Bionanotechnology based on silica nanoparticles

MicroRNA: Biogenesis, Function and Role in Cancer

MicroRNAs are small, highly conserved non-coding RNA molecules involved in the regulation of gene expression. MicroRNAs are transcribed by RNA polymerases II and III, generating precursors that undergo a series of cleavage events to form mature microRNA. The conventional biogenesis pathway consists of two cleavage events, one nuclear and one cytoplasmic. However, alternative biogenesis pathways exist that differ in the number of cleavage events and enzymes responsible. How microRNA precursors are sorted to the different pathways is unclear but appears to be determined by the site of origin of the microRNA, its sequence and thermodynamic stability. The regulatory functions of microRNAs are accomplished through the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). MicroRNA assembles into RISC, activating the complex to target messenger RNA (mRNA) specified by the microRNA. Various RISC assembly models have been proposed and research continues to explore the mechanism(s) of RISC loading and activation. The degree and nature of the complementarity between the microRNA and target determine the gene silencing mechanism, slicer-dependent mRNA degradation or slicer-independent translation inhibition. Recent evidence indicates that P-bodies are essential for microRNA-mediated gene silencing and that RISC assembly and silencing occurs primarily within P-bodies. The P-body model outlines microRNA sorting and shuttling between specialized P-body compartments that house enzymes required for slicer –dependent and –independent silencing, addressing the reversibility of these silencing mechanisms. Detailed knowledge of the microRNA pathways is essential for understanding their physiological role and the implications associated with dysfunction and dysregulation.

Inorganic nanoparticles for cancer imaging and therapy

Inorganic nanoparticles have received increased attention in the recent past as potential diagnostic and therapeutic systems in the field of oncology. Inorganic nanoparticles have demonstrated successes in imaging and treatment of tumors both ex vivo and in vivo, with some promise towards clinical trials. This review primarily discusses progress in applications of inorganic nanoparticles for cancer imaging and treatment, with an emphasis on in vivo studies. Advances in the use of semiconductor fluorescent quantum dots, carbon nanotubes, gold nanoparticles (spheres, shells, rods, cages), iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles and ceramic nanoparticles in tumor targeting, imaging, photothermal therapy and drug delivery applications are discussed. Limitations and toxicity issues associated with inorganic nanoparticles in living organisms are also discussed.

Red-luminescent europium (III) doped silica nanoshells: synthesis, characterization, and their interaction with HeLa cells

A simple method to fabricate Eu(3+) doped silica nanoshells particles with 100 and 200 nm diameters is reported. Amino polystyrene beads were used as templates, and an 8 to 10 nm thick silica gel coating was formed by the sol-gel reaction. After removing the template by calcination, porous dehydrated silica gel nanoshells of uniform size were obtained. The Eu(3+) doped silica nanoshells exhibited a red emission at 615 nm on UV excitation. The porous structure of the silica shell wall was characterized by transmission electron microscopy measurements, while particle size and zeta potentials of the particles suspended in aqueous solution were characterized by dynamic light scattering. Two-photon microscopy was used to image the nanoshells after assimilation by HeLa cancer cells.

Synthesis of ultrabright nanoporous fluorescent silica discoids using an inorganic silica precursor

The templated sol-gel synthesis of ultrabright fluorescent nanoporous silica particles based on the use of organic silica sources has previously been reported. The use of organosilanes as the main silica precursors has a number of issues, in particular, the low robustness of the synthesis due to instability of the organic silica source. Here we report on a novel synthesis of ultrabright fluorescent nanoporous silica discoids (a specific shape in-between the sphere and disk) of 3.1 ± 0.7 microns in size, which were prepared using a stable inorganic sodium silicate silica source. Organic fluorescent dye Rhodamine 6G (R6G) was physically (non-covalently) entrapped inside cylindrical nanochannels of ∼4-5 nm in diameter. In contrast to the synthesis with organic silica precursors, the obtained particles showed an excessive leakage of dye. To prevent this leakage, we modified the synthesis by adding a small amount of a secondary silica source. The synthesized particles show virtually no leakage, high photostability, and a brightness equivalent to the fluorescence of up to 7 × 10(7) free R6G molecules. This is about 7 times higher than the fluorescent brightness of particles of the same size made of CdSe/ZnS quantum dots, and 420 times higher than the brightness of the same volume of aqueous solution of free R6G dye.

