Muscarinic receptors--characterization, coupling and function

Big-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels in physiological and pathophysiological urinary bladder smooth muscle cells

Contraction and relaxation of urinary bladder smooth muscle cells (UBSMCs) represent the important physiological functions of the bladder. Contractile responses in UBSMCs are regulated by a number of ion channels including big-conductance Ca²⁺- activated K⁺ (BK) channels. Great progress has been made in studies of BK channels in UBSMCs. The intent of this review is to summarize recent exciting findings with respect to the functional interactions of BK channels with muscarinic receptors, ryanodine receptors (RyRs) and inositol triphosphate receptors (IP₃Rs) as well as their functional importance under normal and pathophysiological conditions. BK channels are highly expressed in UBSMCs. Activation of muscarinic M₃ receptors inhibits the BK channel activity, facilitates opening of voltage-dependent Ca²⁺ (Ca_V) channels, and thereby enhances excitability and contractility of UBSMCs. Signaling molecules and regulatory mechanisms involving RyRs and IP₃Rs have a significant effect on functions of BK channels and thereby regulate cellular responses in UBSMCs under normal and pathophysiological conditions including overactive bladders. Moreover, BK channels may represent a novel target for the treatment of bladder dysfunctions.

Muscarinic Attenuation of Mnemonic Rule Representation in Macaque Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex during a Pro- and Anti-Saccade Task

Maintenance of context is necessary for execution of appropriate responses to diverse environmental stimuli. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) plays a pivotal role in executive function, including working memory and representation of abstract rules. DLPFC activity is modulated by the ascending cholinergic system through nicotinic and muscarinic receptors. Although muscarinic receptors have been implicated in executive performance and gating of synaptic signals, their effect on local primate DLPFC neuronal activity in vivo during cognitive tasks remains poorly understood. Here, we examined the effects of muscarinic receptor blockade on rule-related activity in the macaque prefrontal cortex by combining iontophoretic application of the general muscarinic receptor antagonist scopolamine with single-cell recordings while monkeys performed a mnemonic rule-guided saccade task. We found that scopolamine reduced overall neuronal firing rate and impaired rule discriminability of task-selective cells. Saccade and visual direction selectivity measures were also reduced by muscarinic antagonism. These results demonstrate that blockade of muscarinic receptors in DLPFC creates deficits in working memory representation of rules in primates.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Acetylcholine plays a pivotal role in higher-order cognitive functions, including planning, reasoning, impulse-control, and making decisions based on contingencies or rules. Disruption of acetylcholine function is central to many psychiatric disorders manifesting cognitive impairments, including Alzheimer's disease. Although much is known about the involvement of acetylcholine and its receptors in arousal and attention, its involvement in working memory, an essential short-term memory component of cognition dependent on the integrity of prefrontal cortex, remains poorly understood. Herein, we explored the impact of suppressing acetylcholine signaling on neurons encoding memorized rules while macaque monkeys made responses based on those rules. Our findings provide insights into the neural mechanisms by which a disruption in acetylcholine function impairs working memory in the prefrontal cortex.

Ion Fluxes through KCa2 (SK) and Cav1 (L-type) Channels Contribute to Chronoselectivity of Adenosine A1 Receptor-Mediated Actions in Spontaneously Beating Rat Atria

Impulse generation in supraventricular tissue is inhibited by adenosine and acetylcholine via the activation of A₁ and M₂ receptors coupled to inwardly rectifying GIRK/K_IR3.1/3.4 channels, respectively. Unlike M₂ receptors, bradycardia produced by A₁ receptors activation predominates over negative inotropy. Such difference suggests that other ion currents may contribute to adenosine chronoselectivity. In isolated spontaneously beating rat atria, blockade of K_Ca2/SK channels with apamin and Ca_v1 (L-type) channels with nifedipine or verapamil, sensitized atria to the negative inotropic action of the A₁ agonist, R-PIA, without affecting the nucleoside negative chronotropy. Patch-clamp experiments in the whole-cell configuration mode demonstrate that adenosine, via A₁ receptors, activates the inwardly-rectifying GIRK/K_IR3.1/K_IR3.4 current resulting in hyperpolarization of atrial cardiomyocytes, which may slow down heart rate. Conversely, the nucleoside inactivates a small conductance Ca²⁺-activated K_Ca2/SK outward current, which eventually reduces the repolarizing force and thereby prolong action potentials duration and Ca²⁺ influx into cardiomyocytes. Immunolocalization studies showed that differences in A₁ receptors distribution between the sinoatrial node and surrounding cardiomyocytes do not afford a rationale for adenosine chronoselectivity. Immunolabelling of K_IR3.1, K_Ca2.2, K_Ca2.3, and Ca_v1 was also observed throughout the right atrium. Functional data indicate that while both A₁ and M₂ receptors favor the opening of GIRK/K_IR3.1/3.4 channels modulating atrial chronotropy, A₁ receptors may additionally restrain K_Ca2/SK activation thereby compensating atrial inotropic depression by increasing the time available for Ca²⁺ influx through Ca_v1 (L-type) channels.

Muscarinic receptor subtypes differentially control synaptic input and excitability of cerebellum-projecting medial vestibular nucleus neurons

Neurons in the vestibular nuclei have a vital function in balance maintenance, gaze stabilization, and posture. Although muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) are expressed and involved in regulating vestibular function, it remains unclear how individual mAChR subtypes regulate vestibular neuronal activity. In this study, we determined which specific subtypes of mAChRs control synaptic input and excitability of medial vestibular nucleus (MVN) neurons that project to the cerebellum. Cerebellum-projecting MVN neurons were labeled by a fluorescent retrograde tracer and then identified in rat brainstem slices. Quantitative PCR analysis suggested that M2 and M3 were the possible major mAChR subtypes expressed in the MVN. The mAChR agonist oxotremorine-M significantly reduced the amplitude of glutamatergic excitatory post-synaptic currents evoked by stimulation of vestibular primary afferents, and this effect was abolished by the M2-preferring antagonist AF-DX 116. However, oxotremorine-M had no effect on GABA-mediated spontaneous inhibitory post-synaptic currents of labeled MVN neurons. Furthermore, oxotremorine-M significantly increased the firing activity of labeled MVN neurons, and this effect was blocked by the M3-preferring antagonist J104129 in most neurons tested. In addition, AF-DX 116 reduced the onset latency and prolonged the excitatory effect of oxotremorine-M on the firing activity of labeled MVN neurons. Our findings suggest that M3 is the predominant post-synaptic mAChR involved in muscarinic excitation of cerebellum-projecting MVN neurons. Pre-synaptic M2 mAChR regulates excitatory glutamatergic input from vestibular primary afferents, which in turn influences the excitability of cerebellum-projecting MVN neurons. This new information has important therapeutic implications for treating vestibular disorders with mAChR subtype-selective agents. Medial vestibular nucleus (MVN) neurons projecting to the cerebellum are involved in balance control. We found that activation of pre-synaptic M2 muscarinic receptors inhibit glutamatergic input from vestibular primary afferents, whereas stimulation of post-synaptic M3 muscarinic receptors increases the firing activity of cerebellum-projecting MVN neurons. This new information advances our understanding of the cholinergic mechanism regulating the vestibular system.

