How Do Perceptions of Local Neighborhood Relate to Adolescents' Walking and Cycling?

Where is the Theoretical Basis for Understanding and Measuring the Environment for Physical Activity?

Researchers are beginning to explore environmental correlates to further the field of physical activity research. Before interventions and experimental investigations can be undertaken, it is necessary to identify specific environmental features that are consistent correlates of physical activity. There has been a plethora of research measuring such cross-sectional associations since this field came to the fore in 2003. This paper posits that it is time for researchers to evaluate the state of knowledge, and suggests that future developments in this field focus on the theoretical bases for (i) measurement of the environment and (ii) understanding the links between perceptions of the environment and behaviour through psychological theories of cognition. Key theories considered include social ecology and the theory of planned behaviour. It is suggested that with a continued absence of a common conceptual framework, vocabulary and measurement tools the majority of studies may remain at a correlates stage. In highlighting issues with current methodologies, this commentary encourages more grounded theoretical approaches to the study of the environment and physical activity.

Policies related to active transport to and from school: a multisite case study

Active transportation to and from school (ATS) is a viable strategy to help increase physical activity among youth. ATS can be challenging because initiatives require transdisciplinary collaboration, are influenced by the built environment and are affected by numerous policies. The purpose of this study is to identify policies and factors that influence ATS initiatives. Nine elementary schools in seven states participated in this case study. Sixty-nine stakeholders were interviewed. The interviews were transcribed, coded and analyzed using a master thematic codebook. This study identified two distinct aspects of policies: 'influential factors' which are factors that might impact policies related to ATS and 'policy actions' which are policies reported by people involved in ATS initiatives that directly affected their success. Influential factors included sidewalks, crosswalks/crossing guards, funding, personal safety concerns, advocacy group involvement and others. Policy actions included policies on school speed zone, drop-off, no-transport zones, school siting, school start/dismissal time and school choice. Despite the diversity of the schools studied, similarities included influence of built environment, safety concerns, funding and transdisciplinary collaboration. Stakeholders need to work together to stimulate action and ensure successful initiatives. Influential factors appear to be important to this process.

Are children's perceptions of neighbourhood social environments associated with their walking and physical activity?

This study aimed to examine cross-sectional associations between neighbourhood social environmental factors and physical activity (PA) among Australian primary school children. Baseline data from a large-scale trial among 957 children (48% boys) aged 9-12 years were utilised. Children self-reported their perceptions of the neighbourhood social environment including social networks (e.g. there are lots of other children around to play with), and social capital (e.g. there are lots of people in my area I could go to if I need help). Children also self-reported their weekly walking frequency and PA from which average daily moderate to vigorous PA (MVPA) was calculated. Linear regression analyses examined these associations. Boys performed 17 min/day more MVPA than girls (p<0.01), and girls performed one extra trip/week than boys (p<0.001). Children's perceptions of social capital (p<0.0001) and social networks (p<0.01) were both positively associated with MVPA and social capital was positively associated with walking frequency (p<0.05). These associations were not moderated by the child's sex. These findings suggest that children who had positive perceptions of neighbourhood social capital and social networks in the neighbourhood, tended to be more physically active. Longitudinal and experimental studies are required to further test the influence of these factors among children.

Walking and Bicycling to School: A Review

Walking and bicycling (active commuting) to school has been proposed as a strategy for increasing youth physical activity and decreasing the prevalence of overweight. Citations for this review were retrieved through PubMed, Transport, ERIC, and ISI database searches using relevant keywords (1975 to March 2007), government and organization Web sites, and bibliographic citations. This review presents (1) prevalence estimates for active commuting to school; (2) the correlates of active commuting to school, presented using a new conceptual framework; (3) the associations between active commuting to school and health (ie, physical activity, weight status, environmental); and (4) a summary of the findings and recommendations for further research. Considerable heterogeneity exists among the reviewed studies for sample size and demographics, the methods used to measure active commuting, and the definition used to identify a positive case (active commuter). In general, active commuting to school is much less prevalent in the United States compared with European countries. A wide range of correlates of active commuting to school have been studied (individual to policy level). Active commuters tend to be more active than nonactive commuters, although no difference in weight status was observed in most studies. More research is needed to corroborate these findings and build on the knowledge base so that effective walk-to-school interventions can be implemented independently or as part of other health promotion efforts, including physician counseling for physical activity.

