Characterization of chitosan. Influence of ionic strength and degree of acetylation on chain expansion

Characterization and In Vitro Evaluation of Cytotoxicity, Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activities of Chitosans Extracted from Three Different Marine Sources

Chitins in the α and β isomorphs were extracted from three Tunisian marine sources shrimp (Penaeus kerathurus) waste, crab (Carcinus mediterraneus) shells and cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) bones. The obtained chitins were transformed into chitosans, the acid-soluble form of chitin. Chitosans were characterized and their biological activities were compared. Chitosan samples were then characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The results showed that all chitosans presented identical spectra. Antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antitumor activities of the extracted chitosans were investigated. In fact, cuttlefish chitosan showed the highest DPPH radical-scavenging activity (83 %, 5 mg/ml), whereas it was 79 % and 76 % for shrimp and crab chitosans, respectively. However, in linoleate-β-carotene system, cuttlefish and crab chitosans exerted higher antioxidant activity (82 % and 70 %, respectively), than shrimp chitosan (49 %). Chitosans were tested for their antimicrobial activities against three Gram-negative and four Gram-positive bacteria and five fungi. Chitosans markedly inhibited growth of most bacteria and fungi tested, although the antimicrobial activity depends on the type of microorganism and on the source of chitin. In addition, chitosans showed high antitumor activity which seemed to be dependent on the chitosan characteristics such as acetylation degree and especially the molecular weight.

Co-assembly in chitosan-surfactant mixtures: thermodynamics, structures, interfacial properties and applications

In this review, different aspects characterizing chitosan-surfactant mixtures are summarized and compared. Chitosan is a bioderived cationic polysaccharide that finds wide-ranged applications in various field, e.g., medical or food industry, in which synergistic effects with surfactant can play a fundamental role. In particular, the behavior of chitosan interacting with strong and weak anionic, nonionic as well as cationic surfactants is reviewed. We put a focus on oppositely charged systems, as they exhibit the most interesting features. In that context, we discuss the thermodynamic description of the interaction and in particular the structural changes as they occur as a function of the mixed systems and external parameters. Moreover, peculiar properties of chitosan coated phospholipid vesicles are summarized. Finally, their co-assembly at interfaces is briefly reviewed. Despite the behavior of the mentioned systems might strongly differ, resulting in a high variety of properties, few general rules can be pointed out which improve the understanding of such complex systems.

Chitosan encapsulation modulates the effect of capsaicin on the tight junctions of MDCK cells

Capsaicin has known pharmacological effects including the ability to reversibly open cellular tight junctions, among others. The aim of this study was to develop a strategy to enhance the paracellular transport of a substance with low permeability (FITC-dextran) across an epithelial cell monolayer via reversible opening of cellular tight junctions using a nanosystem comprised by capsaicin and of chitosan. We compared the biophysical properties of free capsaicin and capsaicin-loaded chitosan nanocapsules, including their cytotoxicity towards epithelial MDCK-C7 cells and their effect on the integrity of tight junctions, membrane permeability and cellular uptake. The cytotoxic response of MDCK-C7 cells to capsaicin at a concentration of 500 μM, which was evident for the free compound, is not observable following its encapsulation. The interaction between nanocapsules and the tight junctions of MDCK-C7 cells was investigated by impedance spectroscopy, digital holographic microscopy and structured illumination fluorescence microscopy. The nanocapsules modulated the interaction between capsaicin and tight junctions as shown by the different time profile of trans-epithelial electrical resistance and the enhanced permeability of monolayers incubated with FITC-dextran. Structured illumination fluorescence microscopy showed that the nanocapsules were internalized by MDCK-C7 cells. The capsaicin-loaded nanocapsules could be further developed as drug nanocarriers with enhanced epithelial permeability.

N-(furfural) chitosan hydrogels based on Diels-Alder cycloadditions and application as microspheres for controlled drug release

In this study, chitosan was chemically modified by reductive amination in a two-step process. The synthesis of N-(furfural) chitosan (FC) was confirmed by FT-IR and (1)H NMR analysis, and the degrees of substitution were estimated as 8.3 and 23.8%. The cross-linkable system of bismaleimide (BM) and FC shows that FC shared properties of furan-maleimide chemistry. This system produced non-reversible hydrogel networks by Diels-Alder cycloadditions at 85 °C. The system composed of BM and FC (23.8% substitution) generated stronger hydrogel networks than those of FC with an 8.3% degree of substitution. Moreover, the FC-BM system was able to produce hydrogel microspheres. Environmental scanning electron microscopy revealed the surface of the microspheres to be non-porous with small protuberances. In water, the microspheres swelled, increasing their volume by 30%. Finally, microspheres loaded with methylene blue were able to release the dye gradually, obeying second-order kinetics for times less than 600 min. This behavior suggests that diffusion is governed by the relaxation of polymer chains in the swelled state, thus facilitating drug release outside the microspheres.