Cholinergic Circuit Control of Postnatal Neurogenesis

New neuron addition via continued neurogenesis in the postnatal/adult mammalian brain presents a distinct form of nervous system plasticity. During embryonic development, precise temporal and spatial patterns of neurogenesis are necessary to create the nervous system architecture. Similar between embryonic and postnatal stages, neurogenic proliferation is regulated by neural stem cell (NSC)-intrinsic mechanisms layered upon cues from their local microenvironmental niche. Following developmental assembly, it remains relatively unclear what may be the key driving forces that sustain continued production of neurons in the postnatal/adult brain. Recent experimental evidence suggests that patterned activity from specific neural circuits can also directly govern postnatal/adult neurogenesis. Here, we review experimental findings that revealed cholinergic modulation, and how patterns of neuronal activity and acetylcholine release may differentially or synergistically activate downstream signaling in NSCs. Higher-order excitatory and inhibitory inputs regulating cholinergic neuron firing, and their implications in neurogenesis control are also considered.

Priming the proteasome by protein kinase G: a novel cardioprotective mechanism of sildenafil

The proteasome mediates the degradation of most cellular proteins including misfolded proteins, pivotal to intracellular protein hemostasis. Proteasome functional insufficiency is implicated in a large subset of human failing hearts. Experimental studies have established proteasome functional insufficiency as a major pathogenic factor, rationalizing proteasome enhancement as a potentially new therapeutic strategy for congestive heart failure. Protein kinase G activation known to be cardioprotective was recently found to facilitate proteasomal degradation of misfolded proteins in cardiomyocytes; sildenafil was shown to activate myocardial protein kinase G, improve cardiac protein quality control and slow down the progression of cardiac proteinopathy in mice. This identifies the first clinically used drug that is capable of benign proteasome enhancement and unveils a potentially novel cardioprotective mechanism for sildenafil.

The novel protein kinase C epsilon isoform modulates acetylcholine release in the rat neuromuscular junction

Background

Various protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms contribute to the phosphorylating activity that modulates neurotransmitter release. In previous studies we showed that nPKCε is confined in the presynaptic site of the neuromuscular junction and its presynaptic function is activity-dependent. Furthermore, nPKCε regulates phorbol ester-induced acetylcholine release potentiation, which further indicates that nPKCε is involved in neurotransmission. The present study is designed to examine the nPKCε involvement in transmitter release at the neuromuscular junction.

Results

We use the specific nPKCε translocation inhibitor peptide εV1-2 and electrophysiological experiments to investigate the involvement of this isoform in acetylcholine release. We observed that nPKCε membrane translocation is key to the synaptic potentiation of NMJ, being involved in several conditions that upregulate PKC isoforms coupling to acetylcholine (ACh) release (incubation with high Ca²⁺, stimulation with phorbol esters and protein kinase A, stimulation with adenosine 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphorothioate, 8-Bromo-, Rp-isomer, sodium salt -Sp-8-BrcAMP-). In all these conditions, preincubation with the nPKCε translocation inhibitor peptide (εV1-2) impairs PKC coupling to acetylcholine release potentiation. In addition, the inhibition of nPKCε translocation and therefore its activity impedes that presynaptic muscarinic autoreceptors and adenosine autoreceptors modulate transmitter secretion.

Conclusions

Together, these results point to the importance of nPKCε isoform in the control of acetylcholine release in the neuromuscular junction.

Acupuncture at heterotopic acupoints facilitates distal colonic motility via activating M3 receptors and somatic afferent C-fibers in normal, constipated, or diarrhoeic rats

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have demonstrated the efficacy of somatic stimulation for patients with gastrointestinal motility disorders. However, little effort has been made to investigate the effects of acupuncture on colonic motility, particularly in pathological conditions. The precise mechanism employed in the regulation of acupuncture on colonic motility still remains unclear.

METHODS

We assessed the effect of acupuncture at heterotopic acupoints on distal colonic motility using a warm-water-filled manometric balloon inserted 5-6 cm into the rectum of anesthetized normal rats or rats with diarrhea or constipation. Choline chloride, 4-DAMP, cobra venom and capsaicin were separately applied to investigate the role of M3 receptors in the regulation of distal colonic motility by acupuncture at heterotopic acupoints, and whether Aδ- and/or C-fibers are required for triggering distal colonic motility by acupuncture.

KEY RESULTS

Acupuncture at heterotopic acupoints increased distal colonic motility not only in normal rats but also in rats with constipation or diarrhea. M3 receptors play an important role in the facilitation of distal colonic motility triggered by acupuncture at heterotopic acupoints. Afferent nerve Aδ- and C-fibers mediate the transduction of the acupuncture signal and C-fibers are essential for enhancing the effect of acupuncture at the heterotopic acupoint on distal colonic motility.

CONCLUSIONS & INFERENCES

Our results reveal that acupuncture at heterotopic acupoints increases distal colonic motility regardless of normal or pathological conditions via predominately activating C-fibers of somatic afferent nerve and M3 receptors.

Hydroxycinnamic acid amides from Scopolia tangutica inhibit the activity of M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor in vitro

Scopolia tangutica Maxim (S. tangutica) extracts have been traditionally used as antispasmodic, sedative, and analgesic agents in Tibet and in the Qinghai province of China. Their active compositions are however poorly understood. We have recently isolated five new hydroxycinnamic acid (HCA) amides along with two known HCA amides, one cinnamic acid amide from these extracts. In this study, we evaluate their abilities to inhibit carbacol-induced activity of M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor along with the crude extracts. Chinese hamster ovary cells stably expressing the recombinant human M1 receptor (CHO-M1 cells) were employed to evaluate the anticholinergic potentials. Intracellular Ca(2+) changes were monitored using the FLIPR system. Five HCA amides as well as the crude S. tangutica extract displayed dose-dependent inhibitory effects against M1 receptor. These findings demonstrate that HCA amides are part of the M1 receptor-inhibiting principles of S. tangutica. Since blockade of parasympathetic nerve impulse transmission through the inhibition of the M1 receptor lessens smooth muscle spasms, our findings provided a molecular explanation for the traditional use of S. tangutica against spasm.

Synthesis of O- and N-alkylated products of 1,2,3,4-tetrahydrobenzo[c][2,7]naphthyrin-5(6H)-one

Efficient syntheses of O- and N-alkylated products of 1,2,3,4-tetrahydrobenzo[c][2,7]naphthyrin-5(6H)-one are presented. The O-alkylated analogues were synthesized through a reduction-cyclization cascade and a selective O-alkylation reaction; whereas the N-alkylated analogues were obtained through a key Buchwald coupling.

