress in identification of genetic and environmental risk factors, we still have a limited understanding of the mechanisms whereby gene-environment interactions (G × E) operate in schizophrenia and psychoses at large. In this review we provide a critical analysis of current animal models of G × E relevant to psychotic disorders and propose that dimensional perspective will advance our understanding of the complex mechanisms of these disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yavuz Ayhan
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, USA; Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, Turkey
| | - Ross McFarland
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, USA; Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, USA
| | - Mikhail V Pletnikov
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, USA; Solomon H Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, USA; Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, USA; Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, USA.
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105
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Kitanaka N, Kitanaka J, Hall FS, Kayama M, Sugimori H, Uhl GR, Takemura M. Pretreatment or Posttreatment with Aripiprazole Attenuates Methamphetamine-induced Stereotyped Behavior in Mice. J Exp Neurosci 2015; 9:1-10. [PMID: 26525833 PMCID: PMC4623557 DOI: 10.4137/jen.s27733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2015] [Revised: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Aripiprazole is a third-generation atypical antipsychotic and a dopamine D2 receptor partial agonist. In the present study, we investigated whether a single administration of aripiprazole to mice, either as a pretreatment or as a posttreatment, would affect stereotypy induced by methamphetamine (METH). Pretreatment of male ICR mice with aripiprazole (1 or 10 mg/kg, i.p.) attenuated the incidence of METH-induced stereotypical behavior in a dose-dependent manner. Pretreatment of mice with 1 mg/kg aripiprazole produced an increase in the locomotor activity in mice treated with METH compared with mice treated with vehicle plus METH and with 10 mg/kg aripiprazole plus METH. This increase in locomotion is indicative of a rightward shift in the dose–response curve for METH, consistent with a shift in the type of stereotypical behavior observed from biting to sniffing. Aripiprazole posttreatment, after METH-induced stereotypical behavior, was fully expressed and also significantly attenuated overall stereotypy in an aripiprazole dose-dependent manner. These data suggest that the antagonism of METH effects by aripiprazole should be investigated as a potential treatment for acute METH overdose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobue Kitanaka
- Department of Pharmacology, Hyogo College of Medicine, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Junichi Kitanaka
- Department of Pharmacology, Hyogo College of Medicine, Hyogo, Japan
| | - F Scott Hall
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Masaru Kayama
- Department of Pharmacology, Hyogo College of Medicine, Hyogo, Japan
| | | | - George R Uhl
- Research Service, New Mexico VA Healthcare System, Albuquerque, NM, USA
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106
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Ibudilast reverses the decrease in the synaptic signaling protein phosphatidylethanolamine-binding protein 1 (PEBP1) produced by chronic methamphetamine intake in rats. Drug Alcohol Depend 2015; 152:15-23. [PMID: 25962787 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2015] [Revised: 04/17/2015] [Accepted: 04/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chronic methamphetamine intake has been shown to induce a neuroinflammatory state leading to significant changes in brain functioning including behavioral changes. These changes can persist for years after drug use is discontinued and likely contribute to the risk of relapse. A better understanding of inflammation responses associated with methamphetamine intake may help in designing novel and more efficacious treatment strategies. METHODS Rats were trained to self-administer methamphetamine or saline on a variable ratio 3 schedule of reinforcement (25 days). This training was followed by 12 days of extinction (i.e., methamphetamine unavailable) during which rats received daily post-session administration of ibudilast (AV411; 2.5 or 7.5mg/kg) or saline. Following extinction, synaptosomes were isolated from the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the differential pattern of synaptic proteins was assessed using mass spectrometry based proteomics. RESULTS Treatment with ibudilast allowed for deeper extinction of active lever pressing. Quantitative mass spectrometry based proteomics on the PFC identified one potential hit; the synaptic signaling protein phosphatidylethanolamine-binding protein 1 (PEBP1). While methamphetamine intake was associated with reduced PEBP1 protein levels, treatment with ibudilast reversed this effect. Furthermore, decreased PEBP1 expression was correlated with subsequent activation of Raf-1, MEK, and ERK signaling components of the mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade (MAPK). Raf-1, MEK, and ERK expression levels were also attenuated by ibudilast treatment. CONCLUSION PEBP1, given its synaptic localization and its role as a signaling molecule acting via the ERK/MAPK pathway, could be a potential therapeutic target mediating drug-seeking behaviors associated with neuroinflammation.