Biocompatibility of hydrophilic silica-coated CdTe quantum dots and magnetic nanoparticles

Fluorescent magnetic nanoparticles exhibit great application prospects in biomedical engineering. Herein, we reported the effects of hydrophilic silica-coated CdTe quantum dots and magnetic nanoparticles (FMNPs) on human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cells and mice with the aim of investigating their biocompatibility. FMNPs with 150 nm in diameter were prepared, and characterized by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy and photoluminescence (PL) spectra and magnetometer. HEK293 cells were cultured with different doses of FMNPs (20, 50, and 100μ g/ml) for 1-4 days. Cell viability and adhesion ability were analyzed by CCK8 method and Western blotting. 30 mice were randomly divided into three groups, and were, respectively, injected via tail vein with 20, 60, and 100 μg FMNPs, and then were, respectively, raised for 1, 7, and 30 days, then their lifespan, important organs, and blood biochemical parameters were analyzed. Results show that the prepared water-soluble FMNPs had high fluorescent and magnetic properties, less than 50 μg/ml of FMNPs exhibited good biocompatibility to HEK293 cells, the cell viability, and adhesion ability were similar to the control HEK293 cells. FMNPs primarily accumulated in those organs such as lung, liver, and spleen. Lung exposed to FMNPs displayed a dose-dependent inflammatory response, blood biochemical parameters such as white blood cell count (WBC), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), displayed significant increase when the FMNPs were injected into mice at dose of 100μg. In conclusion, FMNPs exhibit good biocompatibility to cells under the dose of less than 50 μg/ml, and to mice under the dose of less than 2mg/kg body weight. The FMNPs' biocompatibility must be considered when FMNPs are used for in vivo diagnosis and therapy.

Protein Nanospheres: Synergistic Nanoplatform-Based Probes for Multimodality Imaging

No single clinical imaging modality has the ability to provide both high resolution and high sensitivity at the anatomical, functional and molecular level. Synergistically integrated detection techniques overcome these barriers by combining the advantages of different imaging modalities while reducing their disadvantages. We report the development of protein nanospheres optimized for enhancing MRI, CT and US contrast while also providing high sensitivity optical detection. Transferrin protein nanospheres (TfpNS), silicon coated, doped rare earth oxide and rhodamine B isothiocyanate nanoparticles, Si⊂Gd(2)O(3):Eu,RBITC, (NP) and transferrin protein nanospheres encapsulating Si⊂Gd(2)O(3):Eu,RBITC nanoparticles (TfpNS-NP) were prepared in tissue-mimicking phantoms and imaged utilizing multiple cross-sectional imaging modalities. Preliminary results indicate a 1:1 NP to TfpNS ratio in TfpNS-NP and improved sensitivity of detection for MRI, CT, US and fluorescence imaging relative to its component parts and/or many commercially available contrast agents.

Highly aminated mesoporous silica nanoparticles with cubic pore structure

Mesoporous silica with cubic symmetry has attracted interest from researchers for some time. Here, we present the room temperature synthesis of mesoporous silica nanoparticles possessing cubic Pm3n symmetry with very high molar ratios (>50%) of 3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane. The synthesis is robust allowing, for example, co-condensation of organic dyes without loss of structure. By means of pore expander molecules, the pore size can be enlarged from 2.7 to 5 nm, while particle size decreases. Adding pore expander and co-condensing fluorescent dyes in the same synthesis reduces average particle size further down to 100 nm. After PEGylation, such fluorescent aminated mesoporous silica nanoparticles are spontaneously taken up by cells as demonstrated by fluorescence microscopy.

