151
|
Savatin DV, Gramegna G, Modesti V, Cervone F. Wounding in the plant tissue: the defense of a dangerous passage. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2014; 5:470. [PMID: 25278948 PMCID: PMC4165286 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2014.00470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2014] [Accepted: 08/28/2014] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Plants are continuously exposed to agents such as herbivores and environmental mechanical stresses that cause wounding and open the way to the invasion by microbial pathogens. Wounding provides nutrients to pathogens and facilitates their entry into the tissue and subsequent infection. Plants have evolved constitutive and induced defense mechanisms to properly respond to wounding and prevent infection. The constitutive defenses are represented by physical barriers, i.e., the presence of cuticle or lignin, or by metabolites that act as toxins or deterrents for herbivores. Plants are also able to sense the injured tissue as an altered self and induce responses similar to those activated by pathogen infection. Endogenous molecules released from wounded tissue may act as Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns (DAMPs) that activate the plant innate immunity. Wound-induced responses are both rapid, such as the oxidative burst and the expression of defense-related genes, and late, such as the callose deposition, the accumulation of proteinase inhibitors and of hydrolytic enzymes (i.e., chitinases and gluganases). Typical examples of DAMPs involved in the response to wounding are the peptide systemin, and the oligogalacturonides, which are oligosaccharides released from the pectic component of the cell wall. Responses to wounding take place both at the site of damage (local response) and systemically (systemic response) and are mediated by hormones such as jasmonic acid, ethylene, salicylic acid, and abscisic acid.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Felice Cervone
- *Correspondence: Felice Cervone, Department of Biology and Biotechnology “Charles Darwin”, Sapienza–University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy e-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
152
|
Bellincampi D, Cervone F, Lionetti V. Plant cell wall dynamics and wall-related susceptibility in plant-pathogen interactions. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2014; 5:228. [PMID: 24904623 PMCID: PMC4036129 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2014.00228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 225] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2014] [Accepted: 05/06/2014] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The cell wall is a dynamic structure that often determines the outcome of the interactions between plants and pathogens. It is a barrier that pathogens need to breach to colonize the plant tissue. While fungal necrotrophs extensively destroy the integrity of the cell wall through the combined action of degrading enzymes, biotrophic fungi require a more localized and controlled degradation of the cell wall in order to keep the host cells alive and utilize their feeding structures. Also bacteria and nematodes need to degrade the plant cell wall at a certain stage of their infection process, to obtain nutrients for their growth. Plants have developed a system for sensing pathogens and monitoring the cell wall integrity, upon which they activate defense responses that lead to a dynamic cell wall remodeling required to prevent the disease. Pathogens, on the other hand, may exploit the host cell wall metabolism to support the infection. We review here the strategies utilized by both plants and pathogens to prevail in the cell wall battleground.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Vincenzo Lionetti
- *Correspondence: Vincenzo Lionetti, Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie “Charles Darwin”, Sapienza Università di Roma, Rome 00185, Italy e-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
153
|
Blanco-Ulate B, Morales-Cruz A, Amrine KCH, Labavitch JM, Powell ALT, Cantu D. Genome-wide transcriptional profiling of Botrytis cinerea genes targeting plant cell walls during infections of different hosts. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2014; 5:435. [PMID: 25232357 PMCID: PMC4153048 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2014.00435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2014] [Accepted: 08/15/2014] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Cell walls are barriers that impair colonization of host tissues, but also are important reservoirs of energy-rich sugars. Growing hyphae of necrotrophic fungal pathogens, such as Botrytis cinerea (Botrytis, henceforth), secrete enzymes that disassemble cell wall polysaccharides. In this work we describe the annotation of 275 putative secreted Carbohydrate-Active enZymes (CAZymes) identified in the Botrytis B05.10 genome. Using RNAseq we determined which Botrytis CAZymes were expressed during infections of lettuce leaves, ripe tomato fruit, and grape berries. On the three hosts, Botrytis expressed a common group of 229 potentially secreted CAZymes, including 28 pectin