151
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Nik AM, Corredig M, Wright AJ. Release of lipophilic molecules during in vitro digestion of soy protein-stabilized emulsions. Mol Nutr Food Res 2011; 55 Suppl 2:S278-89. [DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201000572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2010] [Revised: 02/24/2011] [Accepted: 03/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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152
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Rawat MK, Jain A, Singh S. Studies on Binary Lipid Matrix Based Solid Lipid Nanoparticles of Repaglinide: in Vitro and in Vivo Evaluation. J Pharm Sci 2011; 100:2366-78. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.22435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2010] [Revised: 08/20/2010] [Accepted: 11/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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153
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Rawat MK, Jain A, Singh S. In Vivo and Cytotoxicity Evaluation of Repaglinide-Loaded Binary Solid Lipid Nanoparticles After Oral Administration to Rats. J Pharm Sci 2011; 100:2406-17. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.22454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2010] [Revised: 11/01/2010] [Accepted: 12/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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154
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Tan A, Davey AK, Prestidge CA. Silica-Lipid Hybrid (SLH) Versus Non-lipid Formulations for Optimising the Dose-Dependent Oral Absorption of Celecoxib. Pharm Res 2011; 28:2273-87. [DOI: 10.1007/s11095-011-0458-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2011] [Accepted: 02/23/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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155
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Dong Z, Xie S, Zhu L, Wang Y, Wang X, Zhou W. Preparation and in vitro, in vivo evaluations of norfloxacin-loaded solid lipid nanopartices for oral delivery. Drug Deliv 2011; 18:441-50. [PMID: 21554156 DOI: 10.3109/10717544.2011.577109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This work aims to develop norfloxacin-solid lipid nanoparticles (NFX-SLN) as an oral delivery formulation. Hot homogenization and ultrasonic technique was employed to prepare NFX-SLN using stearic acid as lipid matrix and polyvinyl alcohol as surfactant. The physicochemical characteristics of SLN were investigated by optical microscope scanning electron microscopy and photon correlation spectroscopy. Antibacterial experiments of NFX-SLN were carried out by broth dilution technique. Pharmacokinetics was studied after oral administration in male Sprague-Dawley rats. The results showed that NFX-SLN was spherical and the SLN of the optimized formulation had diameters 301 ± 16.64 nm, polydispersity index 0.15 ± 0.04, zeta potential -30.8 ± 0.69 mv, loading capacity 8.58 ± 0.21% and encapsulation efficiency 92.35 ± 2.24% with good stability at 4 °C. The NFX-SLN had sustained release effect and sustained bactericidal activity. Cytotoxicity studies in cell culture demonstrated that the nanoparticles were not toxic. NFX-SLN resulted in significantly higher plasma drug concentration than native NFX. The SLN increased the relative bioavailability of NFX by 12 folds, prolonged the plasma drug level above the average minimum inhibition concentration from 14 to 168 h. These studies demonstrate that NFX-SLN could be a promising oral formulation for enhanced bioavailability and pharmacological activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhao Dong
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 2 Yuanmingyuan Road West, Beijing 100193, PR China
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156
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Li Y, Hu M, McClements DJ. Factors affecting lipase digestibility of emulsified lipids using an in vitro digestion model: Proposal for a standardised pH-stat method. Food Chem 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.11.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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157
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Chakraborty S, Shukla D, Vuddanda PR, Mishra B, Singh S. Effective in-vivo utilization of lipid-based nanoparticles as drug carrier for carvedilol phosphate. J Pharm Pharmacol 2011; 63:774-9. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.2011.01270.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Objectives
Lipid nanoparticles as carrier for oral drug administration improve gastrointestinal solubility of poorly soluble drugs and thus enhance bioavailability. However, basic drugs may undergo rapid dissolution from such solid dispersions in the stomach and precipitate in the intestine due to their higher solubility in acidic medium. Therefore, the objective of this work was to study the enhancement in bioavailability of carvedilol phosphate (basic drug) by providing an alkaline gastric environment to drug-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles.
Methods
An alkaline gastric environment in rats was created and maintained with oral administration of an antacid suspension 5 min before and 30 min post dosing.
