101
|
Forsythe P, Kunze W, Bienenstock J. Moody microbes or fecal phrenology: what do we know about the microbiota-gut-brain axis? BMC Med 2016; 14:58. [PMID: 27090095 PMCID: PMC4836158 DOI: 10.1186/s12916-016-0604-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2015] [Accepted: 03/18/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The microbiota-gut-brain axis is a term that is commonly used and covers a broad set of functions and interactions between the gut microbiome, endocrine, immune and nervous systems and the brain. The field is not much more than a decade old and so large holes exist in our knowledge. DISCUSSION At first sight it appears gut microbes are largely responsible for the development, maturation and adult function of the enteric nervous system as well as the blood brain barrier, microglia and many aspects of the central nervous system structure and function. Given the state of the art in this exploding field and the hopes, as well as the skepticism, which have been engendered by its popular appeal, we explore recent examples of evidence in rodents and data derived from studies in humans, which offer insights as to pathways involved. Communication between gut and brain depends on both humoral and nervous connections. Since these are bi-directional and occur through complex communication pathways, it is perhaps not surprising that while striking observations have been reported, they have often either not yet been reproduced or their replication by others has not been successful. CONCLUSIONS We offer critical and cautionary commentary on the available evidence, and identify gaps in our knowledge that need to be filled so as to achieve translation, where possible, into beneficial application in the clinical setting.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul Forsythe
- Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. .,McMaster Brain-Body Institute, St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. .,Firestone Institute for Respiratory Health, St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Wolfgang Kunze
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.,McMaster Brain-Body Institute, St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - John Bienenstock
- Department of Pathology & Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.,McMaster Brain-Body Institute, St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
102
|
Cocobiota: Implications for Human Health. J Nutr Metab 2016; 2016:7906927. [PMID: 27144019 PMCID: PMC4837262 DOI: 10.1155/2016/7906927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2015] [Revised: 02/17/2016] [Accepted: 03/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Manufacturing of dark chocolate and other cocoa-based products is a complex multistage process beginning with spontaneous cocoa bean fermentation driven in the postharvest period by different microorganisms derived from the environment. Cocobiota defined as the association of microbial species involved in cocoa bean fermentation may have considerable impact on the medicinal properties of cocoa products via various primary and secondary metabolites, whose presence in dark chocolate and other cocoa-derived products has to be taken into consideration when analyzing medicinal effects of cocoa. Metabolites of acetic acid and lactic acid bacteria, two major cocobiota members, are recently shown to have considerable antifungal and cholesterol-lowering activities and promote the formation of short chain fatty acids and mannitol, an important prebiotic capable of modifying gut microbiota. Penicillium citrinum, a major type of fungi identifiable in fermented cocoa beans, produces a thermostable alkaloid, Penicitrinine A, as well as lovastatin, compounds with antineoplastic and cholesterol-lowering abilities, respectively. Moreover, recent results suggest that bacterial and fungal metabolites produced by cocobiota have a significant anti-infective potential. Therefore, various metabolites produced by cocobiota can mimic some medicinal effects of dark chocolate and other cocoa-derived products previously attributed to cocoa flavonoids and methylxanthines and need to be thoroughly investigated in in vitro and in vivo systems.
Collapse
|
103
|
Klein MS, Newell C, Bomhof MR, Reimer RA, Hittel DS, Rho JM, Vogel HJ, Shearer J. Metabolomic Modeling To Monitor Host Responsiveness to Gut Microbiota Manipulation in the BTBRT+tf/j Mouse. J Proteome Res 2016; 15:1143-50. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.5b01025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Jong M. Rho
- Departments of Paediatrics & Clinical Neurosciences, Alberta Children’s Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 2T9, Canada
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
104
|
Kraneveld A, Szklany K, de Theije C, Garssen J. Gut-to-Brain Axis in Autism Spectrum Disorders. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2016; 131:263-287. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2016.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
|
105
|
Moos WH, Faller DV, Harpp DN, Kanara I, Pernokas J, Powers WR, Steliou K. Microbiota and Neurological Disorders: A Gut Feeling. Biores Open Access 2016; 5:137-45. [PMID: 27274912 PMCID: PMC4892191 DOI: 10.1089/biores.2016.0010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In the past century, noncommunicable diseases have surpassed infectious diseases as the principal cause of sickness and death, worldwide. Trillions of commensal microbes live in and on our body, and constitute the human microbiome. The vast majority of these microorganisms are maternally derived and live in the gut, where they perform functions essential to our health and survival, including: digesting food, activating certain drugs, producing short-chain fatty acids (which help to modulate gene expression by inhibiting the deacetylation of histone proteins), generating anti-inflammatory substances, and playing a fundamental role in the induction, training, and function of our immune system. Among the many roles the microbiome ultimately plays, it mitigates against untoward effects from our exposure to the environment by forming a biotic shield between us and the outside world. The importance of physical activity coupled with a balanced and healthy diet in the maintenance of our well-being has been recognized since antiquity. However, it is only recently that characterization of the host-microbiome intermetabolic and crosstalk pathways has come to the forefront in studying therapeutic design. As reviewed in this report, synthetic biology shows potential in developing microorganisms for correcting pathogenic dysbiosis (gut microbiota-host maladaptation), although this has yet to be proven. However, the development and use of small molecule drugs have a long and successful history in the clinic, with small molecule histone deacetylase inhibitors representing one relevant example already approved to treat cancer and other disorders. Moreover, preclinical research suggests that epigenetic treatment of neurological conditions holds significant promise. With the mouth being an extension of the digestive tract, it presents a readily accessible diagnostic site for the early detection of potential unhealthy pathogens resident in the gut. Taken together, the data outlined herein provide an encouraging roadmap toward important new medicines and companion diagnostic platforms in a wide range of therapeutic indications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Walter H. Moos