Association of built-environment, social-environment and personal factors with bicycling as a mode of transportation among Austrian city dwellers

OBJECTIVE

To determine the association of built-environment, social-environment, and personal-level factors with bicycling for transportation, among adult city dwellers.

METHOD

Survey of a representative sample of 1000 inhabitants of the city of Graz, Austria, using a computer-assisted telephone interview addressing cycling behavior and associated personal, social and environmental factors.

RESULTS

The prevalence of biking for transportation was 22.5%. After adjustment for gender, age, education, physical activity level and distance from home to destination, cycling was positively associated with the presence of bike lane connectivity (OR=2.09) and social support/modeling (OR=1.62), and negatively associated with the perceived barriers of "physical discomfort" (OR=0.49) and "an impractical transport mode" (OR=0.50). Analysis of interactions indicated that the effect of the perceived benefit of "rapidity" was stronger in physically active persons than inactive individuals, and the effect of the perceived barrier of "an impractical mode of transportation" was stronger among women than men.

CONCLUSION

In addition to cycling-related social support and perceived benefits and barriers, bike lane connectivity may be an important determinant of cycling as a means of transportation among adult city dwellers.

Built environment correlates of walking: a review

INTRODUCTION

The past decade has seen a dramatic increase in empirical investigation into the relations between built environment and physical activity. To create places that facilitate and encourage walking, practitioners need an understanding of the specific characteristics of the built environment that correlate most strongly with walking. This article reviews evidence on the built environment correlates with walking.

METHOD

Included in this review were 13 reviews published between 2002 and 2006 and 29 original studies published in 2005 and up through May 2006. Results were summarized based on specific characteristics of the built environment and transportation walking versus recreational walking.

RESULTS

Previous reviews and newer studies document consistent positive relations between walking for transportation and density, distance to nonresidential destinations, and land use mix; findings for route/network connectivity, parks and open space, and personal safety are more equivocal. Results regarding recreational walking were less clear.

CONCLUSIONS

More recent evidence supports the conclusions of prior reviews, and new studies address some of the limitations of earlier studies. Although prospective studies are needed, evidence on correlates appears sufficient to support policy changes.

Young people's use of sports facilities: A Norwegian study on physical activity

In recent years, sports facilities have fomed part of Norwegian public health policies to increase physical activity among children and adolescents. Despite large sums of public money being spent on such facilities, information on usage is limited. Aims: Our aim was to study the effects of gender, age and relative activity level on young people's use of sports facilities. Methods: We explored 662 young people's (age 6—16 years) usage of 19 different kinds of sports facilities. A questionnaire was administered to students and teachers, and situation plots of students at recess were made. Results: The findings indicate that sports facilities in general were less used by girls, adolescents (14—16 years) and the least active (physically active ≤ 1 times/week outside school) than by boys, children (6—13 years) and the most active (physically active ≥ 4 times/ week outside school). More general, multifunctional facilities were used to a greater extent than specialized facilities, particularly by the least active. Distance to facility was important for the use of common facilities. Conclusions: These results raise the question of whether sports facilities significantly increase physical activity among ``all'' young people, which is the government's stated goal. More research on sports facilities use and physical activity levels among males and females of all ages is warranted.