Key findings
The formulation administered orally exhibited enhanced bioavailability (∼27%) when compared with drug suspension and sustained release behaviour when compared with formulation under ideal gastric conditions. The enhanced bioavailability is due to the presence of lipid nanoparticles as drug carrier while the sustained-release characteristic may be attributed to the presence of antacid, which resulted in elevation of gastric pH and reduced the drug's solubility.
Conclusions
It may be concluded that although lipid nanoparticles can be instrumental in improving bioavailability, additional sustained release may be achieved by targeting intestinal release of basic drugs from lipid vehicles, which is possible by incorporating them into suitable enteric-coated formulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subhashis Chakraborty
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Dali Shukla
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | | | - Brahmeshwar Mishra
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Sanjay Singh
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
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158
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Di Maio S, Carrier RL. Gastrointestinal contents in fasted state and post-lipid ingestion: In vivo measurements and in vitro models for studying oral drug delivery. J Control Release 2011; 151:110-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2010.11.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2010] [Accepted: 11/29/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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159
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In vitro lipolysis models as a tool for the characterization of oral lipid and surfactant based drug delivery systems. Int J Pharm 2011; 417:245-55. [PMID: 21392564 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2011.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2011] [Revised: 02/27/2011] [Accepted: 03/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
With the increasing interest in lipid and surfactant based drug delivery systems (LSBDDS) for oral delivery of poorly soluble drugs, the need for efficient development tools is emerging. In vitro lipolysis models, simulating the digestion in the small intestine, is a promising tool in this regard. Several different in vitro lipolysis models have been used for characterization of LSBDDS, all using porcine pancreatin as lipase source, and primarily differing in the addition scheme of calcium and the kind of bile acids employed. Both calcium and bile influence the lipolysis. Calcium have been used both as fixed addition at the beginning of the experiment and with a continuous addition during lipolysis. Both pure bile acids and crude porcine bile extract have been used. Lipolysis of LSBDDS will generate mixed micelles, as well as lamellar and hexagonal phases. These have been characterized by dynamic light scattering, cryogenic transmission electron microscopy and small angle X-ray scattering. The faith of drug during in vitro digestion of a LSBDDS is often studied by ultracentrifugation and quantification of drug in the different phases formed. Further, drug precipitated during in vitro lipolysis has been characterized by X-ray powder diffraction and polarized light microscopy.
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160
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Butler JM, Dressman JB. The developability classification system: application of biopharmaceutics concepts to formulation development. J Pharm Sci 2011; 99:4940-54. [PMID: 20821390 DOI: 10.1002/jps.22217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 246] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
A revised classification system for oral drugs was developed using the biopharmaceutics classification system (BCS) as a starting point. The revised system is designed to have a greater focus on drug developability. Intestinal solubility, the compensatory nature of solubility and permeability in the small intestine and an estimate of the particle size needed to overcome dissolution rate limited absorption were all considered in the revised system. The system was then validated by comparison with literature on the in vivo performance of a number of test compounds. Observations on the test compounds were consistent with the revised classification, termed the developability classification system (DCS), showing it to be of greater value in predicting what factors are critical to in vivo performance than the widely used BCS.
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Affiliation(s)
- James M Butler
- Pharmaceutical Development, GlaxoSmithKline R&D, Harlow, UK.