Chitin and chitosan preparation from marine sources. Structure, properties and applications

This review describes the most common methods for recovery of chitin from marine organisms. In depth, both enzymatic and chemical treatments for the step of deproteinization are compared, as well as different conditions for demineralization. The conditions of chitosan preparation are also discussed, since they significantly impact the synthesis of chitosan with varying degree of acetylation (DA) and molecular weight (MW). In addition, the main characterization techniques applied for chitin and chitosan are recalled, pointing out the role of their solubility in relation with the chemical structure (mainly the acetyl group distribution along the backbone). Biological activities are also presented, such as: antibacterial, antifungal, antitumor and antioxidant. Interestingly, the relationship between chemical structure and biological activity is demonstrated for chitosan molecules with different DA and MW and homogeneous distribution of acetyl groups for the first time. In the end, several selected pharmaceutical and biomedical applications are presented, in which chitin and chitosan are recognized as new biomaterials taking advantage of their biocompatibility and biodegradability.

Factors affecting the stability of chitosan/tripolyphosphate micro- and nanogels: resolving the opposing findings

The stability of submicron chitosan/tripolyphosphate particles depends on the chitosan type, pH, ionic strength and particle concentration.

Hydrodynamic characterisation of chitosan and its interaction with two polyanions: DNA and xanthan

Chitosan, a soluble polycationic derivative of insoluble chitin, has been widely considered for use in the food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. Commercial ("C") and in-house laboratory ("L") prepared chitosan samples extracted from crustaceous shells with different molecular weight and degrees of acetylation (25% and 15%) were compared with regards to (i) weight-average molecular weight (Mw); (ii) sedimentation coefficient (s(o)(20,w)) distribution, and (iii) intrinsic viscosity ([η]). These parameters were estimated using a combination of analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC), size exclusion chromatography coupled to multi-angle laser light scattering (SEC-MALS) and differential pressure viscometry. Polydisperse distributions were seen from sedimentation coefficient distributions and elution profiles from SEC-MALS. Mw values obtained for each sample by sedimentation equilibrium measurements were in excellent agreement with those obtained from SEC-MALS. Mark-Houwink-Kuhn-Sakurada (MHKS) and Wales van Holde analyses of the data all suggest a semi-flexible conformation. The principle of co-sedimentation was then used to monitor the interactions of the two different molecular weights of L chitosans with two polyanions, DNA and xanthan (another double helical high molecular weight molecule). Interactions were clearly observed and then quantified from the changes in the sedimentation coefficient distribution of the mixture compared to unmixed controls using sedimentation velocity. The interactions appeared to show a strong dependence on molecular weight. The relevance of this for DNA condensation applications is indicated.

Structure of chitosan determines its interactions with mucin

Synthetic and natural mucoadhesive biomaterials in optimized galenical formulations are potentially useful for the transmucosal delivery of active ingredients to improve their localized and prolonged effects. Chitosans (CS) have potent mucoadhesive characteristics, but the exact mechanisms underpinning such interactions at the molecular level and the role of the specific structural properties of CS remain elusive. In the present study we used a combination of microviscosimetry, zeta potential analysis, isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) and fluorescence quenching to confirm that the soluble fraction of porcine stomach mucin interacts with CS in water or 0.1 M NaCl (at c < c*; relative viscosity, η(rel), ∼ 2.0 at pH 4.5 and 37 °C) via a heterotypic stoichiometric process significantly influenced by the degree of CS acetylation (DA). We propose that CS-mucin interactions are driven predominantly by electrostatic binding, supported by other forces (e.g., hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic association) and that the DA influences the overall conformation of CS and thus the nature of the resulting complexes. Although the conditions used in this model system are simpler than the typical in vivo environment, the resulting knowledge will enable the rational design of CS-based nanostructured materials for specific transmucosal drug delivery (e.g., for Helicobacter pylori stomach therapy).