Nanoparticles in molecular diagnostics

The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the available and emerging molecular diagnostic methods that take advantage of the unique nanoscale properties of nanoparticles (NPs) to increase the sensitivity, detection capabilities, ease of operation, and portability of the biodetection assemblies. The focus will be on noble metal NPs, especially gold NPs, fluorescent NPs, especially quantum dots, and magnetic NPs, the three main players in the development of probes for biological sensing. The chapter is divided into four sections: a first section covering the unique physicochemical properties of NPs of relevance for their utilization in molecular diagnostics; the second section dedicated to applications of NPs in molecular diagnostics by nucleic acid detection; and the third section with major applications of NPs in the area of immunoassays. Finally, a concluding section highlights the most promising advances in the area and presents future perspectives.

Effect of fluorescent silica nanoparticles in embryo and larva of Oryzias latipes: sonic effect in nanoparticle dispersion

We characterized fluorescent silica nanoparticles (FNPs), which had been applied in many biological systems, in fish embryo rearing media (ERM) solution and evaluated the potential toxicity to the early development of Oryzias latipes embryos. Distribution of FNPs in embryos and larvae of O. latipes was studied by fluorescent and confocal laser scanning microscopic studies. Embryos exposed to three different concentrations of FNPs in stirred or sonicated ERM solutions were observed up to 2d after hatching. FNPs had a negligible effect on the hatchability of O. latipes embryos; however, compared to controls, more than 30% of eggs were abnormal in 10 and 50 mg FN P L(-1) solutions. We found that the toxic effect was increased in sonicated FNP solution, which seems to be related with the dissolution of FNPs in ERM solutions that could be accelerated by sonication. Further study found that the CaCl2 included in ERM solution might enhance the dissolution of the FNPs and the silicate ion released from FNPs partially contributed to larval toxicity. This study showed that some nanoparticles may not be stable in biological fluids even if they are stable in water. Dissolution factors such as sonication and cellular components should be considered in biological application of nanoparticles.

Osteoinductive silk-silica composite biomaterials for bone regeneration

Osteoinductive and biodegradable composite biomaterials for bone regeneration were prepared by combining silk fibroin with silica particles. The influence of these composite systems on osteogenesis was evaluated with human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) subjected to osteogenic differentiation. hMSCs adhered, proliferated, and differentiated towards osteogenic lineages on silk/silica films. The addition of the silica to the silk films influenced gene expression leading to upregulation of bone sialoprotein (BSP) and collagen type 1 (Col 1) osteogenic markers. Evidence for early bone formation in the form of collagen fibers and apatite nodules was obtained on the silk/silica films. Collagen fibers were closely associated with apatite deposits and overall collagen content was higher for the silica containing samples. Also, smaller sized silica particles (24 nm-2 μm) with large surface area facilitated silica biodegradation in vitro through particle dissolution, leading to ∼5-fold decrease in silica content over 10 weeks. These results indicate the suitability of silk/silica composite system towards bone regeneration, where degradation/remodeling rates of the organic and inorganic components can be controlled.

Nanoscale control of silica particle formation via silk-silica fusion proteins for bone regeneration

The biomimetic design of silk/silica fusion proteins was carried out, combining the self assembling domains of spider dragline silk (Nephila clavipes) and silaffin derived R5 peptide of Cylindrotheca fusiformis that is responsible for silica mineralization. Genetic engineering was used to generate the protein-based biomaterials incorporating the physical properties of both components. With genetic control over the nanodomain sizes and chemistry, as well as modification of synthetic conditions for silica formation, controlled mineralized silk films with different silica morphologies and distributions were successfully generated; generating 3D porous networks, clustered silica nanoparticles (SNPs), or single SNPs. Silk serves as the organic scaffolding to control the material stability and multiprocessing makes silk/silica biomaterials suitable for different tissue regenerative applications. The influence of these new silk-silica composite systems on osteogenesis was evaluated with human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) subjected to osteogenic differentiation. hMSCs adhered, proliferated, and differentiated towards osteogenic lineages on the silk/silica films. The presence of the silica in the silk films influenced osteogenic gene expression, with the upregulation of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), bone sialoprotein (BSP), and collagen type 1 (Col 1) markers. Evidence for early bone formation as calcium deposits was observed on silk films with silica. These results indicate the potential utility of these new silk/silica systems towards bone regeneration.