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161
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Mercuri A, Passalacqua A, Wickham MSJ, Faulks RM, Craig DQM, Barker SA. The Effect of Composition and Gastric Conditions on the Self-Emulsification Process of Ibuprofen-Loaded Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery Systems: A Microscopic and Dynamic Gastric Model Study. Pharm Res 2011; 28:1540-51. [DOI: 10.1007/s11095-011-0387-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2010] [Accepted: 01/31/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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162
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In Vitro Intestinal Bioaccessibility of Alkylglycerols Versus Triacylglycerols as Vehicles of Butyric Acid. Lipids 2011; 46:277-85. [DOI: 10.1007/s11745-010-3520-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2010] [Accepted: 12/17/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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163
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Role of phospholipids in the oral and parenteral delivery of poorly water soluble drugs. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/s1773-2247(11)50001-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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164
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Ye A, Cui J, Singh H. Effect of the fat globule membrane on in vitro digestion of milk fat globules with pancreatic lipase. Int Dairy J 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2010.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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165
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Sassene PJ, Knopp MM, Hesselkilde JZ, Koradia V, Larsen A, Rades T, Müllertz A. Precipitation of a Poorly Soluble Model Drug during In Vitro Lipolysis: Characterization and Dissolution of the Precipitate. J Pharm Sci 2010; 99:4982-91. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.22226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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166
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Role of calcium and calcium-binding agents on the lipase digestibility of emulsified lipids using an in vitro digestion model. Food Hydrocoll 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2010.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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167
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Barakat NS. Enhanced oral bioavailability of etodolac by self-emulsifying systems: in-vitro and in-vivo evaluation. J Pharm Pharmacol 2010; 62:173-80. [PMID: 20487196 DOI: 10.1211/jpp.62.02.0004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The objective of this study was to prepare a self-emulsifying drug delivery system (SEDDS) for oral bioavailability enhancement of a poorly water-soluble drug, etodolac. The SEDDS formulations were optimized by evaluating their ability to self-emulsify when introduced to an aqueous medium under gentle agitation, and by determination of the particle size of the resulting emulsion. METHODS An optimized formulation of SEDDS (composed of 20% etodolac, 30% oil Labrafac WL1349, 10% Lauroglycol 90 and 40% Labrasol) was selected for bioavailability assessment in rabbits. The anti-inflammatory effect was also determined in rats, and compared with powder drug and etodolac suspension in water (50 mg/kg). KEY FINDINGS The peak plasma concentration of 16.4 +/- 1.1 microg/ml appeared after 1.3 +/- 0.2 h, whereas with powder drug and etodolac suspension the values were 7.5 +/- 0.5 and 10.6 +/- 0.7 microg/ml at 4.2 +/- 0.4 and 2.4 +/- 0.2 h, respectively. The AUC(0-8) of the etodolac SEDDS formulation was 2.3 times that of the pure drug and 1.4 times that of the suspension form. SEDDS formulation exhibits a 21% increase in paw thickness compared with a 39% increase on oral administration of etodolac suspension after 4 h at the same dose of the drug (20 mg/kg). CONCLUSIONS The result indicates the utility of SEDDS for the oral delivery of etodolac and potentially other lipophilic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nahla S Barakat
- Department of Pharmaceutics, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
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168
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Changes in WPI-Stabilized Emulsion Interfacial Properties in Relation to Lipolysis and ß-Carotene Transfer During Exposure to Simulated Gastric–Duodenal Fluids of Variable Composition. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/s13228-010-0002-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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169
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Wei JD, Ho HO, Chen CH, Ke WT, Chen ETH, Sheu MT. Characterisation of fenofibrate dissolution delivered by a self-microemulsifying drug-delivery system. J Pharm Pharmacol 2010; 62:1685-96. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.2010.01182.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Objectives
This study attempted to characterise the in-vitro release profiles of fenofibrate (FFB) from a self-microemulsifying drug-delivery system (SMEDDS) for optimising formulation factors and dissolution conditions for in-vivo absorption.
Methods
The study was conducted by profiling the release of FFB formulated with either a complete solution or a micronised dispersion system (MDS) in a SMEDDS composed of medium-chain triglyceride (MCT) oil and surfactant mixtures (Smix) of TPGS and Tweens at different ratios (Km = TPGS/Tweens), with and without adding water. Optimised FFB SMEDDS formulations were then selected for in-vivo bioavailability study.
Key findings
The release rates of FFB from TPGS/Tween 20 systems were faster than those from TPGS/Tween 80 systems at the same Km value. In both systems, the release rates of FFB increased with a decrease in the Km value. Furthermore, both the release rates and the amounts of FFB from MDS in the water medium decreased with an increasing percentage of Smix added to both water contents. However, the release rates and amounts of FFB from MDSs increased with an increasing percentage of Smix in a 0.025 M sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) solution. It was further illustrated that the release of FFB from SMEDDSs was complete within 30 min in both the 0.025 M SLS solution and water medium, but the release of FFB from Tricor® or MDSs was limited in water medium. An optimised FFB SMEDDS with either Tween 20(E5(20)) or Tween 80(E5(80)) and one MDS were selected for a pharmacokinetic study to compare with Tricor®. The results demonstrated that the area under the receiver operating curve and Cmax values were in the order of Tricor® > E5(80) ≅ E5(20) > MDS and Tricor® ≅ E5(80) > E5(20) > MDS, respectively.
