151
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Wong YP, Khong TY, Tan GC. The Effects of COVID-19 on Placenta and Pregnancy: What Do We Know So Far? Diagnostics (Basel) 2021; 11:diagnostics11010094. [PMID: 33435547 PMCID: PMC7827584 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics11010094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Revised: 12/25/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has inflicted a serious health crisis globally. This virus is associated with a spectrum of respiratory illness ranging from asymptomatic, mild to severe pneumonia, and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Accumulating evidence supports that COVID-19 is not merely a respiratory illness per se, but potentially affects other organ systems including the placenta. SARS-CoV-2 gains access to human cells via angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE-2). The abundance of ACE-2 on the placental cell surface, especially the syncytiotrophoblasts, could potentially contribute to vertical transplacental transmission to the fetus following maternal COVID-19 infection. Intriguingly, despite the placentas being tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, there are very few newborns that manifest virus-induced diseases. The protective effects of the placental barrier to viral infection, limiting the spread of the virus to newborn infants, remain a mystery. The detrimental role of COVID-19 in pregnancies is largely debatable, although COVID-19 maternal infection has been implicated in unfavorable pregnancy outcomes. In this review, we summarize the pathological features manifested in placenta due to COVID-19 maternal infection that have been previously reported, and relate them to the possible disease manifestation. The potential mechanistic pathways associated with transplacental viral transmission and adverse pregnancy outcomes are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yin Ping Wong
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Jalan Yaacob Latif, Bandar Tun Razak, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia
- Correspondence: (Y.P.W.); (G.C.T.); Tel.: +60-391-455-364 (Y.P.W); +60-391-455-362 (G.C.T.)
| | - Teck Yee Khong
- Department of Pathology, SA Pathology, Women’s and Children’s Hospital, North Adelaide, SA 5006, Australia;
| | - Geok Chin Tan
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Jalan Yaacob Latif, Bandar Tun Razak, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia
- Correspondence: (Y.P.W.); (G.C.T.); Tel.: +60-391-455-364 (Y.P.W); +60-391-455-362 (G.C.T.)
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152
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Bezerra Espinola MS, Bertelli M, Bizzarri M, Unfer V, Laganà AS, Visconti B, Aragona C. Inositol and vitamin D may naturally protect human reproduction and women undergoing assisted reproduction from Covid-19 risk. J Reprod Immunol 2021; 144:103271. [PMID: 33493945 PMCID: PMC7833496 DOI: 10.1016/j.jri.2021.103271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Revised: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
In late 2019, the new Coronavirus has been identified in the city of Wuhan then COVID-19 spreads like wildfire in the rest of the world. Pregnant women represent a risk category for increased abortion rates and vertical transmission with adverse events on the newborns has been recently confirmed. The scientific world is struggling for finding an effective cure for counteracting symptomatology. Today, there are many therapeutic proposes but none of them can effectively counteract the infection. Moreover, many of these compounds show important side effects not justifying their use. Scientific literature reports an immune system over-reaction through interleukins-6 activation. In this regard, the possibility to control the immune system represents a possible strategy for counteracting the onset of COVID-19 symptomatology. Vitamin D deficiency shows increased susceptibility to acute viral respiratory infections. Moreover, Vitamin D seems involved in host protection from different virus species by modulating activation and release of cytokines. Myo-inositol down-regulates the expression of IL-6 by phosphatidyl-inositol-3-kinase (PI3K) pathway. Furthermore, myo-inositol is the precursor of phospholipids in the surfactant and it is applied for inducing surfactant synthesis in infants for treating respiratory distress syndrome (RDS). This review aims to summarize the evidence about COVID-19 infection in pregnant women and to encourage the scientific community to investigate the use of Vitamin D and Myo-inositol which could represent a possible preventive treatment for pregnant women or women undergoing assisted reproductive technologies (ART).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Matteo Bertelli
- MAGI'S LAB, Rovereto (Trento), Italy; MAGI EUREGIO, Bolzano, Italy; EBTNA-LAB, Rovereto (Trento), Italy
| | - Mariano Bizzarri
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Systems Biology Group Lab, Rome, Italy
| | - Vittorio Unfer
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Systems Biology Group Lab, Rome, Italy
| | - Antonio Simone Laganà
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, "Filippo Del Ponte" Hospital, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | | | - Cesare Aragona
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Systems Biology Group Lab, Rome, Italy.