Superagonism at G protein-coupled receptors and beyond

Ligands targeting GPCRs can be categorized according to their intrinsic efficacy to trigger a specific, receptor-mediated response. A ligand endowed with the same level of efficacy as the endogenous agonist can be classified as a full agonist, whereas a compound that displays greater efficacy, that is, higher receptor signalling output than the endogenous agonist, can be called a superagonist. Subsequent to GPCR activation, an intracellular signalling cascade is set in motion, which may generate substantial amplification of the signal. This may obscure superagonism in pharmacological assays and, therefore, the definition of superagonism necessitates a combination of operational approaches, reduction of spare receptors or estimation of receptor activation close to the receptor level to quantify relative agonist efficacies in a particular system. The first part of this review will compare GPCR superagonism with superagonism in the field of immunology, where this term is well established. In the second part, known GPCR superagonists will be reviewed. Then, the experimental and analytical challenges in the deconvolution of GPCR superagonism will be addressed. Finally, the potential benefit of superagonism is discussed. The molecular mechanisms behind GPCR superagonism are not completely understood. However, crystallography shows that agonist binding alone is not sufficient for a fully active receptor state and that binding of the G protein is at least equally important. Accordingly, the emerging number of reported superagonists implies that ligand-induced receptor conformations more active than the ones stabilized by the endogenous agonist are indeed feasible. Superagonists may have therapeutic potential when receptor function is impaired or to induce negative feedback mechanisms. Linked Articles This article is part of a themed section on Molecular Pharmacology of G Protein-Coupled Receptors. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v173.20/issuetoc.

Synthesis and biology of cyclic imine toxins, an emerging class of potent, globally distributed marine toxins

From a small group of exotic compounds isolated only two decades ago, Cyclic Imine (CI) toxins have become a major class of marine toxins with global distribution. Their distinct chemical structure, biological mechanism of action, and intricate chemistry ensures that CI toxins will continue to be the subject of fascinating fundamental studies in the broad fields of chemistry, chemical biology, and toxicology. The worldwide occurrence of potent CI toxins in marine environments, their accumulation in shellfish, and chemical stability are important considerations in assessing risk factors for human health. This review article aims to provide an account of chemistry, biology, and toxicology of CI toxins from their discovery to the present day.

Acetylcholine produces contraction mediated by cyclooxigenase pathway in arterial vessels in the marine fish (Isacia conceptionis)

Preliminary studies showed that dorsal artery contraction mediated by acetylcholine (ACh) is blocked with indomethacin in intertidal fish (G. laevifrons). Our objective was to characterize the cholinergic pathway in several artery vessels of the I. conceptionis. Afferent and efferent branchial, dorsal and mesenteric arteries were dissected of 6 juvenile specimens, isometric tension studies were done using doses response curves (DRC) for Ach (10(-13) to 10(-3) M), and cholinergic pathways were obtained by blocking with atropine or indomethacin. CRC to ACh showed a pattern of high sensitivity only in efferente branchial artery and low sensibility in all vessels. Furthermore, these contractions were blocked in the presence of atropine and indomethacin in all vessels. Our results corroborate previous results observed in intertidal species that contraction induced by acetylcholine is mediated by receptors that activate a cyclooxygenase contraction pathway.

The therapeutic potential of α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7 nAChR) agonists for the treatment of the cognitive deficits associated with schizophrenia

Homomeric α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α7 nAChRs) have implications in the regulation of cognitive processes such as memory and attention, and have shown promise as a therapeutic target for the treatment of the cognitive deficits associated with schizophrenia. Multiple α7 nAChR agonists have entered human trials; however, unfavorable side effects and pharmacokinetic issues have hindered the development of a clinical α7 nAChR agonist. Currently, EVP-6124 is in phase III clinical trials, and several other α7 nAChR agonists (GTS-21 and AQW051) are in earlier stages of development. This review will summarize the recent advances and failures of α7 nAChR agonists in clinical trials for the treatment of the aforementioned pathology.

Muscarinic modulation of TREK currents in mouse sympathetic superior cervical ganglion neurons

Muscarinic receptors play a key role in the control of neurotransmission in the autonomic ganglia, which has mainly been ascribed to the regulation of potassium M-currents and voltage-dependent calcium currents. Muscarinic agonists provoke depolarization of the membrane potential and a reduction in spike frequency adaptation in postganglionic neurons, effects that may be explained by M-current inhibition. Here, we report the presence of a riluzole-activated current (IRIL ) that flows through the TREK-2 channels, and that is also inhibited by muscarinic agonists in neurons of the mouse superior cervical ganglion (mSCG). The muscarinic agonist oxotremorine-M (Oxo-M) inhibited the IRIL by 50%, an effect that was abolished by pretreatment with atropine or pirenzepine, but was unaffected in the presence of himbacine. Moreover, these antagonists had similar effects on single-channel TREK-2 currents. IRIL inhibition was unaffected by pretreatment with pertussis toxin. The protein kinase C blocker bisindolylmaleimide did not have an effect, and neither did the inositol triphosphate antagonist 2-aminoethoxydiphenylborane. Nevertheless, the IRIL was markedly attenuated by the phospholipase C (PLC) inhibitor ET-18-OCH3. Finally, the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/phosphatidylinositol-4-kinase inhibitor wortmannin strongly attenuated the IRIL , whereas blocking phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2 ) depletion consistently prevented IRIL inhibition by Oxo-M. These results demonstrate that TREK-2 currents in mSCG neurons are inhibited by muscarinic agonists that activate M1 muscarinic receptors, reducing PIP2 levels via a PLC-dependent pathway. The similarities between the signaling pathways regulating the IRIL and the M-current in the same neurons reflect an important role of this new pathway in the control of autonomic ganglia excitability.

Adenosine receptors and muscarinic receptors cooperate in acetylcholine release modulation in the neuromuscular synapse

Adenosine receptors (ARs) are present in the motor terminals at the mouse neuromuscular junction. ARs and the presynaptic muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) share the functional control of the neuromuscular junction. We analysed their mutual interaction in transmitter release modulation. In electrophysiological experiments with unaltered synaptic transmission (muscles paralysed by blocking the voltage-dependent sodium channel of the muscle cells with μ-conotoxin GIIIB), we found that: (i) a collaborative action between different AR subtypes reduced synaptic depression at a moderate activity level (40 Hz); (ii) at high activity levels (100 Hz), endogenous adenosine production in the synaptic cleft was sufficient to reduce depression through A1 -type receptors (A1 Rs) and A2 A-type receptors (A2 A Rs); (iii) when the non-metabolizable 2-chloroadenosine (CADO) agonist was used, both the quantal content and depression were reduced; (iv) the protective effect of CADO on depression was mediated by A1 Rs, whereas A2 A Rs seemed to modulate A1 Rs; (v) ARs and mAChRs absolutely depended upon each other for the modulation of evoked and spontaneous acetylcholine release in basal conditions and in experimental conditions with CADO stimulation; (vi) the purinergic and muscarinic mechanisms cooperated in the control of depression by sharing a common pathway although the purinergic control was more powerful than the muscarinic control; and (vii) the imbalance of the ARs created by using subtype-selective and non-selective inhibitory and stimulatory agents uncoupled protein kinase C from evoked transmitter release. In summary, ARs (A1 Rs, A2 A Rs) and mAChRs (M1 , M2 ) cooperated in the control of activity-dependent synaptic depression and may share a common protein kinase C pathway.