Conclusions
The absorption of drug carried by SMEDDS might not be enhanced as a result of the smaller volume of water taken with oral administration of SMEDDSs and the agitation rate of the gastrointestinal tract not being strong enough to efficiently promote the self-microemulsification process to facilitate the in-vivo dissolution rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jyh-Ding Wei
- Department of Orthopedics, Shin Kong Wu Ho-Su Memorial Hospital, 95 Wenchang Road, Taiwan
| | - Hsiu-O Ho
- School of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Taipei Medical University, 250 Wu-Hsing Street, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Ho Chen
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, 250 Wu-Hsing Street, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Tin Ke
- School of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Taipei Medical University, 250 Wu-Hsing Street, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Eric Tsu-Hsin Chen
- Department of Orthopedics, Shin Kong Wu Ho-Su Memorial Hospital, 95 Wenchang Road, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Thau Sheu
- School of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Taipei Medical University, 250 Wu-Hsing Street, Taipei, Taiwan
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170
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McClements DJ, Li Y. Review of in vitro digestion models for rapid screening of emulsion-based systems. Food Funct 2010; 1:32-59. [PMID: 21776455 DOI: 10.1039/c0fo00111b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 302] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
There is increasing interest in understanding and controlling the digestion of emulsified lipids within the food and pharmaceutical industries. Emulsion-based delivery systems are being developed to encapsulate, protect, and release non-polar lipids, vitamins, nutraceuticals, and drugs. These delivery systems are also being used to control the stability and digestion of lipids within the human gastrointestinal tract so as to create foods that enhance satiety and reduce hunger. In vitro digestion models are therefore needed to test the efficacy of different approaches of controlling lipid digestion under conditions that simulate the human gastrointestinal tract. This article reviews the current status of in vitro digestion models for simulating lipid digestion, with special emphasis on the pH stat method. The pH stat method is particularly useful for the rapid screening of food emulsions and emulsion-based delivery systems with different compositions and structures. Successful candidates can then be tested with more rigorous in vitro digestion models, or using animal or human feeding studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Julian McClements
- Biopolymers and Colloids Research Laboratory, Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
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171
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Structured emulsion-based delivery systems: controlling the digestion and release of lipophilic food components. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2010; 159:213-28. [PMID: 20638649 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2010.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 550] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2010] [Revised: 06/21/2010] [Accepted: 06/27/2010] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
There is a need for edible delivery systems to encapsulate, protect and release bioactive and functional lipophilic constituents within the food and pharmaceutical industries. These delivery systems could be used for a number of purposes: controlling lipid bioavailability; targeting the delivery of bioactive components within the gastrointestinal tract; and designing food matrices that delay lipid digestion and induce satiety. Emulsion technology is particularly suited for the design and fabrication of delivery systems for lipids. In this article we provide an overview of a number of emulsion-based technologies that can be used as edible delivery systems by the food and other industries, including conventional emulsions, nanoemulsions, multilayer emulsions, solid lipid particles, and filled hydrogel particles. Each of these delivery systems can be produced from food-grade (GRAS) ingredients (e.g., lipids, proteins, polysaccharides, surfactants, and minerals) using relatively simple processing operations (e.g., mixing, homogenizing, and thermal processing). The structure, preparation, and utilization of each type of delivery system for controlling lipid digestion are discussed. This knowledge can be used to select the most appropriate emulsion-based delivery system for specific applications, such as encapsulation, controlled digestion, and targeted release.