Neighborhood road environments and physical activity among youth: the CLAN study

We examined associations between objective measures of the local road environment and physical activity (including active transport) among youth. There is little empirical evidence of the impact of the road environment on physical activity among children/adolescents in their neighborhoods. Most recent studies have examined perceptions rather than objective measures of the road environment. This was a cross-sectional study of children aged 8-9 years (n = 188) and adolescents aged 13-15 years (n = 346) who were participants in the 3-year follow-up of the Children Living in Active Neighborhoods (CLAN) longitudinal study in Melbourne, Australia. At baseline (2001), they were recruited from 19 state primary schools in areas of varying socioeconomic status across Melbourne. Habitual walking/cycling to local destinations was parent-reported for children and self-reported for adolescents, while moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) outside school hours was recorded using accelerometers. Road environment features in each participant's neighborhood (area of radius 800 m around the home) were measured objectively using a geographical information system. Regression analyses found no associations between road environment variables and children's likelihood of making at least seven walking/cycling trips per week to neighborhood destinations. Adolescent girls residing in neighborhoods with two to three traffic/pedestrian lights were more likely to make seven or more walking/cycling trips per week as those whose neighborhoods had fewer traffic lights (OR: 2.7; 95% CI: 1.2-6.2). For adolescent boys, residing on a cul-de-sac, compared with a through road, was associated with increases in MVPA of 9 min after school, 5 min in the evenings, and 22 min on weekend days. Speed humps were positively associated with adolescent boys' MVPA during evenings. The road environment influences physical activity among youth in different ways, according to age group, sex and type of physical activity.

Environmental determinants of active travel in youth: a review and framework for future research

BACKGROUND

Many youth fail to meet the recommended guidelines for physical activity. Walking and cycling, forms of active travel, have the potential to contribute significantly towards overall physical activity levels. Recent research examining the associations between physical activity and the environment has shown that environmental factors play a role in determining behaviour in children and adolescents. However, links between the environment and active travel have received less attention.

METHODS

Twenty four studies were identified which examined the associations between the environment (perceived or objectively measured) and active travel among youth aged 5-18 years. Findings were categorised according to the location of the environmental measure examined; attributes of the neighbourhood, destination and the route between home and destination.

RESULTS

Results from the reviewed studies indicated that youth active travel is positively associated with social interactions, facilities to assist active travel and urban form in the neighbourhood as well as shorter route length and road safety en-route. A conceptual framework is presented which highlights the associations between active travel behaviours and environmental factors, drawing upon both existing and hypothesised relationships.

CONCLUSION

We provide a review of the available literature and present a novel theoretical framework that integrates the environment into the wider decision making process around travel choices for children and adolescents. Further work should explore associations where gaps in understanding have been identified, and account for the main moderators of behaviour so hypothesised associations can be confirmed.

Environmental determinants of active travel in youth: a review and framework for future research

Background

Many youth fail to meet the recommended guidelines for physical activity. Walking and cycling, forms of active travel, have the potential to contribute significantly towards overall physical activity levels. Recent research examining the associations between physical activity and the environment has shown that environmental factors play a role in determining behaviour in children and adolescents. However, links between the environment and active travel have received less attention.

Methods

Twenty four studies were identified which examined the associations between the environment (perceived or objectively measured) and active travel among youth aged 5–18 years. Findings were categorised according to the location of the environmental measure examined; attributes of the neighbourhood, destination and the route between home and destination.

Results

Results from the reviewed studies indicated that youth active travel is positively associated with social interactions, facilities to assist active travel and urban form in the neighbourhood as well as shorter route length and road safety en-route. A conceptual framework is presented which highlights the associations between active travel behaviours and environmental factors, drawing upon both existing and hypothesised relationships.

Conclusion

We provide a review of the available literature and present a novel theoretical framework that integrates the environment into the wider decision making process around travel choices for children and adolescents. Further work should explore associations where gaps in understanding have been identified, and account for the main moderators of behaviour so hypothesised associations can be confirmed.

Playing it safe: The influence of neighbourhood safety on children's physical activity—A review

Compared with previous generations, children spend less time playing outdoors and have lower participation rates in active transport. Many studies have identified lack of neighbourhood safety as a potential barrier to children's physical activity. This review describes concerns regarding 'stranger danger' and road safety, and discusses empirical studies that examine associations between neighbourhood safety and physical activity among youth. Variability of perceptions of safety between parents and youth are examined; 'social traps' are identified; and physical/social environmental interventions aimed at improving neighbourhood safety are discussed. A research agenda is suggested for further study of perceived and objective measures of neighbourhood safety and their associations with children's physical activity.