Optimized nanospherical layered alternating metal-dielectric probes for optical sensing

Multishell nanospheres have been proposed as a class of layered alternating metal-dielectric probes (LAMPs) that can greatly enhance sensitivity and multiplexing capabilities of optical molecular imaging . Here we theoretically demonstrate that the interplasmonic coupling within these spheres and hence their spectral responses can be tuned by a rational selection of layer thicknesses. As a proof-of-concept, layered Mie theory calculations of near- and far-field characteristics followed by a genetic algorithm-based selection are presented for gold-silica, silver-silica and copper-silica LAMPs. The results demonstrate that the optical tunability available allows for design of application (excitation wavelength)-specific probes of different sizes. The tunability further increases with number of layers and within a particular allowable probe size provides for structures with distinct resonances at longer wavelengths. The concept of scaling internal field resonances is also shown theoretically and the range over which the magnitudes can be tuned are presented.

Ultrabright fluorescent mesoporous silica nanoparticles

The first successful approach to synthesizing ultrabright fluorescent mesoporous silica nanoparticles is reported. Fluorescent dye is physically entrapped inside nanochannels of a silica matrix created during templated sol-gel self-assembly. The problem of dye leakage from open channels is solved by incorporation of hydrophobic groups in the silica matrix. This makes the approach compatible with virtually any dye that can withstand the synthesis. The method is demonstrated using the dye Rhodamine 6G. The obtained 40-nm silica particles are about 30 times brighter than 30-nm coated water-soluble quantum dots. The particles are substantially more photostable than the encapsulated organic dye itself.

Towards multifunctional, targeted drug delivery systems using mesoporous silica nanoparticles--opportunities & challenges

One of the big challenges of medicine today is to deliver drugs specifically to defected cells. Nanoparticulate drug carriers have the potential to answer to this call, as nanoparticles can cross physiological barriers and access different tissues, and also be provided in a targetable form aimed at enhancing cell specificity of the carrier. Recent developments within material science and strong collaborative efforts crossing disciplinary borders have highlighted the potential of mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) for such targeted drug delivery. Here we outline recent advances which in this sense push MSNs to the forefront of drug delivery development. Relatively straightforward inside-out tuning of the vehicles, high flexibility, and potential for sophisticated release mechanisms make these nanostructures promising candidates for targeted drug delivery such as 'smart' cancer therapies. Moreover, due to the large surface area and the controllable surface functionality of MSNs, they can be controllably loaded with large amounts of drugs and coupled to homing molecules to facilitate active targeting, simultaneously carrying traceable (fluorescent or magnetically active) modalities, also making them highly interesting as theragnostic agents. However, the increased relative surface area and small size, and flexible surface functionalization which is beneficially exploited in nanomedicine, consequently also includes potential risks in their interactions with biological systems. Therefore, we also discuss some safety issues regarding MSNs and highlight how different features of the drug delivery platform influence their behaviour in a biological setting. Addressing these burning questions will facilitate the application of MSNs in nanomedicine.

Functionalized nanoporous silica for the removal of heavy metals from biological systems: adsorption and application

Surface-functionalized nanoporous silica, often referred to as self-assembled monolayers on mesoporous supports (SAMMS), has previously demonstrated the ability to serve as very effective heavy metal sorbents in a range of aquatic and environmental systems, suggesting that they may be advantageously utilized for biomedical applications such as chelation therapy. Herein we evaluate surface chemistries for heavy metal capture from biological fluids, various facets of the materials' biocompatibility, and the suitability of these materials as potential therapeutics. Of the materials tested, thiol-functionalized SAMMS proved most capable of removing selected heavy metals from biological solutions (i.e., blood, urine, etc.) Consequentially, thiol-functionalized SAMMS was further analyzed to assess the material's performance under a number of different biologically relevant conditions (i.e., variable pH and ionic strength) to gauge any potentially negative effects resulting from interaction with the sorbent, such as cellular toxicity or the removal of essential minerals. Additionally, cellular uptake studies demonstrated no cell membrane permeation by the silica-based materials generally highlighting their ability to remain cellularly inert and thus nontoxic. The results show that organic ligand functionalized nanoporous silica could be a valuable material for a range of detoxification therapies and potentially other biomedical applications.