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172
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Sarkar A, Horne DS, Singh H. Pancreatin-induced coalescence of oil-in-water emulsions in an in vitro duodenal model. Int Dairy J 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2009.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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173
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Li Y, McClements DJ. New mathematical model for interpreting pH-stat digestion profiles: impact of lipid droplet characteristics on in vitro digestibility. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2010; 58:8085-8092. [PMID: 20557040 DOI: 10.1021/jf101325m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 281] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The pH-stat method is commonly used to characterize the in vitro digestibility of lipids under simulated small intestine conditions. This method measures the fraction of free fatty acids (FFA) released from triacylglycerols over time. A new mathematical model has been developed to characterize the FFA versus time profiles generated by the pH-stat method, which can be used to quantify the influence of physicochemical parameters on the rate (k) and extent (phi(max)) of lipid digestion. In this model, k is the amount of FFA produced per unit time per unit surface area, whereas phi(max) is the maximum fraction of digestible FFAs released. This model is used to quantify the influence of lipid droplet characteristics (size, concentration, composition, and emulsifier type) on the digestion of emulsified lipids. The rate (k) of lipid digestion increased with decreasing lipid content (from 2.5 to 0.5 wt %), increasing droplet diameter (from d = 200-15000 nm), and decreasing fatty acid molecular weight (MCT versus corn oil). The extent (phi(max)) of lipid digestion was also considerably less for corn oil than for MCT. The rate and extent of lipid digestion did not depend strongly on initial emulsifier type: beta-lactoglobulin, Tween 20, lecithin, or lyso-lecithin. These results are interpreted in terms of differences in the concentrations of reactants, products, catalysts and cofactors at the lipid droplet surfaces during digestion, for example, triacylglycerols, emulsifiers, FFA, lipase, and bile salts. This model provides a useful means of quantifying the influence of specific parameters on lipid digestion using the pH-stat method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Li
- Biopolymers and Colloids Research Laboratory, Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA
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174
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Nanoparticulate strategies for effective delivery of poorly soluble therapeutics. Ther Deliv 2010; 1:149-67. [DOI: 10.4155/tde.10.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The pharmacological activity of a drug molecule depends on its ability to dissolve and interact with its biological target, either through dissolution and absorption, or through dissolution and receptor interaction. The low bioavailability that characterizes poorly water-soluble drugs is usually attributed to the dissolution kinetic profile. Novel strategies to effectively deliver these drugs include nanoparticulate approaches that either increase the surface area of the drug or improve the solubility characteristics of the drug. Nanosizing approaches are based on the production of drug nanocrytals dispersed in an aqueous surfactant solution, whereas other possibilities include drug loading in nanoparticles. Promising nanoparticulate approaches include the development of lipid-based nanocarriers to increase drug solubility followed by enhanced bioavailability. To select the best approach there are, however, some critical considerations to take into account, for example the physicochemical properties of the drug, the possibility to scale-up the production process, the toxicological considerations of the use of solvents and cosolvents, the selection of an environmentally sustainable methodology and the development of a more patient-friendly dosage form. This article addresses these relevant questions and provides feasible examples of novel strategies with respect to relevant administration routes.
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175
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Effect of lipid matrix on repaglinide-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles for oral delivery. Ther Deliv 2010; 1:63-73. [DOI: 10.4155/tde.10.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim: To study the effect of different types of lipid on the entrapment efficiency (EE) and physical stability of repaglinide (RG)-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs). RG-loaded SLNs were prepared by modified solvent injection method using stearic acid (RSA), glycerol monosteratae (RGM), glyceryl behenate (RGB) and tristearin (RTS). Poloxamer F68 was used as a stabilizer. Results: SLNs were characterized by particle size, zeta-potential, EE, in vitro release, solid-state properties (differential scanning calorimetry, transmission electron microscopy and electron diffraction) and stability at 30°C/65% relative humidity for 3 months. The mean particle size and zeta-potential of RG-loaded SLNs prepared with different lipids in varying concentrations ranged from 150 to 355 nm and -21.04 ± 3.10 to -30.54 ± 2.76 mV, respectively. Conclusion: EE was found to vary with lipids in the following order: RSA < RGM < RGB < RTS. Tristearin-prepared SLNs showed a significant prolonged drug release up to 24 h. Differential scanning calorimetry and electron diffraction microphotograph results indicated that RG entrapped in the SLNs existed in an amorphous or molecular state. SLNs prepared with stearic acid, glycerol monostearate and glyceryl behenate after storage showed significant increases in particle size, polydispersity index and EE. The SLNs prepared with tristearin were stable.