backbone-modifying enzymes, 21 hemicellulose-modifying proteins, 18 enzymes that might target pectin and hemicellulose side-branches, and 16 enzymes predicted to degrade cellulose. The diversity of the Botrytis CAZymes may be partly responsible for its wide host range. Thirty-six candidate CAZymes with secretion signals were found exclusively when Botrytis interacted with ripe tomato fruit and grape berries. Pectin polysaccharides are notably abundant in grape and tomato cell walls, but lettuce leaf walls have less pectin and are richer in hemicelluloses and cellulose. The results of this study not only suggest that Botrytis targets similar wall polysaccharide networks on fruit and leaves, but also that it may selectively attack host wall polysaccharide substrates depending on the host tissue.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Blanco-Ulate
- Department of Viticulture and Enology, University of California, DavisDavis, CA, USA
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, DavisDavis, CA, USA
| | - Abraham Morales-Cruz
- Department of Viticulture and Enology, University of California, DavisDavis, CA, USA
| | | | - John M. Labavitch
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, DavisDavis, CA, USA
| | - Ann L. T. Powell
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, DavisDavis, CA, USA
| | - Dario Cantu
- Department of Viticulture and Enology, University of California, DavisDavis, CA, USA
- *Correspondence: Dario Cantu, Department of Viticulture and Enology, University of California, Davis, One Shields Ave., Davis, CA 95616, USA e-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
154
|
Lionetti V, Raiola A, Cervone F, Bellincampi D. How do pectin methylesterases and their inhibitors affect the spreading of tobamovirus? PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2014; 9:e972863. [PMID: 25482766 PMCID: PMC4623000 DOI: 10.4161/15592316.2014.972863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2014] [Revised: 07/23/2014] [Accepted: 07/23/2014] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
After replication in the cytoplasm, viruses spread from the infected cell into the neighboring cells through plasmodesmata, membranous channels embedded by the cell wall. As obligate parasites, viruses have acquired the ability to utilize host factors that unwillingly cooperate for the viral infection process. For example, the viral movement proteins (MP) interacts with the host pectin methylesterase (PME) and both proteins cooperate to sustain the viral spread. However, how and where PMEs interact with MPs and how the PME/MP complexes favor the viral translocation is not well understood. Recently, we demonstrated that the overexpression of PME inhibitors (PMEIs) in tobacco and Arabidopsis plants limits the movement of Tobacco mosaic virus and Turnip vein clearing virus and reduces plant susceptibility to these viruses. Here we discuss how overexpression of PMEI may reduce tobamovirus spreading.
Collapse
Key Words
- CP, coat protein.
- CW, cell wall
- ER, Endoplasmic Reticulum
- MP, movement protein
- MeOH, methanol
- PD, plasmodesmata
- PM, Plasma membrane
- PME, pectin methylesterase
- PMEI, pectin methylesterase inhibitor
- TMV, Tobacco mosaic virus
- cell wall
- methanol
- pectin methylesterase
- pectin methylesterase inhibitors
- pectin methylesterification
- plasmodesmata
- virus spreading
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vincenzo Lionetti
- Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie ‘C. Darwin'; ‘Sapienza' Università di Roma; Roma, Italy
| | - Alessandro Raiola
- Dipartimento Territorio e Sistemi Agroforestali; Università di Padova; Legnaro (PD), Italy
| | - Felice Cervone
- Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie ‘C. Darwin'; ‘Sapienza' Università di Roma; Roma, Italy
| | - Daniela Bellincampi
- Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie ‘C. Darwin'; ‘Sapienza' Università di Roma; Roma, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
155
|
Volpi C, Raiola A, Janni M, Gordon A, O'Sullivan DM, Favaron F, D'Ovidio R. Claviceps purpurea expressing polygalacturonases escaping PGIP inhibition fully infects PvPGIP2 wheat transgenic plants but its infection is delayed in wheat transgenic plants with increased level of pectin methyl esterification. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2013; 73:294-301. [PMID: 24184449 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2013.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2013] [Accepted: 10/10/2013] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Claviceps purpurea is a biotrophic fungal pathogen of grasses causing the ergot disease. The infection process of C. purpurea on rye flowers is accompanied by pectin degradation and polygalacturonase (PG) activity represents a pathogenicity factor. Wheat is also infected by C. purpurea and we tested whether the presence of polygalacturonase inhibiting protein (PGIP) can affect pathogen infection and ergot disease development. Wheat transgenic plants expressing the bean PvPGIP2 did not show a clear reduction of disease symptoms when infected with C. purpurea. To ascertain the possible cause underlying this lack of improved resistance of PvPGIP2 plants, we