Crime rates and sedentary behavior among 4th grade Texas school children

Introduction

Although per capita crime has generally fallen over the period which coincides with the obesity epidemic, it has not fallen uniformly across communities. It also has not fallen enough to allay fears on the part of parents. Over the past 30 years, technological changes have made the indoor alternatives to playing outside, where children are more vulnerable to criminal activity, more enjoyable (cable TV, video games, and the internet) and comfortable (the spread of air conditioning to low income neighborhoods). We determined whether indoor sedentary behavior patterns are associated with community crime statistics. 4^th graders in the U.S. are typically 9 or 10 years old.

Methods

We used data from the 2004–2005 Texas School Physical Activity and Nutrition (SPAN) survey linked with U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics data for the years 2000 through 2005 and Texas State data on sexual offenders. The probability-based sample included a total of 7,907 children in grade four. Multistage probability sampling weights were used. The dependent variables included were hours of TV watching, video game playing, computer use and total indoor sedentary behavior after school. Incremental Relative Rates were computed for community crime rates including robberies, all violent crimes, murders, assaults, property crimes, rapes, burglaries, larcenies and motor vehicle thefts as well as for sexual offenders living in the neighborhood. The neighborhood refers to the areas where the students at each school live. In the case of sexual offenders, sexual offenders per capita are estimated using the per capita rate in the zip code of the school attended; all other crime statistics are estimated by the crimes per capita in the police department jurisdiction covering the school attended. After controlling for sex, age, and African-American and Hispanic, cross-sectional associations were determined using multivariate Poisson regression.

Results

4^th grade boys were more likely to play video games in communities with increased per 100 population rates of larceny and burglary as well as in communities with increased per capita sexual offenders; 4^th grade girls were more likely to watch television in communities with increased per capita sexual offenders. While 4^th grade girls were more likely to watch TV in communities with increased per capita sex offenders, they were less likely to use computers. Per capita sexual offenders were negatively related to computer use amongst 4^th grade girls.

Conclusion

By combining community crime and cross-sectional individual level data on indoor sedentary behavior, we found that there is an association between community crimes/sex offender rates and certain types of indoor sedentary behavior. The development of technologies in recent decades which makes supervising children easier indoors, where children are much less vulnerable to crime, may be contributing to the epidemic of childhood obesity.

Promoting active living among people with physical disabilities evidence for neighborhood-level buoys

BACKGROUND

People with physical disabilities are more likely to be sedentary than the general population, possibly because they have an accrued sensitivity to environmental features.

OBJECTIVES

This paper describes the relationship between neighborhood-level active living buoys and the active living practices of adults with physical disabilities living in a large urban area.

METHODS

A sample of 205 people with physical disabilities was recruited via a local rehabilitation center and its adapted fitness center. Telephone interviews were administered by senior occupational therapy students. The interview included a modified version of the Physical Activity and Disability Survey, a validated instrument that includes questions on physical activity, active transportation, and other activities of daily living. Individuals were geocoded within their census tract of residence (n=114) using their postal codes. Data on neighborhood active living potential were gleaned from systematic social observation.

RESULTS

Multilevel logistic regression analyses showed that the association between the presence of environmental buoys and leisure activity was significant (OR=4.0, 95% CI=1.1-13.8) despite adjustments for individual difference variables while the association with active transportation became nonsignificant (OR=2.9, 95% CI=0.7-7.7) following adjustment for these variables.

CONCLUSIONS

People with physical disabilities who live in neighborhoods with more environmental buoys are more likely to report involvement in leisure-time physical activity.

Reliability and validity of destination-specific barriers to walking and cycling for youth

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the psychometric properties of a new measure of barriers youth encounter while walking to specific destinations and to validate the measure with self-reported walking to these destinations.

METHODS

In 2005 in Boston, Cincinnati and San Diego, parents of youth (n=289, aged 5-18) and adolescents (n=189, aged 12-18) completed surveys in a two-week test-retest study design. Seventeen items assessed participant agreement with the influence of different barriers to walking or cycling to three types of destinations: 1) parks, 2) shops and restaurants and 3) school. Participants also reported whether or not they walked or cycled to the destinations at least once a week.