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153
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Benarroch Y, Juttukonda L, Sabharwal V, Boateng J, Khan AR, Yarrington C, Wachman EM, Taglauer E. Differential Expression of Rab5 and Rab7 Small GTPase Proteins in Placental Tissues From Pregnancies Affected by Maternal Coronavirus Disease 2019. Clin Ther 2021; 43:308-318. [PMID: 33541739 PMCID: PMC7837084 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinthera.2021.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Revised: 01/03/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Purpose The majority of pregnancies affected by maternal coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) do not result in fetal transmission. However, several studies have identified parenchymal changes in their placental tissues, suggesting a placental response to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) at the maternal–fetal interface. Although many COVID-19 placental studies have focused on the expression of the canonical SARS-CoV-2 entry proteins angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and transmembrane serine protease 2, further characterization of subcellular molecules involved in viral trafficking have not yet been investigated in these tissues. Of interest are Rab proteins, a family of small GTPase proteins that direct intracellular transport between different endocytic organelles. Rab5 and Rab7 in particular have previously been implicated in HIV and cytomegalovirus invasion of placental trophoblast cells in vitro; the localization of these molecules has not been fully characterized within the human maternal–fetal interface, however, or within placental tissues from SARS-CoV-2–infected pregnancies. Methods Using fluorescent immunohistochemistry, Rab5 and Rab7 placental localization and comparative fluorescence intensity were explored in a cohort of placental tissues from pregnancies affected by maternal COVID-19 disease (COVID, n = 15) compared with contemporary control subjects (Control, n = 10). Fluorescence intensity was quantified by using corrected total cell fluorescence values. Findings Within placental villi, Rab5 was consistently localized in syncytiotrophoblast and cytotrophoblast cells. Rab5 had significantly higher mean (SEM) fluorescence intensity in the COVID cohort (Control, 1.96 [0.16]; COVID, 2.62 [0.09]; P = 0.0014). In contrast, although Rab7 was also localized within placental villous syncytiotrophoblast and cytotrophoblast cells, mean (SEM) Rab7 fluorescence intensity was significantly downregulated in COVID vs Control placentas (Control, 35.9 [4.1]; COVID, 20.1 [0.52]; P = 0.0001). Implications This differential expression of Rab5 and Rab7 suggests that placental endocytic pathways may be altered at the maternal–fetal interface in pregnancies affected by maternal SARS-CoV-2 infection. As key molecules governing intracellular vesicle transport, including viral trafficking, Rab GTPase proteins may be of interest for ongoing studies examining placental responses to COVID-19 in pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lillian Juttukonda
- Boston Combined Residency Program in Pediatrics, Boston Medical Center and Children's Hospital Boston, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Jeffery Boateng
- Department of Pediatrics, Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Amir R Khan
- Division of Newborn Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland
| | | | - Elisha M Wachman
- Department of Pediatrics, Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Elizabeth Taglauer
- Department of Pediatrics, Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA; Division of Newborn Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.
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154
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Wali AA, Abd-El-Fatah SM. Prognosis and Outcomes of COVID-19 infection During Pregnancy. COVID-19 INFECTIONS AND PREGNANCY 2021. [PMCID: PMC8298323 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-90595-4.00003-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The pathophysiology of COVID-19 and pregnancy physiology intertwine in mysterious ways; thus, studying outcomes and prognosis in pregnant women with this new disease is an emerging concern. In this chapter, two main parts are presented; the first part discusses the effect of pregnancy on COVID-19, whether pregnant women are more susceptible to the disease, the different course of the disease and its severity in the pregnant population compared with the general population, and specific reference to COVID-19 complications in pregnant women. Also, the need for hospitalization, intensive care, and mechanical ventilation is reviewed. On the other hand, the second part of the chapter presents the effect of COVID-19 on pregnancy and discusses different maternal, fetal, and neonatal morbidities, including the possibility of vertical transmission, which could be caused by COVID-19 in this vulnerable group. Furthermore, maternal and perinatal mortality rates are discussed.
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155
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Nauleau
- EBioMedicine, 230 Park Avenue, #800, New York, NY 10169, United States.