Brain region-specific alterations in the gene expression of cytokines, immune cell markers and cholinergic system components during peripheral endotoxin-induced inflammation

Inflammatory conditions characterized by excessive peripheral immune responses are associated with diverse alterations in brain function, and brain-derived neural pathways regulate peripheral inflammation. Important aspects of this bidirectional peripheral immune-brain communication, including the impact of peripheral inflammation on brain region-specific cytokine responses, and brain cholinergic signaling (which plays a role in controlling peripheral cytokine levels), remain unclear. To provide insight, we studied gene expression of cytokines, immune cell markers and brain cholinergic system components in the cortex, cerebellum, brainstem, hippocampus, hypothalamus, striatum and thalamus in mice after an intraperitoneal lipopolysaccharide injection. Endotoxemia was accompanied by elevated serum levels of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6 and other cytokines and brain region-specific increases in Il1b (the highest increase, relative to basal level, was in cortex; the lowest increase was in cerebellum) and Il6 (highest increase in cerebellum; lowest increase in striatum) mRNA expression. Gene expression of brain Gfap (astrocyte marker) was also differentially increased. However, Iba1 (microglia marker) mRNA expression was decreased in the cortex, hippocampus and other brain regions in parallel with morphological changes, indicating microglia activation. Brain choline acetyltransferase (Chat ) mRNA expression was decreased in the striatum, acetylcholinesterase (Ache) mRNA expression was decreased in the cortex and increased in the hippocampus, and M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (Chrm1) mRNA expression was decreased in the cortex and the brainstem. These results reveal a previously unrecognized regional specificity in brain immunoregulatory and cholinergic system gene expression in the context of peripheral inflammation and are of interest for designing future antiinflammatory approaches.

Reduced muscarinic parotid secretion is underlain by impaired NO signaling in diabetic rabbits

OBJECTIVES

The influence of experimental diabetes (alloxan, 100 mg kg(-1) ) was studied on rabbit parotid gland function.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Carbachol-induced parotid secretion in vivo, and in vitro quantification of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) mRNA expression, by real-time RT-PCR, and activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) in commercial colorimetric assays were measured in parotid glands of non-diabetic and diabetic rabbits.

RESULTS

Carbachol-induced dose-dependent increase in parotid secretion significantly reduced in diabetic rabbits. Functional studies in the presence of muscarinic receptor and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) antagonists revealed that in M3 receptor-mediated carbachol secretion, nitric oxide, deriving mainly from neuronal NOS (nNOS) in control, and iNOS in diabetic rabbits, was involved. Also, upregulation of iNOS mRNA expression and enhanced SOD activity and TAC were detected in diabetic glands.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that decreased M3 receptor-mediated parotid secretion in diabetic rabbits appears to be due to alterations in NO signaling, mainly due to iNOS induction, accompanied by elevated antioxidant response.

Cholinergic activity as a new target in diseases of the heart

The autonomic nervous system is an important modulator of cardiac signaling in both health and disease. In fact, the significance of altered parasympathetic tone in cardiac disease has recently come to the forefront. Both neuronal and nonneuronal cholinergic signaling likely play a physiological role, since modulating acetylcholine (ACh) signaling from neurons or cardiomyocytes appears to have significant consequences in both health and disease. Notably, many of these effects are solely due to changes in cholinergic signaling, without altered sympathetic drive, which is known to have significant adverse effects in disease states. As such, it is likely that enhanced ACh-mediated signaling not only has direct positive effects on cardiomyocytes, but it also offsets the negative effects of hyperadrenergic tone. In this review, we discuss recent studies that implicate ACh as a major regulator of cardiac remodeling and provide support for the notion that enhancing cholinergic signaling in human patients with cardiac disease can reduce morbidity and mortality. These recent results support the idea of developing large clinical trials of strategies to increase cholinergic tone, either by stimulating the vagus or by increased availability of Ach, in heart failure.

Helix 8 and the i3 loop of the muscarinic M3 receptor are crucial sites for its regulation by the Gβ5-RGS7 complex

The muscarinic M3 receptor (M3R) is a Gq-coupled receptor and is known to interact with many intracellular regulatory proteins. One of these molecules is Gβ5-RGS7, the permanently associated heterodimer of G protein β-subunit Gβ5 and RGS7, a regulator of G protein signaling. Gβ5-RGS7 can attenuate M3R-stimulated release of Ca²⁺ from intracellular stores or enhance the influx of Ca²⁺ across the plasma membrane. Here we show that deletion of amino acids 304–345 from the central portion of the i3 loop renders M3R insensitive to regulation by Gβ5-RGS7. In addition to the i3 loop, interaction of M3R with Gβ5-RGS7 requires helix 8. According to circular dichroism spectroscopy, the peptide corresponding to amino acids 548–567 in the C-terminus of M3R assumes an α-helical conformation. Substitution of Thr553 and Leu558 with Pro residues disrupts this α-helix and abolished binding to Gβ5-RGS7. Introduction of the double Pro substitution into full-length M3R (M3R^TP/LP) prevents trafficking of the receptor to the cell surface. Using atropine or other antagonists as pharmacologic chaperones, we were able to increase the level of surface expression of the TP/LP mutant to levels comparable to that of wild-type M3R. However, M3R-stimulated calcium signaling is still severely compromised. These results show that the interaction of M3R with Gβ5-RGS7 requires helix 8 and the central portion of the i3 loop.