expressed both polygalacturonases present in the C. purpurea genome, cppg1 and cppg2 in Pichia pastoris. In vitro assays using the heterologous expressed PGs and PvPGIP2 showed that neither PG is inhibited by this inhibitor. To further investigate the role of PG in the C. purpurea/wheat system, we demonstrated that the activity of both PGs of C. purpurea is reduced on highly methyl esterified pectin. Finally, we showed that this reduction in PG activity is relevant in planta, by inoculating with C. purpurea transgenic wheat plants overexpressing a pectin methyl esterase inhibitor (PMEI) and showing a high degree of pectin methyl esterification. We observed reduced disease symptoms in the transgenic line compared with null controls. Together, these results highlight the importance of pectin degradation for ergot disease development in wheat and sustain the notion that inhibition of pectin degradation may represent a possible route to control of ergot in cereals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Volpi
- Dipartimento di Scienze e tecnologie per l'Agricoltura, le Foreste, la Natura e l'Energia (DAFNE), Università della Tuscia, Via S. Camillo de Lellis snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
156
|
Weber M, Deinlein U, Fischer S, Rogowski M, Geimer S, Tenhaken R, Clemens S. A mutation in the Arabidopsis thaliana cell wall biosynthesis gene pectin methylesterase 3 as well as its aberrant expression cause hypersensitivity specifically to Zn. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2013; 76:151-64. [PMID: 23826687 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.12279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2013] [Revised: 06/21/2013] [Accepted: 07/02/2013] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Defects in metal homeostasis factors are often accompanied by the loss of metal tolerance. Therefore, we screened for mutants with compromised growth in the presence of excess Zn(2+) in order to identify factors involved in Zn biology in plants. Here we report the isolation of six ozs (overly Zn sensitive) ethyl methanesulfonate Arabidopsis thaliana mutants with contrasting patterns of metal sensitivity, and the molecular characterization of two mutants hypersensitive specifically to Zn(2+) . Mutant ozs1 represents a non-functional allele of the vacuolar Zn transporter AtMTP1, providing additional genetic evidence for its major role in Zn(2+) tolerance in seedlings. Mutant ozs2 carries a semi-dominant mutation in the gene encoding pectin methylesterase 3 (AtPME3), an enzyme catalyzing demethylesterification of pectin. The mutation results in impaired proteolytic processing of AtPME3. Ectopic expression of AtPME3 causes strong Zn(2+) hypersensitivity that is tightly correlated with transcript abundance. Together these observations suggest detrimental effects on Golgi-localized processes. The ozs2 but not the ozs1 phenotype can be suppressed by extra Ca(2+) , indicating changes in apoplastic cation-binding capacity. However, we did not detect any changes in bulk metal-binding capacity, overall pectin methylesterification status or cell wall ultrastructure in ozs2, leading us to hypothesize that the ozs2 mutation causes hypersensitivity towards the specific interference of Zn ions with cell wall-controlled growth processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Weber
- Department of Plant Physiology, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstrasse 30, 95440, Bayreuth, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
157
|
Pogorelko G, Lionetti V, Bellincampi D, Zabotina O. Cell wall integrity: targeted post-synthetic modifications to reveal its role in plant growth and defense against pathogens. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2013; 8:e25435. [PMID: 23857352 PMCID: PMC4002593 DOI: 10.4161/psb.25435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2013] [Accepted: 06/17/2013] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The plant cell wall, a dynamic network of polysaccharides and glycoproteins of significant compositional and structural complexity, functions in plant growth, development and stress responses. In recent years, the existence of plant cell wall integrity (CWI) maintenance mechanisms has been demonstrated, but little is known about the signaling pathways involved, or their components. Examination of key mutants has shed light on the relationships between cell wall remodeling and plant cell responses, indicating a central role for the regulatory network that monitors and controls cell wall performance and integrity. In this review, we present a short overview of cell wall composition and discuss post-synthetic cell wall modification as a valuable approach for studying CWI perception and signaling pathways.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gennady Pogorelko
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry; Biophysics and Molecular Biology; Iowa State University; Ames, IA USA
| | - Vincenzo Lionetti
- Dipartmento di Biologia e Biotecnologie “Charles Darwin,” Sapienza Università di Roma; Rome, Italy
| | - Daniela Bellincampi
- Dipartmento di Biologia e Biotecnologie “Charles Darwin,” Sapienza Università di Roma; Rome, Italy
| | - Olga Zabotina