Nanostructured polymeric coatings based on chitosan and dopamine-modified hyaluronic acid for biomedical applications

In a marine environment, specific proteins are secreted by mussels and used as a bioglue to stick to a surface. These mussel proteins present an unusual amino acid 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (known as DOPA). The outstanding adhesive properties of these materials in the sea harsh conditions have been attributed to the presence of the catechol groups present in DOPA. Inspired by the structure and composition of these adhesive proteins, dopamine-modified hyaluronic acid (HA-DN) prepared by carbodiimide chemistry is used to form thin and surface-adherent dopamine films. This conjugate was characterized by distinct techniques, such as nuclear magnetic resonance and ultraviolet spectrophotometry. Multilayer films are developed based on chitosan and HA-DN to form polymeric coatings using the layer-by-layer methodology. The nanostructured films formation is monitored by quartz crystal microbalance. The film surface is characterized by atomic force microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Water contact angle measurements are also conducted. The adhesion properties are analyzed showing that the nanostructured films with dopamine promote an improved adhesion. In vitro tests show an enhanced cell adhesion, proliferation and viability for the biomimetic films with catechol groups, demonstrating their potential to be used in distinct biomedical applications.

Chitin extraction from shrimp shell using enzymatic treatment. Antitumor, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of chitosan

Chitin was recovered through enzymatic deproteinization of the shrimp processing by-products. Different microbial and fish viscera proteases were tested for their deproteinization efficiency. High levels of protein removal of about 77±3% and 78±2% were recorded using Bacillus mojavensis A21 and Balistes capriscus proteases, respectively, after 3h of hydrolysis at 45°C using an enzyme/substrate ratio of 20U/mg. Therefore, these two crude proteases were used separately for chitin extraction and then chitosan preparation by N-deacetylation. Chitin and chitosan samples were then characterized by 13 Cross polarization magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance (CP/MAS)-NMR spectroscopy and compared to samples prepared through chemical deproteinization. All chitins and chitosans showed identical spectra. Chitosans prepared through enzymatic deproteinization have practically the same acetylation degree but higher molecular weights compared to that obtained through chemical process. Antimicobial, antioxidant and antitumoral activitities of chitosan-M obtained by treatment with A21 proteases and chitosan-C obtained by alkaline treatment were investigated. Results showed that both chitosans inhibited the growth of most Gram-negative, Gram-positive bacteria and fungi tested. Furthermore, both chitosans exhibited antioxidant and antitumor activities which was dependent on the molecular weight.

Mechanism of chitosan adsorption on silica from aqueous solutions

We present a study of the adsorption of chitosan on silica. The adsorption behavior and the resulting layer properties are investigated by combining optical reflectometry and the quartz crystal microbalance. Exactly the same surfaces are used to measure the amount of adsorbed chitosan with both techniques, allowing the systematic combination of the respective experimental results. This experimental protocol makes it possible to accurately determine the thickness of the layers and their water content for chitosan adsorbed on silica from aqueous solutions of varying composition. In particular, we study the effect of pH in 10 mM NaCl, and we focus on the influence of electrolyte type and concentration for two representative pH conditions. Adsorbed layers are stable, and their properties are directly dependent on the behavior of chitosan in solution. In mildly acidic solutions, chitosan behaves like a weakly charged polyelectrolyte, whereby electrostatic attraction is the main driving force for adsorption. Under these conditions, chitosan forms rigid and thin adsorption monolayers with an average thickness of approximately 0.5 nm and a water content of roughly 60%. In neutral solutions, on the other hand, chitosan forms large aggregates, and thus adsorption layers are significantly thicker (∼10 nm) as well as dissipative, resulting in a large maximum of adsorbed mass around the pK of chitosan. These films are also characterized by a substantial amount of water, up to 95% of their total mass. Our results imply the possibility to produce adsorption layers with tailored properties simply by adjusting the solution chemistry during adsorption.