The prelimbic cortex muscarinic M₃ receptor-nitric oxide-guanylyl cyclase pathway modulates cardiovascular responses in rats

The prelimbic cortex (PL), a limbic structure, sends projections to areas involved in the control of cardiovascular responses. Stimulation of the PL with acetylcholine (ACh) evokes depressor and tachycardiac responses mediated by local PL muscarinic receptors. Early studies demonstrated that stimulation of muscarinic receptors induced nitric oxide (NO) synthesis and cyclic guanosine cyclic monophosphate (cGMP) formation. Hence, this study investigates which PL muscarinic receptor subtype is involved in the cardiovascular response induced by ACh and tests the hypothesis that cardiovascular responses caused by muscarinic receptor stimulation in the PL are mediated by local NO and cGMP formation. PL pretreatment with J104129 (an M3 receptor antagonist) blocked the depressor and tachycardiac response evoked by injection of ACh into the PL. Pretreatment with either pirenzepine (an M1 receptor antagonist) or AF-DX 116 (an M2 and M4 receptor antagonist) did not affect cardiovascular responses evoked by ACh. Moreover, similarly to the antagonism of PL M3 receptors, pretreatment with N(ω)-propyl-L-arginine (an inhibitor of neuronal NO synthase), carboxy-PTIO(S)-3-carboxy-4-hydroxyphenylglicine (an NO scavenger), or 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolol-[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (a guanylate cyclase inhibitor) blocked both the depressor and the tachycardiac response evoked by ACh. The current results demonstrate that cardiovascular responses evoked by microinjection of ACh into the PL are mediated by local activation of the M3 receptor-NO-guanylate cyclase pathway.

Acupuncture at heterotopic acupoints enhances jejunal motility in constipated and diarrheic rats

AIM: To investigate the effect and mechanism of acupuncture at heterotopic acupoints on jejunal motility, particularly in pathological conditions.

METHODS: Jejunal motility was assessed using a manometric balloon placed in the jejunum approximately 18-20 cm downstream from the pylorus and filled with approximately 0.1 mL warm water in anesthetized normal rats or rats with diarrhea or constipation. The heterotopic acupoints including LI11 (Quchi), ST37 (Shangjuxu), BL25 (Dachangshu), and the homotopic acupoint ST25 (Tianshu), were stimulated for 60 s by rotating acupuncture needles right and left at a frequency of 2 Hz. To determine the type of afferent fibers mediating the regulation of jejunal motility by manual acupuncture, the ipsilateral sciatic A or C fibers of ST37 were inactivated by local application of the A-fiber selective demyelination agent cobra venom or the C fiber blocker capsaicin. Methoctramine, a selective M₂ receptor antagonist, was injected intravenously to identify a specific role of M₂ receptors in mediating the effect of acupuncture on jejunal motility.

RESULTS: Acupuncture at heterotopic acupoints, such as LI11 and ST37, increased jejunal motility not only in normal rats, but also in rats with constipation or diarrhea. In normal rats, manual acupuncture at LI11 or ST37 enhanced jejunal pressure from 7.34 ± 0.19 cmH₂O to 7.93 ± 0.20 cmH₂O, an increase of 9.05% ± 0.82% (P < 0.05), and from 6.95 ± 0.14 cmH₂O to 8.97 ± 0.22 cmH₂O, a significant increase of 27.44% ± 1.96% (P < 0.01), respectively. In constipated rats, manual acupuncture at LI11 or ST37 increased intrajejunal pressure from 8.17 ± 0.31 cmH₂O to 9.86 ± 0.36 cmH₂O, an increase of 20.69% ± 2.10% (P < 0.05), and from 8.82 ± 0.28 cmH₂O to 10.83 ± 0.28 cmH₂O, an increase of 22.81% ± 1.46% (P < 0.05), respectively. In rats with diarrhea, MA at LI11 or ST37 increased intrajejunal pressure from 11.95 ± 0.35 cmH₂O to 13.96 ± 0.39 cmH₂O, an increase of 16.82% ± 2.35% (P < 0.05), and tended to increase intrajejunal pressure (from 12.42 ± 0.38 cmH₂O to 13.05 ± 0.38 cmH₂O, an increase of 5.07% ± 1.08%, P > 0.05), respectively. In contrast, acupuncture ST25, a homotopic acupoint, not only decreased intrajejunal pressure, but also significantly decreased frequency in normal rats and rats with constipation or diarrhea. Following demyelination of Aδ fibers, acupuncture at ST37 again augmented intrajejunal pressure to 121.48% ± 3.06% of baseline. Following capsaicin application for 24 h, acupuncture at ipsilateral ST37 increased intrajejunal pressure to 106.63% ± 1.26% of basal levels when compared to measurements prior to capsaicin treatment (P < 0.05). Acupuncture at LI11, ST37, or BL25 significantly rescued methoctramine-mediated inhibition of jejunal motility amplitude from 42.83% ± 1.65% to 53.43% ± 1.95% of baseline (P < 0.05), from 45.15% ± 2.22% to 70.51% ± 2.34% of baseline (P < 0.01), and from 38.03% ± 2.34% to 70.12% ± 2.22% of baseline (P < 0.01), respectively.

CONCLUSION: Acupuncture at heterotopic acupoints increases the amplitude of jejunal motility in rats. C fibers and M₂ receptors predominantly and (or) partially mediate the regulation of jejunal motility by acupuncture, respectively.

Development of a photoactivatable allosteric ligand for the m1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor

The field of G protein-coupled receptor drug discovery has benefited greatly from the structural and functional insights afforded by photoactivatable ligands. One G protein-coupled receptor subfamily for which photoactivatable ligands have been developed is the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor family, though, to date, all such ligands have been designed to target the orthosteric (endogenous ligand) binding site of these receptors. Herein we report the synthesis and pharmacological investigation of a novel photoaffinity label, MIPS1455 (4), designed to bind irreversibly to an allosteric site of the M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor; a target of therapeutic interest for the treatment of cognitive deficits. MIPS1455 may be a valuable molecular tool for further investigating allosteric interactions at this receptor.

Vascular function in arteries of intertidal fish Girella laevifrons (Kyphosidae)

Preliminary studies showed that dorsal artery contraction mediated by acetylcholine (ACh) is blocked with indomethacin in intertidal fish (Girella laevifrons). Our objective was to characterise the cholinergic pathway in several artery vessels of the G. laevifrons. Afferent and efferent branchial, dorsal and mesenteric arteries were dissected of 6 juvenile specimens, isometric tension studies were done using dose response curves (DRC) for Ach (10(-13) to 10(-3) M), and cholinergic pathways were obtained by blocking with atropine or indomethacin. CRC to ACh showed a pattern of high and low sensitivity. Furthermore, these contractions were blocked in the presence of atropine and indomethacin in all vessels. Our results suggest that contraction observed with acetylcholine is mediated by receptors that activate a cyclooxygenase contraction pathway.

Effects of bladder function by early tamsulosin treatment in a spinal cord injury rat model

Objective

To investigate the effects of early tamsulosin treatment on changes in bladder characteristics after a spinal cord injury.

Methods

We divided 45 rats into three groups: the control (CON) group, the spinal cord injury (SCI) group, and the SCI+tamsulosin treatment (SCI+TAM) group. Spinal cord transection was performed in the SCI and SCI+TAM groups. Tamsulosin was injected for 7 days in the SCI+TAM group. Intravesical and intra-abdominal catheters were implanted before cord injury. Basal pressure (BP), maximal vesical pressure (MVP), micturition volume (MV), and voiding interval time (VIT) were measured at 7 days after SCI. The bladder was then removed and used for an in vitro organ bath study and Western blot analysis. The percentage changes in contractility from baseline after acetylcholine alone, pretreatment with a muscarinic 2 (M2) receptor blocker (AQ-RA741), and pretreatment with a M3 receptor blocker (4-DAMP) were compared among the groups. Western blot analyses were performed to determine expression levels of pERK1/2 and rho-kinase.