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107
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Chen CK, Lin SK, Chen YC, Huang MC, Chen TT, Ree SC, Wang LJ. Persistence of psychotic symptoms as an indicator of cognitive impairment in methamphetamine users. Drug Alcohol Depend 2015; 148:158-64. [PMID: 25601645 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.12.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Revised: 12/31/2014] [Accepted: 12/31/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prolonged exposure to methamphetamine (meth) has neurotoxic effects and impairs neurocognitive functions. This study aims to ascertain whether meth users who experience persistent psychosis suffer more severe cognitive impairment than those not experiencing persistent psychosis. METHODS This cross-sectional study includes 252 participants: 25 meth users without psychosis (METH-P), 50 with brief psychosis (METH+BP), and 56 with persistent psychosis (METH+PP), as well as 54 patients with schizophrenia and 67 healthy controls. The neurocognitive function and clinical psychopathology of each patient were evaluated with the Brief Assessment of Cognition in Schizophrenia (BACS) and the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS), respectively. RESULTS All cognitive domains evaluated with BACS (verbal memory, working memory, motor speed, verbal fluency, attention and processing speed, executive function, and composite scores) in METH+PP patients were similar to those in the schizophrenia patients and were worse than those in METH-P, METH+BP, and the healthy control subjects. Furthermore, cognitive functioning in meth users that did not experience persistent psychosis showed no statistically significant difference compared with the healthy control subjects. Among the meth users in this study, the negative symptom scores in the BPRS correlated to cognitive performance on the BACS, with the exception of motor speed. CONCLUSIONS Meth users display heterogeneity in their psychotic symptoms and cognitive profiles. Therefore, persistent psychotic symptoms may denote a risk for cognitive decline among meth users. Further longitudinal studies should be performed in the future to clarify the causal relationship between cognitive deficits and the development of persistent psychosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Ken Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Keelung, Taiwan; Chang Gung University School of Medicine, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Ku Lin
- Taipei City Hospital and Psychiatric Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Chih Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Keelung, Taiwan; Chang Gung University School of Medicine, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Chy Huang
- Taipei City Hospital and Psychiatric Center, Taipei, Taiwan; Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Tzu-Ting Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, National Taiwan University Hospital Yun-Lin Branch, Yun-Lin, Taiwan
| | - Shao Chun Ree
- Department of Psychiatry, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Keelung, Taiwan; Chang Gung University School of Medicine, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Liang-Jen Wang
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital and Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
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108
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Wang S, Ren H, Xu J, Yu Y, Han S, Qiao H, Cheng S, Xu C, An S, Ju B, Yu C, Wang C, Wang T, Yang Z, Taylor EW, Zhao L. Diminished serum repetin levels in patients with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Sci Rep 2015; 5:7977. [PMID: 25613293 PMCID: PMC4303898 DOI: 10.1038/srep07977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2014] [Accepted: 12/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Repetin (RPTN) protein is a member of S100 family and is known to be expressed in the normal epidermis. Here we show that RPTN is ubiquitously expressed in both mouse and human brain, with relatively high levels in choroid plexus, hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. To investigate the expression of RPTN in neuropsychiatric disorders, we determined serum levels of RPTN in patients with schizophrenia (n = 88) or bipolar disorder (n = 34) and in chronic psychostimulant users (n = 91). We also studied its expression in a mouse model of chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS). The results showed that serum RPTN levels were significantly diminished in patients with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder or in psychostimulant users, compared with healthy subjects (n = 115) or age-matched controls (n = 92) (p < 0.0001). In CUMS mice, RPTN expression in hippocampus and prefrontal cortex was reduced with progression of the CUMS procedure; the serum RPTN level remained unchanged. Since CUMS is a model for depression and methamphetamine (METH) abuse induced psychosis recapitulates many of the psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia, the results from this study may imply that RPTN plays a potential role in emotional and cognitive processing; its decrease in serum may indicate its involvement in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuai Wang
- Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Medicinal Plant Resource and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710062, China
| | - Huixun Ren
- Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Jie Xu
- Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Medicinal Plant Resource and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710062, China
| | - Yanjun Yu
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Xi'an mental health center, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Shuiping Han
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Hui Qiao
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710062, China
| | - Shaoli Cheng
- Center for Experimental Morphology, School of Medicine, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Chang Xu
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710062, China
| | - Shucheng An
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710062, China
| | - Bomiao Ju
- Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Medicinal Plant Resource and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710062, China
| | - Chengyuan Yu
- Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Medicinal Plant Resource and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710062, China
| | - Chanyuan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Medicinal Plant Resource and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710062, China
| | - Tao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Medicinal Plant Resource and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710062, China
| | - Zhenjun Yang
- The State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Ethan Will Taylor
- Department of Nanoscience, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27401, USA
| | - Lijun Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Medicinal Plant Resource and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710062, China
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