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176
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He CX, He ZG, Gao JQ. Microemulsions as drug delivery systems to improve the solubility and the bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2010; 7:445-60. [PMID: 20201713 DOI: 10.1517/17425241003596337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
IMPORTANCE OF THE FIELD Microemulsions have been studied extensively as potential drug delivery vehicles for poorly water-soluble drugs. An understanding of the physicochemical and biopharmaceutical characteristics of the microemulsions according to administration routes will provide guidance for designing the formulations of microemulsions. AREAS COVERED IN THIS REVIEW In this paper, the use and the characteristics of microemulsions as drug delivery vehicles are reviewed. As the formulations of the microemulsion always include a great amount of surfactant and co-surfactant, which may cause hemolysis or histopathological alterations of the tissue, the potential toxicity or the irritancy of microemulsions is also discussed in this paper. WHAT THE READER WILL GAIN Developments of microemulsions for poorly water-soluble drugs in recent years are included in this review. Several factors limiting the commercial or clinical use of microemulsions are also discussed. TAKE HOME MESSAGE Considering the potential in enhanced drug uptake/permeation and facing the limitations, their unique properties make microemulsions a promising vehicle for poorly water-soluble drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cai-Xia He
- Zhejiang University, Institute of Pharmaceutics, 388 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China
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177
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Sun J, Deng Y, Wang S, Cao J, Gao X, Dong X. Liposomes incorporating sodium deoxycholate for hexamethylmelamine (HMM) oral delivery: development, characterization, and in vivo evaluation. Drug Deliv 2010; 17:164-70. [PMID: 20196698 DOI: 10.3109/10717541003667764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Liposomes incorporating sodium deoxycholate (NaDC) were prepared by the method of reverse phase evaporation and used for drug delivery by the oral route. Hexamethylmelamine (HMM), an anti-tumor agent, was chosen as a model drug and encapsulated into liposomes incorporating NaDC (NaDC-Lip). Several properties of NaDC-Lip containing HMM (HMM NaDC-Lip), such as particle size, entrapment efficiency, pinacyanol chloride (PIN) spectral characteristics with various molar ratio of NaDC/PC, as well as the vesicle stability measurements with calcein were evaluated. In vivo, the area under the plasma concentration-time curve obtained from the pharmacokinetics study of HMM NaDC-Lip was found to be approximately 9.76- and 1.21-fold higher than that of HMM solution and HMM Lip, respectively, indicating that NaDC-Lip can be used as a potential carrier for oral drug administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jukui Sun
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, PR China
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178
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Turner DC, Yin F, Kindt JT, Zhang H. Molecular dynamics simulations of glycocholate-oleic acid mixed micelle assembly. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2010; 26:4687-4692. [PMID: 20112949 DOI: 10.1021/la903573m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
We have applied a molecular dynamics (MD) method to investigate the aggregation behavior and physicochemical properties of bile salt as well as bile salt/fatty acid mixed micelles. Local atomic density profiles from the center of the micelles confirm that the self-assembly of the trihydroxy bile salt, glycocholate, is largely driven by hydrophobic aggregation of the nonpolar beta-faces of the steroid backbones. Additional association occurs between neighboring monomers through hydrogen-bonding interactions. The average micellar aggregation number for glycocholate at 37 degrees C with a background salt concentration of 150 mM is shown to be 8.5 molecules per micelle, while the critical micelle concentration (cmc) is 3.1 mM. The good agreement of these results with experimental values illustrates that a MD approach is useful to study mixed micelles of bile salts and fatty acids, critical to the understanding of oral lipid-based formulations. The aggregation behavior and colloidal structure of such micelles are simulated and presented in this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- David C Turner
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mercer University, Atlanta, Georgia 30341, USA
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179
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Zhang Y, Li X, Zhou Y, Wang X, Fan Y, Huang Y, Liu Y. Preparation and evaluation of poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(lactide) micelles as nanocarriers for oral delivery of cyclosporine a. NANOSCALE RESEARCH LETTERS 2010; 5:917-25. [PMID: 20671795 PMCID: PMC2893821 DOI: 10.1007/s11671-010-9583-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2010] [Accepted: 03/16/2010] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
A series of monomethoxy poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(lactide) (mPEG-PLA) diblock copolymers were designed according to polymer-drug compatibility and synthesized, and mPEG-PLA micelle was fabricated and used as a nanocarrier for solubilization and oral delivery of Cyclosporine A (CyA). CyA was efficiently encapsulated into the micelles with nanoscaled diameter ranged from 60 to 96 nm with a narrow size distribution. The favorable stabilities of CyA-loaded polymeric micelles were observed in simulated gastric and intestinal fluids. The in vitro drug release investigation demonstrated that drug release was retarded by polymeric micelles. The enhanced intestinal absorption of CyA-loaded polymeric micelles, which was comparable to the commercial formulation of CyA (Sandimmun Neoral®), was found. These suggested that polymeric micelles might be an effective nanocarrier for solubilization of poorly soluble CyA and further improving oral absorption of the drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhui Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Xueyuan Road 38, Haidian District, Beijing, 100191, People's Republic of China.