RESULTS

Principal components analysis identified three barrier subscales labeled 'environmental', 'psychosocial/planning', and 'safety', which were consistent across the three destinations and two respondent groups. Internal consistency for the subscales was good (alphas> .70) and two-week test-retest reliability was moderately high (ICCs .56-.81) for both parents and adolescents for all destinations. Psychosocial and environmental barriers were higher in adolescents who did not walk (p< .003). Parents of younger children reported high environmental barriers.

CONCLUSION

The three barrier subscales to active commuting to multiple destinations demonstrated good reliability and some initial evidence of validity.

Mapping the social and physical contexts of physical activity across adolescence using ecological momentary assessment

BACKGROUND

Research has sought to understand how environmental factors influence adolescent physical activity, yet little is known about where and with whom adolescents are physically active.

PURPOSE

This study used electronic ecological momentary assessment (e.EMA) to map the social and physical contexts of exercise and walking across adolescence. Differences in physical activity contexts by gender, grade in school, day of the week, and season were examined.

METHODS

Twice a year between 9th and 12th grade, 502 adolescents (51% female) of mixed ethnicity (55% White) participated in 4-day e.EMA intervals (Thursday-Sunday) where their primary activity (e.g., exercise, TV, homework), social company (e.g., friends, family, class), and physical location (e.g., home, school, outdoors) were assessed every 30 (+/-10) min during waking hours.

RESULTS

Overall, greater proportions of exercise and walking were reported with friends, outdoors, and at school. However, boys were more likely to report exercising and walking in outdoor locations than girls. Exercising with classmates, family, and at school decreased across high school. Walking with family, friends, and outdoors also decreased. On weekdays compared to weekends, students reported a greater proportion of their exercise and walking at school. Students were more likely to report exercising and walking outdoors in the fall and the spring than in the winter.

CONCLUSION

e.EMA showed that the social and physical contexts of adolescent exercise and walking vary as a function of gender, grade in school, day of the week, and season. Understanding the contexts of physical activity during the high school years can be helpful in designing interventions during adolescence.

Validity and reliability of a school travel survey

BACKGROUND

Despite the growing interest in active (ie, nonmotorized) travel to and from school, few studies have explored the measurement properties to assess active travel. We evaluated the criterion validity and test-retest reliability of a questionnaire with a sample of young schoolchildren to assess travel to and from school, including mode, travel companion, and destination after school.

METHODS

To assess test-retest reliability, 54 children age 8 to 11 years completed a travel survey on 2 consecutive school days. To assess criterion validity, 28 children age 8 to 10 years and their parents completed a travel survey on 5 consecutive weekdays.

RESULTS

Test-retest reliability of all questions indicated substantial agreement. The questions on mode of transport, where you will go after school, and how you will get there also displayed substantial agreement between parental and child reports.

CONCLUSIONS

For this population, a questionnaire completed by school-age children to assess travel to and from school, including mode, travel companion, and destination after school, was reliably collected and indicated validity for most items when compared with parental reports.

Adolescent obesity: making a difference to the epidemic

Adolescent obesity is a major public health problem in Australia, and in many other parts of the world. Recent data suggest that as many as one quarter of young people in Australia are either overweight or obese, and that the majority of obese young people have one or more risk factors for chronic disease. Efforts to reduce the health and economic burden of obesity must focus on both management of affected individuals and prevention of further cases. This paper reviews some of the research currently underway in Australia, and includes recent data on both the prevalence of obesity and the associated complications, from large surveys and smaller cohorts. State and Federal governments have developed policies aimed at obesity prevention, but these are yet to be fully evaluated. Two large-scale community-based interventions are underway, one of which has reported positive preliminary findings. A number of smaller research programs are examining macro and individual level causation of obesity and include unique research examining the way adolescents perceive their environment. Other research includes the development and evaluation of service delivery models specifically targeting adolescents. A greater emphasis on environmental determinants and management of adolescent obesity is needed in future programs.