| | - Hannah Ralph
- EBioMedicine, 125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, UK
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156
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Ali A, Rashid Z, Zhou J, Zubair Yousaf M, Galani S, Ashraf A, Al-Ghanim KA, Al-Suliman E, Ahmed Z, Farooq M, Virik P, Kaimkhani ZA, Al-Mulhm N, Mahboob S, Dong M, Huang Q. Evaluating antibody response pattern in asymptomatic virus infected pregnant females: Human well-being study. JOURNAL OF KING SAUD UNIVERSITY. SCIENCE 2021; 33:101255. [PMID: 33288976 PMCID: PMC7709611 DOI: 10.1016/j.jksus.2020.101255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Revised: 11/15/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The ongoing SARS-CoV-2 pandemic infecting millions of people globally has given rise to serious public health threats. The need for early detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in asymptomatic pregnant women is compelling to detect vertical transmission timely. Here, 11 SARS-CoV-2 asymptomatic pregnant cases from Wuhan China were investigated. All the patients were initially tested negative for SARS-CoV-2 on RT-PCR, so a chest CT scan was performed. Also, serum antibody (IgM and IgG) titers were estimated. CT scan of patients revealed typical abnormalities related to SARS-CoV-2, indicating ground-glass opacity and infection lesions suggesting viral pneumonia. Elevated IgM and IgG antibodies levels (p < 0.001) were also noticed in infected patients. Hence, CT imaging and serum antibody response are valuable in the early detection of SARS-CoV-2 in asymptomatic pregnant patients. These might serve as prognostic markers for healthcare professionals, in RT-PCR negative patients, to assess the effect of given treatment by chest CT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashaq Ali
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zubia Rashid
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Science, Technology and Management, Ziauddin University, Karachi 74700, Pakistan
| | - Jieqiong Zhou
- Tongi Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- Department of Obstetrics, Wuhan Maternal and Children Health Hospital, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | | | - Saddia Galani
- The Karachi Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Asma Ashraf
- Institute of Animal and Dairy Sciences, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Khalid A Al-Ghanim
- Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Emin Al-Suliman
- Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Zubair Ahmed
- Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Muhammad Farooq
- Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Promy Virik
- Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Z A Kaimkhani
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Norah Al-Mulhm
- Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Shahid Mahboob
- Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Men Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Qiuxiang Huang
- Department of Obstetrics, Wuhan Maternal and Children Health Hospital, Wuhan, Hubei, China
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157
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Cimolai N. Conflicting evidence on vertical transmission and maternal SARS-CoV-2 infection. CMAJ 2020; 192:E1547. [PMID: 33229351 DOI: 10.1503/cmaj.76892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Nevio Cimolai
- Physician, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia and Children's and Women's Health Centre of British, Columbia, Vancouver, BC
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158
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Hopfer H, Herzig MC, Gosert R, Menter T, Hench J, Tzankov A, Hirsch HH, Miller SE. Hunting coronavirus by transmission electron microscopy - a guide to SARS-CoV-2-associated ultrastructural pathology in COVID-19 tissues. Histopathology 2020; 78:358-370. [PMID: 32981112 PMCID: PMC7537546 DOI: 10.1111/his.14264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Revised: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Transmission electron microscopy has become a valuable tool to investigate tissues of COVID‐19 patients because it allows visualisation of SARS‐CoV‐2, but the ‘virus‐like particles’ described in several organs have been highly contested. Because most electron microscopists in pathology are not accustomed to analysing viral particles and subcellular structures, our review aims to discuss the ultrastructural changes associated with SARS‐CoV‐2 infection and COVID‐19 with respect to pathology, virology and electron microscopy. Using micrographs from infected cell cultures and autopsy tissues, we show how coronavirus replication affects ultrastructure and put the morphological findings in the context of viral replication, which induces extensive remodelling of the intracellular membrane systems. Virions assemble by budding into the endoplasmic reticulum–Golgi intermediate complex and are characterised by electron‐dense dots of cross‐sections of the nucleocapsid inside the viral particles. Physiological mimickers such as multivesicular bodies or coated vesicles serve as perfect decoys. Compared to other in‐situ techniques, transmission electron microscopy is the only method to visualise assembled virions in tissues, and will be required to prove SARS‐CoV‐2 replication outside the respiratory tract. In practice, documenting in tissues the characteristic features seen in infected cell cultures seems to be much more difficult than anticipated. In our view, the hunt for coronavirus by transmission electron microscopy is still on.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helmut Hopfer
- Pathology, Institute of Medical Genetics and Pathology, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Martin C Herzig
- Pathology, Institute of Medical Genetics and Pathology, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Rainer Gosert
- Clinical Virology, Laboratory Medicine, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Menter
- Pathology, Institute of Medical Genetics and Pathology, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jürgen Hench
- Pathology, Institute of Medical Genetics and Pathology, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Alexandar Tzankov