Endothelial cells dysfunction induced by silica nanoparticles through oxidative stress via JNK/P53 and NF-kappaB pathways

Drug carriers are generally introduced into the body intravenously and directly exposed to endothelial cells. Silica nanoparticles could be promising delivery vehicles for drug targeting or gene therapy. However, few studies have been undertaken to determine the biological behavior of silica nanoparticles on endothelial cells. Here we measured reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, apoptosis and necrosis, proinflammatory and prothrombic properties and the levels of the apoptotic signaling proteins and the transcription factors in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) after exposure to silica nanoparticles of different concentrations (25, 50, 100, and 200 microg/mL) for 24h. The results showed that silica nanoparticles, ranging from 50 microg/mL to 200 microg/mL, markedly induced ROS production, mitochondrial depolarization and apoptosis in HUVECs. At the highest concentration, the necrotic rate, LDH leakage, the expression of CD54 and CD62E, and the release of TF, IL-6, IL-8 and MCP-1 were significantly increased. Silica nanoparticles also activated c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), c-Jun, p53, caspase-3 and NF-kappaB, increased Bax expression and suppressed Bcl-2 protein. Moreover, inhibition of ROS attenuated silica nanoparticles-induced apoptosis and inflammation and the activation of JNK, c-Jun, p53 and NF-kappaB. In summary, our findings demonstrated that silica nanoparticles could induce dysfunction of endothelial cells through oxidative stress via JNK, p53 and NF-kappaB pathways, suggesting that exposure to silica nanoparticles may be a significant risk for the development of cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis and thrombus.

High-resolution light microscopy using luminescent nanoparticles

This review presents recent progress in the development of the luminescent nanoparticles for confocal and multiphoton microscopy. Four classes of nanomaterials are discussed: (1) silica-based nanoparticles doped with fluorescent molecules, (2) gold nanoparticles, (3) semiconductor nanocrystals (quantum dots/rods), and (4) nanophosphors. Special considerations are given to recently developed imaging nanoprobes, such as (1) organically modified silica (ORMOSIL) nanoparticles doped with two-photon absorbing fluorophores, which exhibit aggregation-enhanced fluorescence (AEF), and (2) nanophosphors (ceramic nanoparticles containing luminescent lanthanoid ions). Advantages and disadvantages of every class of nanomaterials and their specific applications are briefly discussed.

Fluorescent nanoparticle-based indirect immunofluorescence microscopy for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

A method of fluorescent nanoparticle-based indirect immunofluorescence microscopy (FNP-IIFM) was developed for the rapid detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. An anti-Mycobacterium tuberculosis antibody was used as primary antibody to recognize Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and then an antibody binding protein (Protein A) labeled with Tris(2,2-bipyridyl)dichlororuthenium(II) hexahydrate (RuBpy)-doped silica nanoparticles was used to generate fluorescent signal for microscopic examination. Prior to the detection, Protein A was immobilized on RuBpy-doped silica nanoparticles with a coverage of ∼5.1×102 molecules/nanoparticle. With this method, Mycobacterium tuberculosis in bacterial mixture as well as in spiked sputum was detected. The use of the fluorescent nanoparticles reveals amplified signal intensity and higher photostability than the direct use of conventional fluorescent dye as label. Our preliminary studies have demonstrated the potential application of the FNP-IIFM method for rapid detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in clinical samples.

Protein analysis based on molecular beacon probes and biofunctionalized nanoparticles

With the completion of the human genome-sequencing project, there has been a resulting change in the focus of studies from genomics to proteomics. By utilizing the inherent advantages of molecular beacon probes and biofunctionalized nanoparticles, a series of novel principles, methods and techniques have been exploited for bioanalytical and biomedical studies. This review mainly discusses the applications of molecular beacon probes and biofunctionalized nanoparticles-based technologies for real-time, in-situ, highly sensitive and highly selective protein analysis, including the nonspecific or specific protein detection and separation, protein/DNA interaction studies, cell surface protein recognition, and antigen-antibody binding process-based bacteria assays. The introduction of molecular beacon probes and biofunctionalized nanoparticles into the protein analysis area would necessarily advance the proteomics research.