Results

In cystometry, MVP, BP, MV, and VIT showed changes in the SCI and SCI+TAM groups versus the CON group (p<0.05). In the organ bath study, acetylcholine-induced contractility in the three groups differed significantly (p<0.05). Additionally, acetylcholine-induced contractility with 4-DAMP pretreatment was reduced significantly in the SCI+TAM group versus the SCI group. In Western blotting, pERK1/2 expression was stronger (p<0.05) and rho-kinase expression was weaker in the SCI+TAM group than the SCI group (p<0.05).

Conclusion

These results suggest that the bladder contraction due to acetylcholine after SCI can be decreased by tamsulosin in the acute stage and this involves changes in pERK1/2 and rho-kinase.

Synthesis and pharmacological evaluation of analogues of benzyl quinolone carboxylic acid (BQCA) designed to bind irreversibly to an allosteric site of the M ₁ muscarinic acetylcholine receptor

Activation of the M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) is a prospective treatment for alleviating cognitive decline experienced in central nervous system (CNS) disorders. Current therapeutics indiscriminately enhance the activity of the endogenous neurotransmitter ACh, leading to side effects. BQCA is a positive allosteric modulator and allosteric agonist at the M1 mAChR that has high subtype selectivity and is a promising template from which to generate higher affinity, more pharmacokinetically viable drug candidates. However, to efficiently guide rational drug design, the binding site of BQCA needs to be conclusively elucidated. We report the synthesis and pharmacological validation of BQCA analogues designed to bind irreversibly to the M1 mAChR. One analogue in particular, 11, can serve as a useful structural probe to confirm the location of the BQCA binding site; ideally, by co-crystallization with the M1 mAChR. Furthermore, this ligand may also be used as a pharmacological tool with a range of applications.

Molecular mechanisms of methoctramine binding and selectivity at muscarinic acetylcholine receptors

Methoctramine (N,N'-bis[6-[[(2-methoxyphenyl)-methyl]hexyl]-1,8-octane] diamine) is an M(2)-selective competitive antagonist of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors and exhibits allosteric properties at high concentrations. To reveal the molecular mechanisms of methoctramine binding and selectivity we took advantage of reciprocal mutations of the M(2) and M(3) receptors in the second and third extracellular loops that are involved in the binding of allosteric ligands. To this end we performed measurements of kinetics of the radiolabeled antagonists N-methylscopolamine (NMS) in the presence of methoctramine and its precursors, fluorescence energy transfer between green fluorescent protein-fused receptors and an Alexa-555-conjugated precursor of methoctramine, and simulation of molecular dynamics of methoctramine association with the receptor. We confirm the hypothesis that methoctramine high-affinity binding to the M(2) receptors involves simultaneous interaction with both the orthosteric binding site and the allosteric binding site located between the second and third extracellular loops. Methoctramine can bind solely with low affinity to the allosteric binding site on the extracellular domain of NMS-occupied M(2) receptors by interacting primarily with glutamate 175 in the second extracellular loop. In this mode, methoctramine physically prevents dissociation of NMS from the orthosteric binding site. Our results also demonstrate that lysine 523 in the third extracellular loop of the M(3) receptors forms a hydrogen bond with glutamate 219 of the second extracellular loop that hinders methoctramine binding to the allosteric site at this receptor subtype. Impaired interaction with the allosteric binding site manifests as low-affinity binding of methoctramine at the M(3) receptor.

Single compartment drug delivery

Drug design is built on the concept that key molecular targets of disease are isolated in the diseased tissue. Systemic drug administration would be sufficient for targeting in such a case. It is, however, common for enzymes or receptors that are integral to disease to be structurally similar or identical to those that play important biological roles in normal tissues of the body. Additionally, systemic administration may not lead to local drug concentrations high enough to yield disease modification because of rapid systemic metabolism or lack of sufficient partitioning into the diseased tissue compartment. This review focuses on drug delivery methods that physically target drugs to individual compartments of the body. Compartments such as the bladder, peritoneum, brain, eye and skin are often sites of disease and can sometimes be viewed as "privileged," since they intrinsically hinder partitioning of systemically administered agents. These compartments have become the focus of a wide array of procedures and devices for direct administration of drugs. We discuss the rationale behind single compartment drug delivery for each of these compartments, and give an overview of examples at different development stages, from the lab bench to phase III clinical trials to clinical practice. We approach single compartment drug delivery from both a translational and a technological perspective.

M2 receptors exert analgesic action on DRG sensory neurons by negatively modulating VR1 activity

The peripheral application of the M2 cholinergic agonist arecaidine on sensory nerve endings shows anti-nociceptive properties. In this work, we analyze in vitro, the mechanisms downstream M2 receptor activation causing the analgesic effects, and in vivo the effects produced by M2 agonist arecaidine administration on nociceptive responses in a murine model of nerve growth factor (NGF)-induced pain. Cultured DRG neurons treated with arecaidine showed a decreased level of VR1 and SP transcripts. Conversely, we found an increased expression of VR1 and SP transcripts in DRG from M2/M4(-/-) mice compared to WT and M1(-/-) mice, confirming the inhibitory effect in particular of M2 receptors on SP and VR1 expression. Patch-clamp experiments in the whole-cell configuration showed that arecaidine treatment caused a reduction of the fraction of capsaicin-responsive cells, without altering the mean capsaicin-activated current in responsive cells. We also demonstrated that arecaidine prevents PKCϵ translocation to the plasma membrane after inflammatory agent stimulation, mainly in medium-small sensory neurons. Finally, in mice, we have observed that intraperitoneal injection of arecaidine reduces VR1 expression blocking hyperalgesia and allodynia caused by NGF intraplantar administration. In conclusion, our data demonstrate that in vivo M2 receptor activation induces desensitization to mechanical and heat stimuli by a down-regulation of VR1 expression and by the inhibition of PKCϵ activity hindering its translocation to the plasma membrane, as suggested by in vitro experiments.

A neuroanatomical analysis of the effects of a memory impairing dose of scopolamine in the rat brain using cytochrome c oxidase as principle marker

Acetylcholine plays a role in mnemonic and attentional processes, but also in locomotor and anxiety-related behavior. Receptor blockage by scopolamine can therefore induce cognitive as well as motor deficits and increase anxiety levels. Here we show that scopolamine, at a dose that has previously been found to affect learning and memory performance (0.1 mg/kg i.p.), has a widespread effect on cytochrome c oxidase histochemistry in various regions of the rat brain. We found a down-regulation of cytochrome c oxidase in the nucleus basalis, in movement-related structures such as the primary motor cortex and the globus pallidus, memory-related structures such as the CA1 subfield of the hippocampus and perirhinal cortex and in anxiety-related structures like the amygdala, which also plays a role in memory. However choline acetyltransferase levels were only affected in the CA1 subfield of the hippocampus and both, choline acetyltransferase and c-Fos expression levels were decreased in the amygdala. These findings corroborate strong cognitive behavioral effects of this drug, but also suggest possible anxiety- and locomotor-related changes in subjects. Moreover, they present histochemical evidence that the effects of scopolamine are not ultimately restricted to cognitive parameters.