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180
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Sarkar A, Horne DS, Singh H. Interactions of milk protein-stabilized oil-in-water emulsions with bile salts in a simulated upper intestinal model. Food Hydrocoll 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2009.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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181
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Shen H, Zhong M. Preparation and evaluation of self-microemulsifying drug delivery systems (SMEDDS) containing atorvastatin. J Pharm Pharmacol 2010; 58:1183-91. [PMID: 16945176 DOI: 10.1211/jpp.58.9.0004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Atorvastatin is insoluble in aqueous solution and the bioavailability after oral administration is low. Self-microemulsifying drug delivery systems (SMEDDS) containing atorvastatin have been successfully prepared to improve its bioavailability. SMEDDS is a mixture of lipid, surfactant, and cosurfactant, which are emulsified in aqueous medium under gentle digestive motility in the gastrointestinal tract. Pseudo-ternary phase diagrams composed of various excipients were plotted. Droplet size, zeta-potential and long-term physical stability of the formulations were investigated. The release of atorvastatin from SMEDDS capsules was studied using the dialysis bag method in 0.1 m HCl and phosphate buffer (pH 7.4), compared with the release of atorvastatin from a conventional tablet. A pharmacokinetic study was performed in 6 beagle dogs after oral administration of 6 mg kg−1 atorvastatin. The bioavailability of atorvastatin SMEDDS capsules was significantly increased compared with that of the conventional tablet. SMEDDS capsules consisting of Labrafil, propylene glycol and Cremophor RH40 provided the greatest bioavailability. Our studies indicate that the use of SMEDDS for the delivery of atorvastatin can improve its bioavailability.
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Affiliation(s)
- HaiRong Shen
- Department of Pharmacy, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Wulumuqi M. Road, Shanghai, 200040, China.
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182
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Devani M, Ashford M, Craig DQM. The emulsification and solubilisation properties of polyglycolysed oils in self-emulsifying formulations. J Pharm Pharmacol 2010; 56:307-16. [PMID: 15025855 DOI: 10.1211/0022357022872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS), whereby drugs are dispersed in an oil–surfactant mix that emulsifies on contact with water, represent a highly promising approach for enhancing oral bioavailability. However, the choice of formulation is, at present, largely empirical both in terms of the composition dependence of the emulsification process and the solubilisation of the drug in the initial oil–surfactant mixture. In this investigation, a range of chemically related self-emulsifying systems have been studied, based on the Labrafil family of polyglycolysed oils, using Tween 80 and Tween 20 as surfactants. The ease of emulsification, the particle size distribution and the appearance of the emulsion droplets were studied as a function of composition, while the solubility of danazol and mefenamic acid in the various oil–surfactant mixes was measured. It was noted that dilution of the emulsions led to apparent change in particle size distribution. The more hydrophilic oil–surfactant mixes showed a greater ease of emulsification and a lower particle size. It was also noted that multiple emulsions could be formed using systems of lower polarity. A linear relationship was observed between the hydrophile–lipophile balance (HLB) of the mix and the solubility of both danazol and mefenamic acid, with more hydrophilic mixes showing greater drug solubility values. The study has indicated that, within the range studied, more hydrophilic mixes tend to result in superior emulsification properties and greater drug solubility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manisha Devani
- GlaxoSmithKline, Park Road, Ware, Hertfordshire, SG12 0DP, UK
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183
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Solid self-emulsifying nitrendipine pellets: Preparation and in vitro/in vivo evaluation. Int J Pharm 2010; 383:1-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2009.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2009] [Revised: 07/30/2009] [Accepted: 08/13/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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184
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Malaki Nik A, Wright AJ, Corredig M. Interfacial design of protein-stabilized emulsions for optimal delivery of nutrients. Food Funct 2010; 1:141-8. [DOI: 10.1039/c0fo00099j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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185
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Formulate-ability of ten compounds with different physicochemical profiles in SMEDDS. Eur J Pharm Sci 2009; 38:479-88. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2009.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2009] [Revised: 09/02/2009] [Accepted: 09/17/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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186
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187
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Influence of the composition of glycerides on the solid-state behaviour and the dissolution profiles of solid lipid extrudates. Int J Pharm 2009; 381:184-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2009.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2008] [Revised: 02/20/2009] [Accepted: 03/06/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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188
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Kuentz M, Cavegn M. Critical concentrations in the dilution of oral self-microemulsifying drug delivery systems. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 2009; 36:531-8. [DOI: 10.3109/03639040903311099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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189