Combination of a fluorescent dye and a Zn-S cluster and its biological application as a stain for bacteria

An ionic-pair charge-transfer salt [C(15)H(16)N(3)](+)[Zn(8)S(SC(6)H(5))(15).H(2)O](-) (1) featuring a fluorescent dye and a wurtzite-like octanuclear Zn-S cluster shows high stability when staining bacteria Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, and Clostridium novyi NT.

Quantitative gene monitoring of microbial tetracycline resistance using magnetic luminescent nanoparticles

A magnetic/luminescent nanoparticles (MLNPs) based DNA hybridization method was developed for quantitative monitoring of antibiotic resistance genes and gene-expression in environmental samples. Manipulation of magnetic field enabled the separation of the MLNPs-DNA hybrids from the solution and the fluorescence of MLNPs normalized the quantity of target DNA. In our newly developed MLNPs-DNA assay, linear standard curves (R(2) = 0.99) of target gene was determined with the detection limit of 620 gene copies. The potential risk of increased bacterial antibiotic resistance was assessed by quantitative monitoring of tetracycline resistance (i.e., tetQ gene) in wastewater microcosms. The gene abundance and its expression showed a significant increase of tetQ gene copies with the addition of tetracycline, triclosan (TCS), or triclocarban (TCC). A real-time PCR assay was employed to verify the quantification capability of the MLNPs-DNA assay and accordingly both assays have shown strong correlation (R(2) = 0.93). This non-PCR based MLNPs-DNA assay has demonstrated its potential for gene quantification via a rapid, simple, and high throughput platform and its novel use of internal calibration standards.

Fluorescent silica nanoparticles for cancer imaging

In recent years, fluorescent silica nanoparticles (FSNPs) received immense interest in cancer imaging. FSNPs are a new class of engineered optical probes consisting of silica NPs loaded with fluorescent dye molecules. These probes exhibit some attractive features, such as photostability and brightness, which allow sensitive imaging of cancer cells. In general, FSNPs are chemically synthesized in solution using appropriate silane-based precursors. Fluorescent dye molecules are entrapped during the synthesis process. The synthetic process involves hydrolysis and condensation reactions of silane precursors. Stöber's sol-gel and water-in-oil (W/O) microemulsion methods are two popular chemical methods that have been used for synthesizing FSNPs. Silica matrix is capable of carrying hundreds of fluorescent dye molecules in each FSNP, resulting in bright fluorescence. In FSNPs, fluorescent molecules are somewhat protected by the surrounding silica layer, resulting in good photostability. For cancer cell imaging, surface modification of FSNPs is often necessary to obtain appropriate surface functional groups to improve NP aqueous dispersibility as well as bioconjugation capability. Using conventional bioconjugate chemistry, cancer cell-specific biomolecules are then attached to the surface-modified FSNPs. For targeting cancer cells, the FSNPs are often conjugated to specific biomolecules such as antibodies, aptamers, and folic acid. In this chapter, different approaches for the FSNP design will be discussed and some representative protocols for FSNP synthesis will be provided. We will also discuss FSNP surface modification and bioconjugation techniques that are useful for cancer cell imaging.

Nanoparticle-mediated gene delivery

Nonviral gene delivery has been gaining considerable attention recently. Although the efficacy of DNA transfection, which is a major concern, is low in nonviral vector-mediated gene transfer compared with viral ones, nonviral vectors are relatively easy to prepare, less immunogenic and oncogenic, and have no potential of virus recombination and no limitation on the size of a transferred gene. The ability to incorporate genetic materials such as plasmid DNA, RNA, and siRNA into functionalized nanoparticles with little toxicity demonstrates a new era in pharmacotherapy for delivering genes selectively to tissues and cells. In this chapter, we highlight the basic concepts and applications of nonviral gene delivery using super paramagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles and functionalized silica nanoparticles. The experimental protocols related to these topics are described in the chapter.