Sources of variation in habitual physical activity of children and adolescents: the European youth heart study

The present study examined the influence of gender, maturity state, seasonality, type of measurement day and socioeconomic status (SES) on habitual physical activity in 8-10-year-old children and 14-16-year-old adolescents (n=1318). Physical activity was assessed objectively by accelerometry. The results showed a significant effect of the type of measurement day on physical activity with a general pattern of lower activity levels in weekends compared with weekdays. Furthermore, higher physical activity levels were observed during the months of spring/summer compared with the months of autumn/winter for the 8-10-year-olds, whereas no significant effect of months was observed for the 14-16-year-olds, possibly due to exam preparations and lack of physical activity registration during the months of summer for this cohort. SES was unrelated to physical activity in the 8-10-year-olds, whereas an inverse association was observed in the 14-16-year-olds. However, a post hoc analysis provided strong evidence that this latter result was biased by the accelerometers inability to pick up bicycling activities. Finally, boys were more physically active compared with girls, and maturity state was unrelated to physical activity. The results could prove useful for working out strategies to prevent inactivity and for adjusting for temporal sources of variation in physical activity in future studies.

Urban form relationships with walk trip frequency and distance among youth

PURPOSE

To assess the relationship among objectively measured urban form variables, age, and walking in youth.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional analyses of travel diary data mapped against urban form characteristics within a 1-km buffer of participant's place of residence. Setting. Youth in the Atlanta, Georgia region with selection stratified by income, household size, and residential density.

SUBJECTS

A total of 3161 5- to 20-year-olds who completed 2-day travel diaries. Diaries of those under 15 years were completed by a parent or legal guardian.

MEASURES

Walking distances were calculated from a 2-day travel diary. Residential density, intersection density, land use mix, and commercial and recreation space were assessed within a 1-km network distance around residences. Analysis. Logistic regression analyses were performed for each urban form variable by age groups controlling for the demographic variables. All variables were then entered simultaneously into an analysis of the whole sample.

RESULTS

All five urban form variables tested were related to walking. Recreation space was the only variables associated with walking across the four different age groups. All the urban form variables were related to walking in the 12 to 15 years age cohort. For this group, the odds of walking were 3. 7 times greater for those in highest- versus lowest-density tertile and 2.6 times greater for those with at least one commercial and 2.5 times greater for those with at least one recreational destination within 1 km from home. In the analysis of the full sample, number of cars, recreation space, and residential density were most strongly related to walking.

CONCLUSIONS

Access to recreation or open space was the most important urban form variable related to walking for all age groups. Children aged 12 to 15 years old may be particularly influenced by urban form.

Weekend schoolyard accessibility, physical activity, and obesity: the Trial of Activity in Adolescent Girls (TAAG) study

OBJECTIVES

To assess the accessibility and suitability of schools as recreational sites and to determine whether they are associated with young adolescent girls' weekend metabolic equivalent-weighted moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and body mass index (BMI).

METHODS

We drew a half-mile (0.805 km) radius around the residences of participants in the Trial of Activity for Adolescent Girls (n=1556) in Maryland, South Carolina, Minnesota, Louisiana, California, and Arizona. We visited all schools and parks within the defined distance and documented their amenities and accessibility on Saturdays in Spring 2003. Staff gathered data on each girls' height and weight and used accelerometers to record weekend metabolic equivalent-weighted moderate-to-vigorous physical activity.

RESULTS

Schools represented 44% of potential neighborhood sites for physical activity. However, a third of schools were inaccessible on the Saturday we visited. Neighborhoods with locked schools were primarily non-white, older, more densely populated, and of lower socioeconomic status. Though there was no relationship between school accessibility on Saturdays and weekend metabolic equivalent-weighted moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, the number of locked schools was associated with significantly higher body mass index.

CONCLUSIONS

The lack of relationship between metabolic equivalent-weighted moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and school accessibility may imply that young adolescent girls do not identify schools as recreational resources. However, due to the association between body mass index and locked schools, efforts to stem the obesity epidemic should include making schools more accessible.

Perceived barriers to walking in the neighbourhood environment and change in physical activity levels over 12 months

OBJECTIVES

To investigate whether, and to what extent, perceived barriers to neighbourhood walking (BTNW) may be associated with physical activity levels.