M1-muscarinic receptors promote fear memory consolidation via phospholipase C and the M-current

Neuromodulators released during and after a fearful experience promote the consolidation of long-term memory for that experience. Because overconsolidation may contribute to the recurrent and intrusive memories of post-traumatic stress disorder, neuromodulatory receptors provide a potential pharmacological target for prevention. Stimulation of muscarinic receptors promotes memory consolidation in several conditioning paradigms, an effect primarily associated with the M1 receptor (M1R). However, neither inhibiting nor genetically disrupting M1R impairs the consolidation of cued fear memory. Using the M1R agonist cevimeline and antagonist telenzepine, as well as M1R knock-out mice, we show here that M1R, along with β2-adrenergic (β2AR) and D5-dopaminergic (D5R) receptors, regulates the consolidation of cued fear memory by redundantly activating phospholipase C (PLC) in the basolateral amygdala (BLA). We also demonstrate that fear memory consolidation in the BLA is mediated in part by neuromodulatory inhibition of the M-current, which is conducted by KCNQ channels and is known to be inhibited by muscarinic receptors. Manipulating the M-current by administering the KCNQ channel blocker XE991 or the KCNQ channel opener retigabine reverses the effects on consolidation caused by manipulating β2AR, D5R, M1R, and PLC. Finally, we show that cAMP and protein kinase A (cAMP/PKA) signaling relevant to this stage of consolidation is upstream of these neuromodulators and PLC, suggesting an important presynaptic role for cAMP/PKA in consolidation. These results support the idea that neuromodulatory regulation of ion channel activity and neuronal excitability is a critical mechanism for promoting consolidation well after acquisition has occurred.

Muscarinic 2 receptors modulate cardiac proteasome function in a protein kinase G-dependent manner

Proteasome function insufficiency and inadequate protein quality control are strongly implicated in a large subset of cardiovascular disease and may play an important role in their pathogenesis. Protein degradation by the ubiquitin proteasome system can be physiologically regulated. Cardiac muscarinic 2 (M2) receptors were pharmacologically interrogated in intact mice and cultured neonatal rat ventricular myocytes (NRVMs). Proteasome-mediated proteolysis was measured with a surrogate misfolded protein, proteasome peptidase assay, and by characterizing key proteasome subunits. Successful M2 receptor manipulation in cardiomyocytes was determined by measuring an endogenous protein substrate, and in mice, the cardiovascular physiological response. M2 receptor stimulation was associated with increased proteasome-mediated proteolysis and enhanced peptidase activities, while M2 receptor inhibition yielded opposing results. Additionally, M2 receptor manipulation did not alter abundance of the key proteasome subunits, Rpt6 and β5, but significantly shifted their isoelectric points. Inhibition of protein kinase G abrogated the stimulatory effects on proteasome-mediated proteolysis from M2 receptor activation. We conclude that M2 receptor stimulation enhances, whereas M2 receptor inhibition reduces, proteasome-mediated proteolysis likely through posttranslational modifications. Protein kinase G appears to be the mediator of the M2 receptors actions.

M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor in Alzheimer's disease

The degeneration of cholinergic neurons and cholinergic hypofunction are pathologies associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) mediate acetylcholine-induced neurotransmission and five mAChR subtypes (M1-M5) have been identified. Among them, M1 mAChR is widely expressed in the central nervous system and has been implicated in many physiological and pathological brain functions. In addition, M1 mAChR is postulated to be an important therapeutic target for AD and several other neurodegenerative diseases. In this article, we review recent progress in understanding the functional involvement of M1 mAChR in AD pathology and in developing M1 mAChR agonists for AD treatment.

Presynaptic membrane receptors in acetylcholine release modulation in the neuromuscular synapse

Over the past few years, we have studied, in the mammalian neuromuscular junction (NMJ), the local involvement in transmitter release of the presynaptic muscarinic ACh autoreceptors (mAChRs), purinergic adenosine autoreceptors (P1Rs), and trophic factor receptors (TFRs; for neurotrophins and trophic cytokines) during development and in the adult. At any given moment, the way in which a synapse works is largely the logical outcome of the confluence of these (and other) metabotropic signalling pathways on intracellular kinases, which phosphorylate protein targets and materialize adaptive changes. We propose an integrated interpretation of the complementary function of these receptors in the adult NMJ. The activity of a given receptor group can modulate a given combination of spontaneous, evoked, and activity-dependent release characteristics. For instance, P1Rs can conserve resources by limiting spontaneous quantal leak of ACh (an A1 R action) and protect synapse function, because stimulation with adenosine reduces the magnitude of depression during repetitive activity. The overall outcome of the mAChRs seems to contribute to upkeep of spontaneous quantal output of ACh, save synapse function by decreasing the extent of evoked release (mainly an M2 action), and reduce depression. We have also identified several links among P1Rs, mAChRs, and TFRs. We found a close dependence between mAChR and some TFRs and observed that the muscarinic group has to operate correctly if the tropomyosin-related kinase B receptor (trkB) is also to operate correctly, and vice versa. Likewise, the functional integrity of mAChRs depends on P1Rs operating normally.

Gαq signalling: the new and the old

In the last few years the interactome of Gαq has expanded considerably, contributing to improve our understanding of the cellular and physiological events controlled by this G alpha subunit. The availability of high-resolution crystal structures has led the identification of an effector-binding region within the surface of Gαq that is able to recognise a variety of effector proteins. Consequently, it has been possible to ascribe different Gαq functions to specific cellular players and to identify important processes that are triggered independently of the canonical activation of phospholipase Cβ (PLCβ), the first identified Gαq effector. Novel effectors include p63RhoGEF, that provides a link between G protein-coupled receptors and RhoA activation, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), implicated in the regulation of the Akt pathway, or the cold-activated TRPM8 channel, which is directly inhibited upon Gαq binding. Recently, the activation of ERK5 MAPK by Gq-coupled receptors has also been described as a novel PLCβ-independent signalling axis that relies upon the interaction between this G protein and two novel effectors (PKCζ and MEK5). Additionally, the association of Gαq with different regulatory proteins can modulate its effector coupling ability and, therefore, its signalling potential. Regulators include accessory proteins that facilitate effector activation or, alternatively, inhibitory proteins that downregulate effector binding or promote signal termination. Moreover, Gαq is known to interact with several components of the cytoskeleton as well as with important organisers of membrane microdomains, which suggests that efficient signalling complexes might be confined to specific subcellular environments. Overall, the complex interaction network of Gαq underlies an ever-expanding functional diversity that puts forward this G alpha subunit as a major player in the control of physiological functions and in the development of different pathological situations.