Structural differences between chitin and chitosan extracted from three different marine sources

Three marine sources of chitin from Tunisia were investigated. Structural differences between α-chitin from shrimp (Penaeus kerathurus) waste, crab (Carcinus mediterraneus) shells, and β-chitin from cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) bones were studied by the (13)C NMR, FTIR, and XRD diffractograms. The (13)C NMR analysis showed a splitting of the C3 and C5 carbon signals for α-chitin, while that of β-chitin was merged into a single resonance. The bands contour of deconvoluted and curve-fit FTIR spectra showed a more detailed structure of α-chitin in the region of O-H, N-H and CO stretching regions. IR and (13)C NMR were used to determine the chitin degree of acetylation (DA). XRD analysis indicated that α-chitins were more crystalline polymorph than β-chitin. Shrimp chitin was obtained with a good yield (20% on raw material dry weight) and no residual protein and salts. Chitosans, with a DA lower than 20% and relatively low molecular masses were prepared from the wet chitins in the same experimental conditions. They were perfectly soluble in acidic medium. Nevertheless, chitin and chitosan characteristics were depending upon the chitin source.

Chitosan nanoparticles for siRNA delivery: optimizing formulation to increase stability and efficiency

This study aims at developing chitosan-based nanoparticles suitable for an intravenous administration of small interfering RNA (siRNA) able to achieve (i) high gene silencing without cytotoxicity and (ii) stability in biological media including blood. Therefore, the influence of chitosan/tripolyphosphate ratio, chitosan physicochemical properties, PEGylation of chitosan as well as the addition of an endosomal disrupting agent and a negatively charged polymer was assessed. The gene silencing activity and cytotoxicity were evaluated on B16 melanoma cells expressing luciferase. We monitored the integrity and the size behavior of siRNA nanoparticles in human plasma using fluorescence fluctuation spectroscopy and single particle tracking respectively. The presence of PEGylated chitosan and poly(ethylene imine) was essential for high levels of gene silencing in vitro. Chitosan nanoparticles immediately released siRNA in plasma while the inclusion of hyaluronic acid and high amount of poly(ethylene glycol) in the formulation improved the stability of the particles. The developed formulations of PEGylated chitosan-based nanoparticles that achieve high gene silencing in vitro, low cytotoxicity and high stability in plasma could be promising for intravenous delivery of siRNA.

Chitosans for delivery of nucleic acids

Alternatives to efficient viral vectors in gene therapy are desired because of their poor safety profiles. Chitosan is a promising non-viral nucleotide delivery vector because of its biocompatibility, biodegradability, low immunogenicity and ease of manufacturing. Since the transfection efficiency of chitosan polyplexes is relatively low compared to viral counterparts, there is an impetus to gain a better understanding of the structure-performance relationship. Recent progress in preparation and characterisation has enabled coupling analysis of chitosans structural parameters that has led to increased TE by tailoring of chitosan's structure. In this review, we summarize the recent advances that have lead to a more rational design of chitosan polyplexes. We present an integrated review of all major areas of chitosan-based transfection, including preparation, chitosan and polyplexes physicochemical characterisation, in vitro and in vivo assessment. In each, we present the obstacles to efficient transfection and the strategies adopted over time to surmount these impediments.

Effect of gastric environment on Helicobacter pylori adhesion to a mucoadhesive polymer

Helicobacter pylori infection has been associated with several gastric diseases. This bacterium colonizes the gastric mucosa of half of the world's population, and available treatments are unsuccessful in practically one in every five patients. Mucoadhesive polymers, such as chitosan, are being investigated as gastric drug delivery systems. However, since chitosan is also known for its antimicrobial properties, this work aims to evaluate H. pylori interactions with chitosan under simulated gastric environments, namely using various pHs (2.6, 4 and 6), pepsin and urea. To enable the visualization of adherent bacteria, ultrathin chitosan films were produced by spin-coating on gold/glass surfaces, cross-linked with genipin and characterized by Fourier transform infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy, ellipsometry and electrokinetic analysis. Films with homogeneous thickness of 11.7±0.6 nm were produced, and were stable and protonated at all the pHs used. Furthermore, they adsorbed pepsin in all these pHs, in contrast to urea, of which a small adsorption was only observed at pH 6. H. pylori binding to chitosan was higher at pH2.6 although most of adherent bacteria were dead. The presence of pepsin decreased bacterial adhesion, but increased its viability while in a more stressed morphology (coccoid form). The presence of urea did not affect the amount, morphology or viability of chitosan-adherent bacteria. In suspension, the decrease in pH changed H. pylori zeta potential from negative to positive. Moreover, bacteria were only culturable when incubated in pH 6 with and without urea (without pepsin). This work demonstrates that chitosan has the capacity to bind and kill H. pylori in a range of pHs independently of urea. This opens new perspectives for the application of chitosan-based materials to the elimination of H. pylori gastric colonization, though pepsin might appear to be an obstacle.