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry; Biophysics and Molecular Biology; Iowa State University; Ames, IA USA
| |
Collapse
|
158
|
Ma L, Jiang S, Lin G, Cai J, Ye X, Chen H, Li M, Li H, Takáč T, Šamaj J, Xu C. Wound-induced pectin methylesterases enhance banana (Musa spp. AAA) susceptibility to Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2013; 64:2219-29. [PMID: 23580752 PMCID: PMC3654420 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ert088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies suggest that plant pectin methylesterases (PMEs) are directly involved in plant defence besides their roles in plant development. However, the molecular mechanisms of PME action on pectins are not well understood. In order to understand how PMEs modify pectins during banana (Musa spp.)-Fusarium interaction, the expression and enzyme activities of PMEs in two banana cultivars, highly resistant or susceptible to Fusarium, were compared with each other. Furthermore, the spatial distribution of PMEs and their effect on pectin methylesterification of 10 individual homogalacturonan (HG) epitopes with different degrees of methylesterification (DMs) were also examined. The results showed that, before pathogen treatment, the resistant cultivar displayed higher PME activity than the susceptible cultivar, corresponding well to the lower level of pectin DM. A significant increase in PME expression and activity and a decrease in pectin DM were observed in the susceptible cultivar but not in the resistant cultivar when plants were wounded, which was necessary for successful infection. With the increase of PME in the wounded susceptible cultivar, the JIM5 antigen (low methyestrified HGs) increased. Forty-eight hours after pathogen infection, the PME activity and expression in the susceptible cultivar were higher than those in the resistant cultivar, while the DM was lower. In conclusion, the resistant and the susceptible cultivars differ significantly in their response to wounding. Increased PMEs and thereafter decreased DMs acompanied by increased low methylesterified HGs in the root vascular cylinder appear to play a key role in determination of banana susceptibility to Fusarium.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Li Ma
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Shuang Jiang
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Guimei Lin
- Institute of Biotechnology, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530007, China
| | - Jianghua Cai
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Xiaoxi Ye
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Houbin Chen
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Minhui Li
- College of Natural Resources & Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Huaping Li
- College of Natural Resources & Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Tomáš Takáč
- Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, 783 01 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Jozef Šamaj
- Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, 783 01 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Chunxiang Xu
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- *To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
159
|
Pogorelko G, Lionetti V, Fursova O, Sundaram RM, Qi M, Whitham SA, Bogdanove AJ, Bellincampi D, Zabotina OA. Arabidopsis and Brachypodium distachyon transgenic plants expressing Aspergillus nidulans acetylesterases have decreased degree of polysaccharide acetylation and increased resistance to pathogens. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2013; 162:9-23. [PMID: 23463782 PMCID: PMC3641233 DOI: 10.1104/pp.113.214460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2013] [Accepted: 03/03/2013] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
The plant cell wall has many significant structural and physiological roles, but the contributions of the various components to these roles remain unclear. Modification of cell wall properties can affect key agronomic traits such as disease resistance and plant growth. The plant cell wall is composed of diverse polysaccharides often decorated with methyl, acetyl, and feruloyl groups linked to the sugar subunits. In this study, we examined the effect of perturbing cell wall acetylation by making transgenic Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) and Brachypodium (Brachypodium distachyon) plants expressing hemicellulose- and pectin-specific fungal acetylesterases. All transgenic plants carried highly expressed active Aspergillus nidulans acetylesterases localized to the apoplast and had significant reduction of cell wall acetylation compared with wild-type plants. Partial deacetylation of polysaccharides caused compensatory up-regulation of three known acetyltransferases and increased polysaccharide accessibility to glycosyl hydrolases. Transgenic plants showed increased resistance to the fungal pathogens Botrytis cinerea and Bipolaris sorokiniana but not to the bacterial pathogens Pseudomonas syringae and Xanthomonas oryzae. These results demonstrate a role, in both monocot and dicot plants, of hemicellulose and pectin acetylation in plant defense against fungal pathogens.