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California
- Address correspondence to: Walter H. Moos, PhD, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of California San Francisco, 600 16th Street, Mail Code 2280, Genentech Hall S512D, Mission Bay Campus, San Francisco, CA 94158, E-mail: , ; or Kosta Steliou, PhD, PhenoMatriX, Inc., 9 Hawthorne Place Suite 4R, Boston, MA 02114, E-mail: ,
| | - Douglas V. Faller
- Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
- Cancer Research Center, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - David N. Harpp
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Iphigenia Kanara
- Weatherhead Center for International Affairs, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
- Consulate General of Greece in Boston, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Julie Pernokas
- Advanced Dental Associates of New England, Woburn, Massachusetts
| | - Whitney R. Powers
- Department of Health Sciences, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts
- Department of Anatomy, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Kosta Steliou
- Cancer Research Center, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
- PhenoMatriX, Inc., Boston, Massachusetts
- Address correspondence to: Walter H. Moos, PhD, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of California San Francisco, 600 16th Street, Mail Code 2280, Genentech Hall S512D, Mission Bay Campus, San Francisco, CA 94158, E-mail: , ; or Kosta Steliou, PhD, PhenoMatriX, Inc., 9 Hawthorne Place Suite 4R, Boston, MA 02114, E-mail: ,
| |
Collapse
|
106
|
Arentsen T, Raith H, Qian Y, Forssberg H, Diaz Heijtz R. Host microbiota modulates development of social preference in mice. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY IN HEALTH AND DISEASE 2015; 26:29719. [PMID: 26679775 PMCID: PMC4683992 DOI: 10.3402/mehd.v26.29719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2015] [Revised: 11/18/2015] [Accepted: 11/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mounting evidence indicates that the indigenous gut microbiota exerts long-lasting programming effects on brain function and behaviour. OBJECTIVE In this study, we used the germ-free (GF) mouse model, devoid of any microbiota throughout development, to assess the influence of the indigenous microbiota on social preference and repetitive behaviours (e.g. self-grooming). METHODS AND RESULTS Using the three-chambered social approach task, we demonstrate that when adult GF mice were given a choice to spend time with a novel mouse or object, they spent significantly more time sniffing and interacting with the stimulus mouse compared to conventionally raised mice (specific pathogen-free, SPF). Time spent in repetitive self-grooming behaviour, however, did not differ between GF and SPF mice. Real-time PCR-based gene expression analysis of the amygdala, a key region that is part of the social brain network, revealed a significant reduction in the mRNA levels of total brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), BDNF exon I-, IV-, VI-, IX-containing transcripts, and NGFI-A (a signalling molecule downstream of BDNF) in GF mice compared to SPF mice. CONCLUSION These results suggest that differential regulation of BDNF exon transcripts in the amygdala by the indigenous microbes may contribute to the altered social development of GF mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tim Arentsen
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Henrike Raith
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Yu Qian
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Hans Forssberg
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | |
Collapse
|
107
|
Pusponegoro HD, Ismael S, Sastroasmoro S, Firmansyah A, Vandenplas Y. Maladaptive Behavior and Gastrointestinal Disorders in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Pediatr Gastroenterol Hepatol Nutr 2015; 18:230-7. [PMID: 26770897 PMCID: PMC4712535 DOI: 10.5223/pghn.2015.18.4.230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2015] [Revised: 09/06/2015] [Accepted: 09/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Various gastrointestinal factors may contribute to maladaptive behavior in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). To determine the association between maladaptive behavior in children with ASD and gastrointestinal symptoms such as severity, intestinal microbiota, inflammation, enterocyte damage, permeability and absorption of opioid peptides. METHODS This observational cross-sectional study compared children with ASD to healthy controls, aged 2-10 years. Maladaptive behavior was classified using the Approach Withdrawal Problems Composite subtest of the Pervasive Developmental Disorder Behavior Inventory. Dependent variables were gastrointestinal symptom severity index, fecal calprotectin, urinary D-lactate, urinary lactulose/mannitol excretion, urinary intestinal fatty acids binding protein (I-FABP) and urinary opioid peptide excretion. RESULTS We did not find a significant difference between children with ASD with severe or mild maladaptive behavior and control subjects for gastrointestinal symptoms, fecal calprotectin, urinary D-lactate, and lactulose/mannitol ratio. Urinary opioid peptide excretion was absent in all children. Children with ASD with severe maladaptive behavior showed significantly higher urinary I-FABP levels compared to those with mild maladaptive behavior (p=0.019) and controls (p=0.015). CONCLUSION In our series, maladaptive behavior in ASD children was not associated with gastrointestinal symptoms, intestinal inflammation (no difference in calprotectin), microbiota (no difference in urinary D-lactate) and intestinal permeability (no difference in lactulose/manitol ratio). ASD children with severe maladaptive behavior have significantly more enterocyte damage (increased urinary I-FABP) than ASD children with mild maladaptive behavior and normal children.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Sofyan Ismael
- Department of Child Health, Medical School, University of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - Sudigdo Sastroasmoro
- Department of Child Health, Medical School, University of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - Agus Firmansyah
- Department of Child Health, Medical School, University of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - Yvan Vandenplas
- Department of Pediatrics, Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|