- Pathology, Institute of Medical Genetics and Pathology, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Hans H Hirsch
- Clinical Virology, Laboratory Medicine, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland.,Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland.,Department Biomedicine, Transpantation and Clinical Virology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sara E Miller
- Department of Pathology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
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159
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do Amaral WN, de Moraes CL, Rodrigues APDS, Noll M, Arruda JT, Mendonça CR. Maternal Coronavirus Infections and Neonates Born to Mothers with SARS-CoV-2: A Systematic Review. Healthcare (Basel) 2020; 8:E511. [PMID: 33255184 PMCID: PMC7712854 DOI: 10.3390/healthcare8040511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 11/14/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is continuously affecting the lives of all people. Understanding the impact of COVID-19 on pregnancy in terms of morbidity, mortality, and perinatal maternal and fetal outcomes is essential to propose strategies for prevention and infection control. Here, we conducted a systematic review to investigate pregnant women infected with COVID-19 in terms of signs and symptoms, type of delivery, comorbidities, maternal and neonatal outcomes, and the possibility of vertical transmission. A search on Embase and PubMed databases was performed on 31 October 2020. Observational studies and case reports on pregnant women infected with COVID-19 were included without language restrictions. The 70 selected studies included a total of 1457 pregnant women diagnosed with COVID-19 in the first, second, and third trimesters of pregnancy. The most common signs and symptoms were fever, cough, and nausea. The most frequent comorbidities were obesity, hypertensive disorders, and gestational diabetes. Among maternal and fetal outcomes, premature birth (n = 64), maternal death (n = 15), intrauterine fetal death or neonatal death (n = 16), cases of intrauterine fetal distress (n = 28), miscarriage (n = 7), decreased fetal movements (n = 19), and severe neonatal asphyxia (n = 5) were the most frequent. Thirty-nine newborns tested positive for SARS-CoV-2. Additionally, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) RNA was detected in the placenta (n = 13) and breast milk (n = 6). This review indicates that COVID-19 during pregnancy can result in maternal, fetal, and neonatal complications. In addition, SARS-CoV-2 viral exposure of neonates during pregnancy and delivery cannot be ruled out. Thus, we highlight the need for long-term follow-up of newborns from mothers diagnosed with COVID-19 to establish the full implications of SARS-CoV-2 infection in these children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Waldemar Naves do Amaral
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Goiás, 74605-050 Goiânia, Brazil; (W.N.d.A.); (C.L.d.M.); (A.P.d.S.R.)
| | - Carolina Leão de Moraes
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Goiás, 74605-050 Goiânia, Brazil; (W.N.d.A.); (C.L.d.M.); (A.P.d.S.R.)
| | - Ana Paula dos Santos Rodrigues
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Goiás, 74605-050 Goiânia, Brazil; (W.N.d.A.); (C.L.d.M.); (A.P.d.S.R.)
| | - Matias Noll
- Instituto Federal Goiano, Campus Ceres, 76300-000 Ceres, Brazil;
| | - Jalsi Tacon Arruda
- Departamento de Medicina, Centro Universitário de Anápolis—UniEvangélica, 75083-515 Anápolis, Brazil;
| | - Carolina Rodrigues Mendonça
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Goiás, 74605-050 Goiânia, Brazil; (W.N.d.A.); (C.L.d.M.); (A.P.d.S.R.)
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160
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Caparros-Gonzalez RA, Pérez-Morente MA, Hueso-Montoro C, Álvarez-Serrano MA, de la Torre-Luque A. Congenital, Intrapartum and Postnatal Maternal-Fetal-Neonatal SARS-CoV-2 Infections: A Narrative Review. Nutrients 2020; 12:E3570. [PMID: 33233867 PMCID: PMC7700345 DOI: 10.3390/nu12113570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is inconclusive evidence regarding congenital, intrapartum, and postnatal maternal-fetal-neonatal SARS-CoV-2 infections during the COVID-19 pandemic. A narrative review was conducted with the aim of guiding clinicians on the management of pregnant women with respect to congenital, intrapartum, and postnatal maternal-fetal-neonatal SARS-CoV-2 infections and breastfeeding during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS Searches were conducted in Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, Dialnet, CUIDEN, Scielo, and Virtual Health Library to identify observational, case series, case reports, and randomized controlled trial studies assessing the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from mother to baby and/or through breastfeeding during the COVID-19 pandemic. RESULTS A total of 49 studies was included in this review, comprising 329 pregnant women and 331 neonates (two pregnant women delivered twins). The studies were performed in China (n = 26), USA (n = 7), Italy (n = 3), Iran (n = 2), Switzerland (n = 1), Spain (n = 1), Turkey (n = 1), Australia (n = 1), India (n = 1), Germany (n = 1), France (n = 1), Canada (n = 1), Honduras (n = 1), Brazil (n = 1), and Peru (n = 1). Samples from amniotic fluid, umbilical cord blood, placenta, cervical secretion, and breastmilk were collected and analyzed. A total of 15 placental swabs gave positive results for SARS-CoV-2 ribonucleic acid (RNA) on the fetal side of the placenta. SARS-CoV-2 RNA was found in seven breastmilk samples. One umbilical cord sample was positive for SARS-CoV-2. One amniotic fluid sample tested positive for SARS-CoV-2. CONCLUSIONS This study presents some evidence to support the potential of congenital, intrapartum, and postnatal maternal-fetal-neonatal SARS-CoV-2 infections during the COVID-19 pandemic. Mothers should follow recommendations including wearing a facemask and hand washing before and after breastfeeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael A. Caparros-Gonzalez
- Department of Nursing, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Granada, 18006 Granada, Spain; (R.A.C.-G.); (C.H.-M.)
- Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), Faculty of Psychology, University of Granada, 18011 Granada, Spain
| | | | - Cesar Hueso-Montoro
- Department of Nursing, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Granada, 18006 Granada, Spain; (R.A.C.-G.); (C.H.-M.)
- Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), Faculty of Psychology, University of Granada, 18011 Granada, Spain
| | | | - Alejandro de la Torre-Luque
- Department of Legal Medicine, Psychiatry and Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
- Center for Biomedical Research in Mental Health (CIBERSAM), 28029 Madrid, Spain
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161
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Schwartz DA, Morotti D. Placental Pathology of COVID-19 with and without Fetal and Neonatal Infection: Trophoblast Necrosis and Chronic Histiocytic Intervillositis as Risk Factors for Transplacental Transmission of SARS-CoV-2. Viruses 2020; 12:E1308. [PMID: 33203131 PMCID: PMC7697563 DOI: 10.3390/v12111308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The mechanism(s) by which neonates testing positive for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) acquire their infection has been largely unknown. Transmission of the etiological agent, SARS-CoV-2, from mother to infant has been suspected but has been difficult to confirm. This communication summarizes the spectrum of pathology findings from pregnant women with COVID-19 based upon the infection status of their infants and addresses the potential interpretation of these results in terms of the effects of SARS-CoV-2 on the placenta and the pathophysiology of maternal-fetal infection. Placentas from pregnant women with COVID-19 and uninfected neonates show significant variability in the spectrum of pathology findings. In contrast, placentas from infected maternal-neonatal dyads are characterized by the finding of mononuclear cell inflammation of the intervillous space, termed chronic histiocytic intervillositis, together with syncytiotrophoblast necrosis. These placentas show prominent positivity of syncytiotrophoblast by SARS-CoV-2, fulfilling the published criteria for transplacental viral transmission as confirmed in fetal cells through identification of viral antigens by immunohistochemistry or viral nucleic acid using RNA in situ hybridization. The co-occurrence of chronic histiocytic intervillositis and trophoblast necrosis appears to be a risk factor for placental infection with SARS-CoV-2 as well as for maternal-fetal viral transmission, and suggests a potential mechanism by which the coronavirus can breach the maternal-fetal interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A. Schwartz
- Department of Pathology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Denise Morotti
- Pathology Unit and Medical Genetics Laboratory, ASST Papa Giovanni XXIII, 24127 Bergamo, Italy;
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162
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Aloufi N, Traboulsi H, Ding J, Fonseca GJ, Nair P, Huang SK, Hussain SNA, Eidelman DH, Baglole CJ. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 expression in COPD and IPF fibroblasts: the forgotten cell in COVID-19. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2020; 320:L152-L157. [PMID: 33112187 PMCID: PMC7869954 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00455.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic is associated with severe pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome leading to death in susceptible individuals. For those who recover, post-COVID-19 complications may include development of pulmonary fibrosis. Factors contributing to disease severity or development of complications are not known. Using computational analysis with experimental data, we report that idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF)- and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)-derived lung fibroblasts express higher levels of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), the receptor for SARS-CoV-2 entry and part of the renin-angiotensin system that is antifibrotic and anti-inflammatory. In preclinical models, we found that chronic exposure to cigarette smoke, a risk factor for both COPD and IPF and potentially for SARS-CoV-2 infection, significantly increased pulmonary ACE2 protein expression. Further studies are needed to understand the functional implications of ACE2 on lung fibroblasts, a cell type that thus far has received relatively little attention in the context of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noof Aloufi
- Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.,Department of Pathology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Hussein Traboulsi
- Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Jun Ding
- Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.,Department of Computational Biology, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Gregory J Fonseca
- Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.,Department of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Parameswaran Nair
- Department of Medicine, McMaster University & St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Steven K Huang
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Sabah N A Hussain
- Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.,Department of Pathology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - David H Eidelman
- Department of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Carolyn J Baglole
- Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.,Department of Pathology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.,Department of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.,Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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163