Collapse
|
160
|
Nguema-Ona E, Moore JP, Fagerström AD, Fangel JU, Willats WGT, Hugo A, Vivier MA. Overexpression of the grapevine PGIP1 in tobacco results in compositional changes in the leaf arabinoxyloglucan network in the absence of fungal infection. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2013; 13:46. [PMID: 23506352 PMCID: PMC3621556 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2229-13-46] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2012] [Accepted: 02/07/2013] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Constitutive expression of Vitis vinifera polygalacturonase-inhibiting protein 1 (Vvpgip1) has been shown to protect tobacco plants against Botrytis cinerea. Evidence points to additional roles for VvPGIP1, beyond the classical endopolygalacturonase (ePG) inhibition mechanism, in providing protection against fungal infection. Gene expression and biochemical datasets previously obtained, in the absence of infection, point to the cell wall, and particularly the xyloglucan component of transgenic VvPGIP1 lines as playing a role in fungal resistance. RESULTS To elucidate the role of wall-associated processes in PGIP-derived resistance pre-infection, a wall profiling analysis, using high-throughput and fractionation techniques, was performed on healthy leaves from wild-type and previously characterized transgenic lines. The cell wall structure profile during development was found to be altered in the transgenic lines assessed versus the wild-type plants. Immunoprofiling revealed subtle changes in pectin and cellulose components and marked changes in the hemicellulose matrix, which showed reduced binding in transgenic leaves of VvPGIP1 expressing plants. Using an enzymatic xyloglucan oligosaccharide fingerprinting technique optimized for tobacco arabinoxyloglucans, we showed that polysaccharides of the XEG-soluble domain were modified in relative abundance for certain oligosaccharide components, although no differences in ion profiles were evident between wild-type and transgenic plants. These changes did not significantly influence plant morphology or normal growth processes compared to wild-type lines. CONCLUSIONS VvPGIP1 overexpression therefore results in cell wall remodeling and reorganization of the cellulose-xyloglucan network in tobacco in advance of potential infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eric Nguema-Ona
- Institute for Wine Biotechnology, Department of Viticulture and Oenology, Faculty of AgriSciences, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
- Current address: Laboratoire Glycobiologie et Matrice Extracellulaire Végétale (Glyco-MEV). Grand Réseau de Recherche VASI de Haute Normandie, PRES Normandie Université. Université de Rouen, Mont Saint Aignan, 76821 Cedex, France
| | - John P Moore
- Institute for Wine Biotechnology, Department of Viticulture and Oenology, Faculty of AgriSciences, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
| | - Alexandra D Fagerström
- Energy Biosciences Institute, University of California, 2151 Berkeley Way, Berkeley, CA, 94720-5230, USA
| | - Jonatan U Fangel
- Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, DK-, 1001, Denmark
| | - William GT Willats
- Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, DK-, 1001, Denmark
| | - Annatjie Hugo
- Department of Microbiology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
| | - Melané A Vivier
- Institute for Wine Biotechnology, Department of Viticulture and Oenology, Faculty of AgriSciences, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
| |
Collapse
|