The interaction between tropomyosin-related kinase B receptors and serine kinases modulates acetylcholine release in adult neuromuscular junctions

We conducted an electrophysiological study of the functional link between the tropomyosin-related kinase B (trkB) receptor signaling mechanism and serine-threonine kinases, both protein kinase C (PKC) and protein kinase A (PKA). We describe their coordinated role in transmitter release at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) of the Levator auris longus muscle of the adult mouse. The trkB receptor normally seems to be coupled to stimulate ACh release because inhibiting the trkB receptor with K-252a results in a significant reduction in the size of EPPs. We found that the intracellular PKC pathway can operate as in basal conditions (to potentiate ACh release) without the involvement of the trkB receptor function, although the trkB pathway needs an operative PKC pathway if it is to couple to the release mechanism and potentiate it. To actively stimulate PKA (which also results in ACh release potentiation), the operativity of trkB is a necessary condition, and one effect of trkB may be PKA stimulation.

Neuromodulation of early electrosensory processing in gymnotiform weakly electric fish

Sensory neurons continually adapt their processing properties in response to changes in the sensory environment or the brain's internal state. Neuromodulators are thought to mediate such adaptation through a variety of receptors and their action has been implicated in processes such as attention, learning and memory, aggression, reproductive behaviour and state-dependent mechanisms. Here, we review recent work on neuromodulation of electrosensory processing by acetylcholine and serotonin in the weakly electric fish Apteronotus leptorhynchus. Specifically, our review focuses on how experimental application of these neuromodulators alters excitability and responses to sensory input of pyramidal cells within the hindbrain electrosensory lateral line lobe. We then discuss current hypotheses on the functional roles of these two neuromodulatory pathways in regulating electrosensory processing at the organismal level and the need for identifying the natural behavioural conditions that activate these pathways.

Nonneuronal Cholinergic System in Breast Tumors and Dendritic Cells: Does It Improve or Worsen the Response to Tumor?

Besides being the main neurotransmitter in the parasympathetic nervous system, acetylcholine (ACh) can act as a signaling molecule in nonneuronal tissues. For this reason, ACh and the enzymes that synthesize and degrade it (choline acetyltransferase and acetylcholinesterase) as well as muscarinic (mAChRs) and nicotinic receptors conform the non-neuronal cholinergic system (nNCS). It has been reported that nNCS regulates basal cellular functions including survival, proliferation, adhesion, and migration. Moreover, nNCS is broadly expressed in tumors and in different components of the immune system. In this review, we summarize the role of nNCS in tumors and in different immune cell types focusing on the expression and function of mAChRs in breast tumors and dendritic cells (DCs) and discussing the role of DCs in breast cancer.

Examining the role of mitochondria in Ca²⁺ signaling in native vascular smooth muscle

Mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake contributes important feedback controls to limit the time course of Ca²⁺signals. Mitochondria regulate cytosolic [Ca²⁺] over an exceptional breath of concentrations (∼200 nM to >10 μM) to provide a wide dynamic range in the control of Ca²⁺ signals. Ca²⁺ uptake is achieved by passing the ion down the electrochemical gradient, across the inner mitochondria membrane, which itself arises from the export of protons. The proton export process is efficient and on average there are less than three protons free within the mitochondrial matrix. To study mitochondrial function, the most common approaches are to alter the proton gradient and to measure the electrochemical gradient. However, drugs which alter the mitochondrial proton gradient may have substantial off target effects that necessitate careful consideration when interpreting their effect on Ca²⁺ signals. Measurement of the mitochondrial electrochemical gradient is most often performed using membrane potential sensitive fluorophores. However, the signals arising from these fluorophores have a complex relationship with the electrochemical gradient and are altered by changes in plasma membrane potential. Care is again needed in interpreting results. This review provides a brief description of some of the methods commonly used to alter and measure mitochondrial contribution to Ca²⁺ signaling in native smooth muscle.

Effects of muscarinic agents on chick choroids in intact eyes and eyecups: evidence for a muscarinic mechanism in choroidal thinning

PURPOSE

In chicks, ocular growth inhibition is associated with choroidal thickening and growth stimulation with choroidal thinning, suggesting a mechanistic link between the two responses. Because muscarinic antagonists inhibit the development of myopia in animal models by a non-accommodative mechanism, we tested the hypothesis that agonists would stimulate eye growth and thin the choroid. We also hypothesized that the effective growth-inhibiting antagonists would thicken the choroid.

METHODS

Chicks, age 12-16 days, were used. In vivo: Agonists: Single intravitreal injections (20 μL) of oxotremorine (oxo), pilocarpine (pilo), carbachol (carb), or arecaidine (arec) were given to otherwise untreated eyes. A-scan ultrasonography was done prior to injections, and at 3, 24, 48 and 72 h. Antagonists: -10D lenses were worn on one eye for 4 days. Atropine (atro), pirenzepine (pirz), oxyphenonium (oxy) or dicyclomine (dicy) were injected (20 μL) daily into lens-wearing eyes; saline injections were done as controls. Ultrasonography was done on d1 and on d4; on d4 measurements were done before and 3 h after injections. In vitro: Paired eyecups of retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), choroid and sclera were made from 1-week old chicks. All drugs except atropine were tested on one eyecup, its pair in plain medium. Choroidal thickness was measured at various times over 48 h.

RESULTS

Agonists: In vivo, oxotremorine caused an increase in the rate of axial elongation (drug vs saline: 24-72 h: 338 μm vs 250 μm; p < 0.001). All except pilocarpine caused choroidal thinning by 24 h (oxo, carb and arec vs saline: -25, -35 and -46 μm vs 3 μm). In vitro, all agonists thinned choroids by 24 h (oxo: -6 vs 111 μm; pilo: 45 vs 212 μm; carb: -58 vs 65 μm; arec: 47 vs 139 μm; p < 0.05). Antagonists: Atropine, pirenzepine and oxyphenonium inhibited the development of myopia in negative lens-wearing eyes, and also caused choroidal thickening (drug vs saline: 42, 80, 88 vs 10 μm per 3 h). In vitro, pirenzepine thickened choroids by 3 h (77 vs 2 μm, p < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Muscarinic agonists caused choroidal thinning in intact eyes and eyecups, supporting a role for acetylcholine in the choroidal response to hyperopic defocus or form deprivation. Only oxotremorine stimulated eye growth, which is inconsistent with a muscarinic receptor mechanism for antagonist-induced eye growth inhibition. The dissociation between choroidal thinning and ocular growth stimulation for the other agonists in vivo suggest separate pathways for the two.