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Dhaundiyal A, Kumari P, Jawalekar SS, Chauhan G, Kalra S, Navik U. Is highly expressed ACE 2 in pregnant women "a curse" in times of COVID-19 pandemic? Life Sci 2020; 264:118676. [PMID: 33129880 PMCID: PMC7598563 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Revised: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE 2) is a membrane-bound enzyme that cleaves angiotensin II (Ang II) into angiotensin (1-7). It also serves as an important binding site for SARS-CoV-2, thereby, facilitating viral entry into target host cells. ACE 2 is abundantly present in the intestine, kidney, heart, lungs, and fetal tissues. Fetal ACE 2 is involved in myocardium growth, lungs and brain development. ACE 2 is highly expressed in pregnant women to compensate preeclampsia by modulating angiotensin (1-7) which binds to the Mas receptor, having vasodilator action and maintain fluid homeostasis. There are reports available on Zika, H1N1 and SARS-CoV where these viruses have shown to produce fetal defects but very little is known about SARS-CoV-2 involvement in pregnancy, but it might have the potential to interact with fetal ACE 2 and enhance COVID-19 transmission to the fetus, leading to fetal morbidity and mortality. This review sheds light on a path of SARS-CoV-2 transmission risk in pregnancy and its possible link with fetal ACE 2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ankit Dhaundiyal
- Senior Data Analyst at Private Organization, Gurugram, Haryana 122001,M.S. (Pharma) in Pharmacoinformatics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Sector-67, S.A.S. Nagar, Punjab 160 062, India
| | - Puja Kumari
- Principal Research Analyst at Private Organization Jaipur, Rajasthan 302021, M.S. (Pharma) in Medicinal Chemistry, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Sector-67, S.A.S. Nagar, Punjab 160 062, India
| | - Snehal Sainath Jawalekar
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Sector-67, S.A.S. Nagar, Punjab-160 062, India
| | - Gaurav Chauhan
- School of Engineering and Sciences, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Av. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501 Sur, 64849, Monterrey, NL, Mexico
| | - Sourav Kalra
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology (Process Chemistry), National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Sector-67, S.A.S. Nagar, Punj, ab-160 062, India.
| | - Umashanker Navik
- Department of Pharmacology, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punj, ab-151001, India.
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164
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Seethy AA, Singh S, Mukherjee I, Pethusamy K, Purkayastha K, Sharma JB, Sharma RS, Dhar R, Karmakar S. Potential SARS-CoV-2 interactions with proteins involved in trophoblast functions - An in-silico study. Placenta 2020; 103:141-151. [PMID: 33126048 PMCID: PMC7581362 DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2020.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Though a large number of pregnant females have been affected by COVID-19, there is a dearth of information on the effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection on trophoblast function. We explored in silico, the potential interactions between SARS-CoV-2 proteins and proteins involved in the key functions of placenta. METHODS Human proteins interacting with SARS-CoV-2 proteins were identified by Gordon et al. (2020). Genes that are upregulated in trophoblast sub-types and stages were obtained by gene-expression data from NCBI-GEO and by text-mining. Genes altered in pathological states like pre-eclampsia and gestational diabetes mellitus were also identified. Genes crucial in placental functions thus identified were compared to the SARS-CoV-2 interactome for overlaps. Proteins recurring across multiple study scenarios were analyzed using text mining and network analysis for their biological functions. RESULTS The entry receptors for SARS-CoV-2 - ACE2 and TMPRSS2 are expressed in placenta. Other proteins that interact with SARS-CoV-2 like LOX, Fibulins-2 and 5, NUP98, GDF15, RBX1, CUL3, HMOX1, PLAT, MFGE8, and MRPs are vital in placental functions like trophoblast invasion and migration, syncytium formation, differentiation, and implantation. TLE3, expressed across first trimester placental tissues and cell lines, is involved in formation of placental vasculature, and is important in SARS-CoV (2003) budding and exit from the cells by COPI vesicles. CONCLUSION SARS-CoV-2 can potentially interact with proteins having crucial roles in the placental function. Whether these potential interactions identified in silico have effects on trophoblast functions in biological settings needs to be addressed by further in vitro and clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashikh A Seethy
- Department of Biochemistry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Sunil Singh
- Department of Biochemistry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Indrani Mukherjee
- Department of Biochemistry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India; Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, Noida, India
| | - Karthikeyan Pethusamy
- Department of Biochemistry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Kakali Purkayastha
- Department of Paediatrics, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Jai Bhagwan Sharma
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | | | - Ruby Dhar
- Department of Biochemistry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India.
| | - Subhradip Karmakar
- Department of Biochemistry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India.
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165
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Mezouar S, Katsogiannou M, Ben Amara A, Bretelle F, Mege JL. Placental macrophages: Origin, heterogeneity, function and role in pregnancy-associated infections. Placenta 2020; 103:94-103. [PMID: 33120051 PMCID: PMC7568513 DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2020.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Placental macrophages are a heterogenous population of immune cells present throughout pregnancy. They are essential for maintenance of the homeostatic placenta environment and host defense against infections. The characterization of placental macrophages as well as their activation have been limited for a long time by the lack of convenient tools. The emergence of unbiased methods makes it possible to reappraise the study of placental macrophages. In this review, we discuss the diversity and the functions of placental macrophages to better understand their dysfunctions during placental infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soraya Mezouar
- Aix-Marseille Univ, IRD, AP-HM, MEPHI, Marseille, France; IHU - Mediterranean Infection, Marseille, France.