DESIGN

Prospective survey with 12-month follow-up.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

750 people attending walking schemes throughout England and Scotland; 551 completed the follow-up. independent variables were demographic characteristics, examples of possible "external" barriers to walking-for example, "worries about personal safety", and one item concerning ill health. The main outcome measures were "metabolic equivalent" (MET) hours' walking and overall physical activity in the preceding week.

RESULTS

Baseline and follow-up demographic characteristics were similar and physical activity levels generally high. Leisure walking changed little over 12 months, while total physical activity levels reduced significantly from a mean (SD) of 71.26 (78.14) MET hours per week at baseline to 59.57 (181.40) at the 12-month follow-up (p<0.001). External BTNW cited between baseline and 12 months increased significantly from a mean (SD) of 1.24 (1.61) at baseline to 1.43 (1.72) at the 12-month follow-up (p<0.001); only "worries about personal safety" reduced. A significant association was found between citing a health-related BTNW and the total number of external BTNW that were reported at baseline. The strength of this association increased over 12 months. Neither changes in reporting external BTNW that occurred over 12 months (increased vs decreased, vs unchanged) nor changes in the presence of a health-related BTNW were significantly related to levels of leisure walking and overall physical activity (MET hours in the preceding week) over the same period.

CONCLUSION

Among older people who attended walking schemes, having a health problem that restricted walking had a detrimental influence on people's perceptions about external BTNW, which increased over time. Actual levels of walking and overall physical activity levels did not appear to be significantly affected by this.

Associations of children's perceived neighborhood environments with walking and physical activity

PURPOSE

To examine associations between children's perceptions of the neighborhood environment and walking and physical activity.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study of a school-based sample.

SETTING

Elementary schools in Melbourne, Australia.

SUBJECTS

280 children aged 10 years (response rate 78%).

MEASURES

A self-report survey assessed children's perceptions of the neighborhood physical and social environments and their weekly walking frequency. Physical activity was also objectively measured using accelerometers.

RESULTS

Multiple linear regression analyses showed a positive association between walking frequency and the number of accessible destinations in the neighborhood among boys; having a neighborhood that was easy to walk/cycle around and perceiving lots of graffiti were positively associated with walking frequency among girls. Perceiving lots of litter and rubbish was positively associated with boys' overall physical activity, but no environmental variables were associated with girls' overall physical activity.

CONCLUSION

Several different environmental factors were associated with walking and physical activity. Perceptions of the neighborhood environment were more strongly associated with girls' walking than with objectively-measured physical activity. Future studies should confirm these findings using objective measures and prospective study designs.

Girls' perception of physical environmental factors and transportation: reliability and association with physical activity and active transport to school

BACKGROUND

Preliminary evidence suggests that the physical environment and transportation are associated with youth physical activity levels. Only a few studies have examined the association of physical environmental factors on walking and bicycling to school. Therefore, the purpose of this study was (1) to examine the test-retest reliability of a survey designed for youth to assess perceptions of physical environmental factors (e.g. safety, aesthetics, facilities near the home) and transportation, and (2) to describe the associations of these perceptions with both physical activity and active transport to school.

METHODS

Test and retest surveys, administered a median of 12 days later, were conducted with 480 sixth- and eighth-grade girls in or near six U.S. communities. The instrument consisted of 24 questions on safety and aesthetics of the perceived environment and transportation and related facilities. Additionally, girls were asked if they were aware of 14 different recreational facilities offering structured and unstructured activities, and if so, whether they would visit these facilities and the ease with which they could access them. Test-retest reliability was determined using kappa coefficients, overall and separately by grade. Associations with physical activity and active transport to school were examined using mixed model logistic regression (n = 610), adjusting for grade, race/ethnicity, and site.

RESULTS

Item-specific reliabilities for questions assessing perceived safety and aesthetics of the neighborhood ranged from 0.31 to 0.52. Reliabilities of items assessing awareness of and interest in going to the 14 recreational facilities ranged from 0.47 to 0.64. Reliabilities of items assessing transportation ranged from 0.34 to 0.58. Some items on girls' perceptions of perceived safety, aesthetics of the environment, facilities, and transportation were important correlates of physical activity and, in some cases, active transport to school.