Green synthesis approach: extraction of chitosan from fungus mycelia

Chitosan, copolymer of glucosamine and N-acetyl glucosamine is mainly derived from chitin, which is present in cell walls of crustaceans and some other microorganisms, such as fungi. Chitosan is emerging as an important biopolymer having a broad range of applications in different fields. On a commercial scale, chitosan is mainly obtained from crustacean shells rather than from the fungal sources. The methods used for extraction of chitosan are laden with many disadvantages. Alternative options of producing chitosan from fungal biomass exist, in fact with superior physico-chemical properties. Researchers around the globe are attempting to commercialize chitosan production and extraction from fungal sources. Chitosan extracted from fungal sources has the potential to completely replace crustacean-derived chitosan. In this context, the present review discusses the potential of fungal biomass resulting from various biotechnological industries or grown on negative/low cost agricultural and industrial wastes and their by-products as an inexpensive source of chitosan. Biologically derived fungal chitosan offers promising advantages over the chitosan obtained from crustacean shells with respect to different physico-chemical attributes. The different aspects of fungal chitosan extraction methods and various parameters having an effect on the yield of chitosan are discussed in detail. This review also deals with essential attributes of chitosan for high value-added applications in different fields.

Reversible Swelling of Chitosan and Quaternary Ammonium Modified Chitosan Brush Layers: Effect of pH and Counter Anion Size and Functionality

This study investigates the swelling of grafted polycationic brushes as a function of pH and anion type. The brushes are chitosan (CH) and chitosans with 27% and 51% degree of substitution (DS) of quaternary ammonium salt, denoted as CH-Q(25) and CH-Q(50), respectively. The water content and swelling behaviors are monitored using in situ quartz-crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D). The pH varies from ~3.5 to 8.5, and the counter anion types include chloride, acetate, and citrate. At fixed pH, the water content and brush swelling increase as the DS increases. Whereas the CH-Q(50) brush layer shows symmetric swelling with a minimum near pH = 4.5, the swelling of CH and CH-Q(25) is relatively constant as pH decreases from 8.2 to 5.5, and then begins to increase near pH 4. These studies indicate that the symmetric swelling of CH-Q(50) is likely attributed to increasing protonation of primary amines for pH values below pH 6.5 and the quaternary ammonium salts above pH 6.5. At pH 4, the swelling of the CH brush increases upon exchanging the smaller chloridewith a bulkier acetate anion, which is less effective at screening intra/inter molecular repulsion. In contrast, upon exchanging the acetate with trifunctional citrate, CH and CH-Q(25) brushes collapse by 53 and 42%, respectively, because the citrate forms ionic cross-links. To test antibacterial properties, silicon oxide, CH and CH-Q(50) brush layers are exposed to 10(7)-10(8) cfu/ml of S. aureus for two days at 37 °C and exposed to stepped shear stresses in 2 min intervals. Whereas an S. aureus biofilm adheres strongly to silicon oxide and CH for stresses up to 12 dyne/cm(2), biofilms on CH-Q(50) detach at a relatively low shear stress, 1.5 dyne/cm(2). Due to their high degree of swelling that can be tuned via pH, counterion size and type, chitosan and quaternary modified chitosans have potential as responsive coatings for applications including MEMS/NEMS devices and drug eluting implants.

The effects of supplementing varying molecular weights of chitooligosaccharide on performance, selected microbial populations and nutrient digestibility in the weaned pig