| | - Maria Katsogiannou
- Hôpital Saint Joseph, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, FR-13008, Marseille, France
| | - Amira Ben Amara
- Aix-Marseille Univ, IRD, AP-HM, MEPHI, Marseille, France; IHU - Mediterranean Infection, Marseille, France
| | - Florence Bretelle
- Aix-Marseille Univ, IRD, AP-HM, MEPHI, Marseille, France; IHU - Mediterranean Infection, Marseille, France; AP-HM, Gynecology Department, Marseille, France
| | - Jean-Louis Mege
- Aix-Marseille Univ, IRD, AP-HM, MEPHI, Marseille, France; IHU - Mediterranean Infection, Marseille, France; AP-HM, UF Immunology, Marseille, France.
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166
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Schwartz DA, Thomas KM. Characterizing COVID-19 maternal-fetal transmission and placental infection using comprehensive molecular pathology. EBioMedicine 2020; 60:102983. [PMID: 32980693 PMCID: PMC7516576 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2020.102983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- David A Schwartz
- Department of Pathology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA, United States.
| | - Kristen M Thomas
- Department of Pathology, NYU Langone Health - Main Campus & Bellevue Hospital Center, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
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167
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Allotey J, Stallings E, Bonet M, Yap M, Chatterjee S, Kew T, Debenham L, Llavall AC, Dixit A, Zhou D, Balaji R, Lee SI, Qiu X, Yuan M, Coomar D, Sheikh J, Lawson H, Ansari K, van Wely M, van Leeuwen E, Kostova E, Kunst H, Khalil A, Tiberi S, Brizuela V, Broutet N, Kara E, Kim CR, Thorson A, Oladapo OT, Mofenson L, Zamora J, Thangaratinam S. Clinical manifestations, risk factors, and maternal and perinatal outcomes of coronavirus disease 2019 in pregnancy: living systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2020; 370:m3320. [PMID: 32873575 PMCID: PMC7459193 DOI: 10.1136/bmj.m3320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1190] [Impact Index Per Article: 297.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/23/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the clinical manifestations, risk factors, and maternal and perinatal outcomes in pregnant and recently pregnant women with suspected or confirmed coronavirus disease 2019 (covid-19). DESIGN Living systematic review and meta-analysis. DATA SOURCES Medline, Embase, Cochrane database, WHO COVID-19 database, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), and Wanfang databases from 1 December 2019 to 6 October 2020, along with preprint servers, social media, and reference lists. STUDY SELECTION Cohort studies reporting the rates, clinical manifestations (symptoms, laboratory and radiological findings), risk factors, and maternal and perinatal outcomes in pregnant and recently pregnant women with suspected or confirmed covid-19. DATA EXTRACTION At least two researchers independently extracted the data and assessed study quality. Random effects meta-analysis was performed, with estimates pooled as odds ratios and proportions with 95% confidence intervals. All analyses will be updated regularly. RESULTS 192 studies were included. Overall, 10% (95% confidence interval 7% to 12%; 73 studies, 67 271 women) of pregnant and recently pregnant women attending or admitted to hospital for any reason were diagnosed as having suspected or confirmed covid-19. The most common clinical manifestations of covid-19 in pregnancy were fever (40%) and cough (41%). Compared with non-pregnant women of reproductive age, pregnant and recently pregnant women with covid-19 were less likely to have symptoms (odds ratio 0.28, 95% confidence interval 0.13 to 0.62; I2=42.9%) or report symptoms of fever (0.49, 0.38 to 0.63; I2=40.8%), dyspnoea (0.76, 0.67 to 0.85; I2=4.4%) and myalgia (0.53, 0.36 to 0.78; I2=59.4%). The odds of admission to an intensive care unit (odds ratio 2.13, 1.53 to 2.95; I2=71.2%), invasive ventilation (2.59, 2.28 to 2.94; I2=0%) and need for extra corporeal membrane oxygenation (2.02, 1.22 to 3.34; I2=0%) were higher in pregnant and recently pregnant than non-pregnant reproductive aged women. Overall, 339 pregnant women (0.02%, 59 studies, 41 664 women) with confirmed covid-19 died from any cause. Increased maternal age (odds ratio 1.83, 1.27 to 2.63; I2=43.4%), high body mass index (2.37, 1.83 to 3.07; I2=0%), any pre-existing maternal comorbidity (1.81, 1.49 to 2.20; I2=0%), chronic hypertension (2.0, 1.14 to 3.48; I2=0%), pre-existing diabetes (2.12, 1.62 to 2.78; I2=0%), and pre-eclampsia (4.21, 1.27 to 14.0; I2=0%) were associated with severe covid-19 in pregnancy. In pregnant women with covid-19, increased maternal age, high body mass index, non-white ethnicity, any pre-existing maternal comorbidity including chronic hypertension and diabetes, and pre-eclampsia were associated with serious complications such as admission to an intensive care unit, invasive ventilation and maternal death. Compared to pregnant women without covid-19, those with the disease had increased odds of maternal death (odds ratio 2.85, 1.08 to 7.52; I2=0%), of needing admission to the intensive care unit (18.58, 7.53 to 45.82; I2=0%), and of preterm birth (1.47, 1.14 to 1.91; I2=18.6%). The odds of admission to the neonatal intensive care unit (4.89, 1.87 to 12.81, I2=96.2%) were higher in babies born to mothers with covid-19 versus those without covid-19. CONCLUSION Pregnant and recently pregnant women with covid-19 attending or admitted to the hospitals for any reason are less likely to manifest symptoms such as fever, dyspnoea, and myalgia, and are more likely to be admitted to the intensive care unit or needing invasive ventilation than non-pregnant women of reproductive age. Pre-existing comorbidities, non-white ethnicity, chronic hypertension, pre-existing diabetes, high maternal age, and high body mass index are risk factors for severe covid-19 in pregnancy. Pregnant women with covid-19 versus without covid-19 are more likely to deliver preterm and could have an increased risk of maternal death and of being admitted to the intensive care unit. Their babies are more likely to be admitted to the neonatal unit. