Sensors based on carbon paste in electrochemical analysis: A review with particular emphasis on the period 1990-1993

Determination of diclofenac on a dysprosium nanowire- modified carbon paste electrode accomplished in a flow injection system by advanced filtering

A new detection technique called Fast Fourier Transform Square-Wave Voltammetry (FFT SWV) is based on measurements of electrode admittance as a function of potential. The response of the detector (microelectrode), which is generated by a redox processes, is fast, which makes the method suitable for most applications involving flowing electrolytes. The carbon paste electrode was modified by nanostructures to improve sensitivity. Synthesized dysprosium nanowires provide a more effective nanotube-like surface [1-4] so they are good candidates for use as a modifier for electrochemical reactions. The redox properties of diclofenac were used for its determination in human serum and urine samples. The support electrolyte that provided a more defined and intense peak current for diclofenac determination was a 0.05 mol L(-1) acetate buffer pH = 4.0. The drug presented an irreversible oxidation peak at 850 mV vs. Ag/AgCl on a modified nanowire carbon paste electrode which produced high current and reduced the oxidation potential by about 100 mV. Furthermore, the signal-to-noise ratio was significantly increased by application of a discrete Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) method, background subtraction and two-dimensional integration of the electrode response over a selected potential range and time window. To obtain the much sensivity the effective parameters such as frequency, amplitude and pH was optimized. As a result, C(DL) of 2.0 × 10(-9) M and an LOQ of 5.0 × 10(-9) M were found for the determination for diclofenac. A good recovery was obtained for assay spiked urine samples and a good quantification of diclofenac was achieved in a commercial formulation.

Organically nanoporous silica gel based on carbon paste electrode for potentiometric detection of trace Cr(III)

A new ion-selective electrode (ISE) for the detection of trace chromium(III) was designed by using 2-acetylpyridine and nanoporous silica gel (APNSG)-functionalized carbon paste electrode (CPE). The presence of APNSG acted as not only a paste binder, but also a reactive material. With 7.5 wt% APNSG proportions, the developed electrode exhibited wide dynamic range of 1.0 x 10(-8) to 1.0 x 10(-3) M toward Cr(III) with a detection limit of 8.0 x 10(-9) M and a Nernstian slope of 19.8 +/- 0.2 mV decade(-1). The as-prepared electrode displayed rapid response (approximately 55 s), long-time stability, and high sensitivity. Moreover, the potentiometric responses could be carried out with wide pH range of 1.5-5.0. In addition, the content of Cr(III) in food samples, e.g. coffee and tea leaves, has been assayed by the developed electrode, atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) and atomic emission spectrometer (ICP-AES), respectively, and consistent results were obtained. Importantly, the response mechanism of the proposed electrode was investigated by using AC impedance and UV-vis spectroscopy.

Electrochemical determination of para-nitrophenol at apatite-modified carbon paste electrode: application in river water samples

The behavior of a modified carbon paste electrode (CPE) for para-nitrophenol detection by cyclic and square wave voltammetry (SWV) was studied. The electrode was built by incorporating the hydroxyapatite (HAP) to carbon paste. The overall analysis involved a two-step procedure: an accumulation step at open circuit, followed by medium exchange to a pure electrolyte solution for the voltammetric quantification. During the preconcentration step, para-nitrophenol was adsorbed onto hydroxyapatite surface. The influence of various experimental parameters on the HAP-CPE response was investigated (i.e. pH, carbon paste composition, accumulation time). Under the optimized conditions, the reduction peak shows that the peak height was found to be directly proportional to the para-nitrophenol concentration in the range comprised between 2x10(-7) mol L(-1) and 1x10(-4) mol L(-1). With this, it was possible to determine detection limit (DL), which resulted in 8x10(-9) mol L(-1) for peak 1. The proposed electrode (HAP-CPE) presented good repeatability, evaluated in term of relative standard deviation (R.S.D.=2.87%) for n=7 and was applied for para-nitrophenol determination in water samples. The average recovery for these samples was 86.2%.

Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2-modified carbon-paste electrode for the determination of trace lead(II) by square-wave voltammetry

The analytical performance of hydroxyapatite Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2(HAp) screen-printed sensors designed for the detection of metals was evaluated. The hydroxyapatite plays an important role in modern analytical electrochemistry due to their usefulness for the preparation of sensors giving rise to improved responses from metals. The suitable HAp-modified carbon-paste electrode (HAp-CPE) for the electrochemical determination of lead is illustrated in this work using cyclic and square-wave voltammetry in the potential range between -0.3 and -0.8V. Perchlorate acid solution (1.0molL(-1)) was employed as the supporting electrolyte. The voltammetric measurements were carried out using as working electrode HAp-CPE, and a platinum electrode and an SCE electrode as auxiliary and reference electrodes, respectively. Under the optimized working conditions, calibration graph is linear for 5min of preconcentration time with the detection limit 7.68x10(-10)molL(-1). This detection limit is remarkably lower than those reported previously using other modified electrodes or amperometric detection. The results indicate that this electrode is sensitive and effective for the determination of Pb2+.

Influence of Inner Transducer Properties on EMF Response and Stability of Solid-Contact Anion Selective Membrane Electrodes Based on Metalloporphyrin Ionophores

The performance of solid-contact/coated wire type electrodes with plasticized PVC membranes containing metalloporphyrins as anion selective ionophores is reported. The membranes are deposited on transducers based on graphite pastes and graphite rods. The hydrophobicity of the underlying conductive transducer surface is found to be a key factor that influences the formation of an aqueous layer beneath the polymer film. Elimination of this ill-defined water layer greatly improves the electrochemical properties of the ion-sensors, such as EMF stability and life-time. Only highly lipophilic electrode substrates, namely graphite paste with mineral oil, were shown to prevent the formation of aqueous layer underneath the ion-sensing membrane. The possibility of employing Co(III)-tetraphenylporphyrin both as NO(2) (-) selective ionophore and as electron/ion conducting species to ensure ion-to-electron translation was also discussed based on the results of preliminary experiments.

Carbon paste electrodes in electroanalytical chemistry

An overview is given dealing with the applications of carbon paste electrodes in equilibrium potentiometry as well as in electrochemical stripping analysis using both voltammetric and potentiometric modes. Various modifications of carbon pastes and carbon paste-based biosensors are also mentioned. The main emphasis in this article is directed at summarizing recent results of the authors' research group during the past few years.