An experiment (complete randomised design) was conducted to investigate the effects of supplementing different molecular weights (MW) of chitooligosaccharide (COS) on pig performance, selected microbial populations and nutrient digestibility post-weaning. A total of 396 weaned piglets (24 days of age, 7.3 kg ± (s.d.) 1.7 kg live weight) were assigned to one of six dietary treatments (22 replicates/treatment) for a 33-day experimental period. The dietary treatments were as follows (1) control diet (0 ppm COS), (2) control diet plus <1 kDa COS, (3) control diet plus 3 to 5 kDa COS, (4) control diet plus 5 to 10 kDa COS, (5) control diet plus 10 to 50 kDa COS and (6) control diet plus 50 to 100 kDa COS. The COS were included at 250 ppm in the diets. There was no significant effect of dietary treatment on piglet performance during the starter period (days 0 to 18; P > 0.05). However, there were quadratic responses in both daily gain (P < 0.05) and gain to feed ratio (P < 0.05) to the increased MW of COS inclusion during the weaner period (days 18 to 33) with all COS-supplemented treatments improving daily gain and gain to feed ratio compared with the control. There was a quadratic response in faecal scoring to the increased MW of COS inclusion from days 0 to 7 (P < 0.001), days 7 to 14 (P < 0.001) and during the overall experimental period (P < 0.01) with all the COS-supplemented treatments having an improved faecal score compared with the control. During the weaner period, there was a cubic response in lactic acid bacteria and Escherichia coli populations as the MW of COS increased (P < 0.05). The 5 to 10 kDa and 10 to 50 kDa COS increased lactic acid bacteria populations compared with the control, whereas lactic acid bacteria populations decreased at 50 to 100 kDa. The 5 to 10 kDa, 10 to 50 kDa and 50 to 100 kDa COS decreased E. coli populations compared with the control. There was a cubic response in the apparent total tract digestibility of dry matter (DM; P < 0.01), organic matter (OM; P < 0.01), ash (P < 0.01), nitrogen (N; P < 0.01) and gross energy (GE; P < 0.01) to the increased MW of COS inclusion during the weaner period. The 5 to 10 kDa COS had a higher apparent total tract digestibility of DM, OM, ash, N and GE in comparison to the control, whereas the apparent total tract nutrient digestibility of these nutrients decreased at 10 to 50 kDa. The current results indicate that the MW ranges of 5 to 10 kDa and 10 to 50 kDa COS decreased E. coli numbers while increasing nutrient digestibility of the diets.

Thiomers: influence of molar mass on in situ gelling properties

The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of molar mass of thiolated polymers (thiomers) on their in situ gelling properties. Chitosan-thioglycolic acid (chitosan-TGA) and pectin-cysteine (pectin-Cys) of increasing molar mass were chosen to produce in situ gels in combination with carbamide peroxide. Low molar mass chitosan (~2 kDa) was prepared by oxidative degradation with NaNO(2), whereas pectin was depolymerized by heat treatment. Thiomers, displaying 1271-1616 μmol (chitosan-TGA) and 305-403 μmol (pectin-Cys) free thiol groups per gram polymer, were synthesized via amide bond formation mediated by a carbodiimide. The results showed that a reduction of molar mass combined with increased concentrations of both cationic chitosan-TGA and anionic pectin-Cys leads to higher final viscosities and to a higher relative increase in viscosity within 60 min and 180 min, respectively. Using this method, the dynamic viscosity of a very low molar mass chitosan-TGA (~2 kDa) could be increased 100,000-fold within 60 min and 390,000-fold within 180 min. In view of these in situ gelling properties carbohydrate thiomers might be useful for various pharmaceutical applications such as vehicle for drug delivery or as wound dressing material.

Effects of hydrophobic substituents and salt on core-shell aggregates of hydrophobically modified chitosan: light scattering study

In this study we examine two methods of enhancement of aggregation of hydrophobically modified chitosan in dilute aqueous solutions: by increasing the content of n-dodecyl substituents, favoring hydrophobic association, and by increasing the amount of added low molecular weight salt, screening the electrostatic repulsion between similarly charged aggregating chains. By static and dynamic light scattering it was demonstrated that at the growth of the content of hydrophobic groups in the polymer (2-4 mol %) and of the amount of salt in solution (0.025-0.1 M) the weight fraction of aggregates increases, but the aggregation number remains unchanged. This behavior was attributed to the core-shell structure of the aggregates, which provides a low surface energy and strong attraction of associating groups inside the core. At the same time, the effects of the content of hydrophobic groups in the polymer and the ionic strength of the solution on the radii of the aggregates are quite different. Increasing the content of hydrophobic groups induces growth of the gyration radii of the aggregates, but does not affect their hydrodynamic radii. These data suggest the expansion of the hydrophobic core of the aggregates and the contraction of their highly swollen shell. On the other hand, increasing the salt concentration leads to a decrease of both the gyration and hydrodynamic radii of the aggregates, which is due to partial screening of electrostatic repulsion between similarly charged units and lowering of the osmotic pressure of counterions confined inside the aggregates.