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION PROSPERO CRD42020178076. READERS' NOTE This article is a living systematic review that will be updated to reflect emerging evidence. Updates may occur for up to two years from the date of original publication. This version is update 1 of the original article published on 1 September 2020 (BMJ 2020;370:m3320), and previous updates can be found as data supplements (https://www.bmj.com/content/370/bmj.m3320/related#datasupp). When citing this paper please consider adding the update number and date of access for clarity.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Allotey
- Institute of Applied Health Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Global Women's Health, Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Elena Stallings
- Clinical Biostatistics Unit, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal (IRYCIS), Madrid, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | - Mercedes Bonet
- UNDP/UNFPA/UNICEF/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction (HRP), Department of Sexual and Reproductive Health and Research, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Magnus Yap
- Birmingham Medical School, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | | | - Tania Kew
- Birmingham Medical School, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Luke Debenham
- Birmingham Medical School, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | | | - Anushka Dixit
- Birmingham Medical School, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Dengyi Zhou
- Birmingham Medical School, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Rishab Balaji
- Birmingham Medical School, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Siang Ing Lee
- Institute of Applied Health Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Xiu Qiu
- Division of Birth Cohort Study, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Centre, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- Department of Woman and Child Health Care, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Centre, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Centre, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Mingyang Yuan
- Institute of Applied Health Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
- Division of Birth Cohort Study, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Centre, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Dyuti Coomar
- Institute of Applied Health Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Jameela Sheikh
- Birmingham Medical School, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Heidi Lawson
- Birmingham Medical School, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Kehkashan Ansari
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Global Women's Health, Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Madelon van Wely
- Netherlands Satellite of the Cochrane Gynaecology and Fertility Group, Amsterdam University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Elizabeth van Leeuwen
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Amsterdam University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Elena Kostova
- Netherlands Satellite of the Cochrane Gynaecology and Fertility Group, Amsterdam University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Heinke Kunst
- Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
- Barts Health NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Asma Khalil
- St George's, University of London, London, UK
| | - Simon Tiberi
- Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
- Barts Health NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Vanessa Brizuela
- UNDP/UNFPA/UNICEF/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction (HRP), Department of Sexual and Reproductive Health and Research, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Nathalie Broutet
- UNDP/UNFPA/UNICEF/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction (HRP), Department of Sexual and Reproductive Health and Research, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Edna Kara
- Clinical Biostatistics Unit, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal (IRYCIS), Madrid, Spain
| | - Caron Rahn Kim
- UNDP/UNFPA/UNICEF/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction (HRP), Department of Sexual and Reproductive Health and Research, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Anna Thorson
- UNDP/UNFPA/UNICEF/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction (HRP), Department of Sexual and Reproductive Health and Research, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Olufemi T Oladapo
- UNDP/UNFPA/UNICEF/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction (HRP), Department of Sexual and Reproductive Health and Research, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Lynne Mofenson
- Elizabeth Glaser Paediatric AIDS Foundation, Washington DC, USA
| | - Javier Zamora
- Clinical Biostatistics Unit, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal (IRYCIS), Madrid, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Women's Health Research Unit, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Shakila Thangaratinam
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Global Women's Health, Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
- Birmingham Women's and Children's NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK
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