CONCLUSION

This study provides some psychometric support for the use of the questionnaire on physical environmental factors and transportation for studying physical activity and active transport to school among adolescent girls. Further work can continue to improve reliability of these self-report items and examine their association of these factors with objectively measured physical activity.

Do attributes in the physical environment influence children's physical activity? A review of the literature

BACKGROUND

Many youth today are physically inactive. Recent attention linking the physical or built environment to physical activity in adults suggests an investigation into the relationship between the built environment and physical activity in children could guide appropriate intervention strategies.

METHOD

Thirty three quantitative studies that assessed associations between the physical environment (perceived or objectively measured) and physical activity among children (ages 3 to 18-years) and fulfilled selection criteria were reviewed. Findings were categorized and discussed according to three dimensions of the physical environment including recreational infrastructure, transport infrastructure, and local conditions.

RESULTS

Results across the various studies showed that children's participation in physical activity is positively associated with publicly provided recreational infrastructure (access to recreational facilities and schools) and transport infrastructure (presence of sidewalks and controlled intersections, access to destinations and public transportation). At the same time, transport infrastructure (number of roads to cross and traffic density/speed) and local conditions (crime, area deprivation) are negatively associated with children's participation in physical activity.

CONCLUSION

Results highlight links between the physical environment and children's physical activity. Additional research using a transdisciplinary approach and assessing moderating and mediating variables is necessary to appropriately inform policy efforts.

Development and reliability of a self-report questionnaire to examine children's perceptions of the physical activity environment at home and in the neighbourhood

Background

Environmental factors are increasingly being implicated as key influences on children's physical activity. Few studies have comprehensively examined children's perceptions of their environment, and there is a paucity of literature on acceptable and reliable scales for measuring these. This study aimed to develop and test the acceptability and reliability of a scale which examined a broad range of environmental perceptions among children.

Methods

Based on constructs from ecological models, a survey incorporating items on children's perceptions of the physical and social environment at home and in the neighbourhood was developed. This was administered on two occasions, nine days apart, to a sample of 39 children aged 11 years (54% boys), attending a metropolitan Australian elementary school. The acceptability of the survey was determined by the proportion of missing responses to each item. The test-retest reliability of individual items, scores and scales were determined using Kappa statistics and percent agreement for categorical variables, and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) for continuous variables.

Results

There were few missing responses to each question, with only 4% of all responses missing. Although some Kappa values were low, all categorical variables showed acceptable reliability when examined for percent agreement between test and retest (range 68%–100% agreement). Continuous variables all showed moderate to good ICC values (range 0.72–0.92).

Conclusion

Findings suggest this questionnaire is reliable and acceptable to children for assessing environmental perceptions relevant to physical activity among 11-year-old children.

Personal, family, social, and environmental correlates of active commuting to school

BACKGROUND

Active commuting to school may be an important opportunity for children to accumulate adequate physical activity for improved cardiovascular risk factors, enhanced bone health, and psychosocial well-being. The purpose of this study was to examine personal, family, social, and environmental correlates of active commuting to school among children.

METHODS

Cross-sectional study of 235 children aged 5 to 6 years and 677 children aged 10 to 12 years from 19 elementary schools in Melbourne, Australia. Self-administered questionnaires were completed by parents, and the older children. The shortest possible routes to school were examined using a geographic information system.

RESULTS

Among both age groups, negative correlates of active commuting to school included parental perception of few other children in the neighborhood and no lights or crossings for their child to use, and an objectively assessed busy road barrier en route to school. In younger children, an objectively assessed steep incline en route to school was negatively associated with walking or cycling to school. Good connectivity en route to school was negatively associated with walking or cycling to school among older children. Among both age groups, children were more likely to actively commute to school if their route was <800 meters. There were no associations with perceived energy levels or enjoyment of physical activity, weight status, or family factors.

CONCLUSIONS

For children, creating child-friendly communities and providing skills to safely negotiate the environment may be important. Environmental correlates of active transport in children and adults may differ and warrant further investigation.