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Windbergs M, Strachan CJ, Kleinebudde P. Investigating the principles of recrystallization from glyceride melts. AAPS PharmSciTech 2009; 10:1224-33. [PMID: 19862628 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-009-9311-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2009] [Accepted: 09/18/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Different lipids were melted and resolidified as model systems to gain deeper insight into the principles of recrystallization processes in lipid-based dosage forms. Solid-state characterization was performed on the samples with differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray powder diffraction. Several recrystallization processes could be identified during storage of the lipid layers. Pure triglycerides that generally crystallize to the metastable alpha-form from the melt followed by a recrystallization process to the stable beta-form with time showed a chain-length-dependent behavior during storage. With increasing chain length, the recrystallization to the stable beta-form was decelerated. Partial glycerides exhibited a more complex recrystallization behavior due to the fact that these substances are less homogenous. Mixtures of a long-chain triglyceride and a partial glyceride showed evidence of some interaction between the two components as the partial glyceride hindered the recrystallization of the triglyceride to the stable beta-form. In addition, the extent of this phenomenon depended on the amount of partial glyceride in the mixture. Based on these results, changes in solid dosage forms based on glycerides during processing and storage can be better understood.
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190
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Design of Lipid-Based Formulations for Oral Administration of Poorly Water-Soluble Drugs: Precipitation of Drug after Dispersion of Formulations in Aqueous Solution. J Pharm Sci 2009; 98:3582-95. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.21659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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191
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Han SF, Yao TT, Zhang XX, Gan L, Zhu C, Yu HZ, Gan Y. Lipid-based formulations to enhance oral bioavailability of the poorly water-soluble drug anethol trithione: Effects of lipid composition and formulation. Int J Pharm 2009; 379:18-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2009.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2008] [Revised: 05/18/2009] [Accepted: 06/02/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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192
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Lalanne M, Khoury H, Deroussent A, Bosquet N, Benech H, Clayette P, Couvreur P, Vassal G, Paci A, Andrieux K. Metabolism evaluation of biomimetic prodrugs by in vitro models and mass spectrometry. Int J Pharm 2009; 379:235-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2009.05.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2009] [Revised: 04/20/2009] [Accepted: 05/18/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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193
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Chakraborty S, Shukla D, Mishra B, Singh S. Lipid – An emerging platform for oral delivery of drugs with poor bioavailability. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2009; 73:1-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2009.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 227] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2009] [Revised: 05/30/2009] [Accepted: 06/02/2009] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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194
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Homar M, Dreu R, Kerč J, Gašperlin M. Preparation and evaluation of celecoxib-loaded microcapsules with self-microemulsifying core. J Microencapsul 2009; 26:479-84. [DOI: 10.1080/02652040802383839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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195
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Tailor-made dissolution profiles by extruded matrices based on lipid polyethylene glycol mixtures. J Control Release 2009; 137:211-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2009.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2008] [Revised: 03/30/2009] [Accepted: 04/02/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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196
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Windbergs M, Strachan CJ, Kleinebudde P. Influence of structural variations on drug release from lipid/polyethylene glycol matrices. Eur J Pharm Sci 2009; 37:555-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2009.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2009] [Revised: 04/14/2009] [Accepted: 04/17/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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197
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Warren DB, Chalmers DK, Pouton CW. Structure and Dynamics of Glyceride Lipid Formulations, with Propylene Glycol and Water. Mol Pharm 2009; 6:604-14. [DOI: 10.1021/mp8001667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dallas B. Warren
- Medicinal Chemistry and Drug Action, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University (Parkville Campus), Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - David K. Chalmers
- Medicinal Chemistry and Drug Action, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University (Parkville Campus), Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Colin W. Pouton
- Medicinal Chemistry and Drug Action, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University (Parkville Campus), Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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198
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Mahmoud EA, Bendas ER, Mohamed MI. Preparation and evaluation of self-nanoemulsifying tablets of carvedilol. AAPS PharmSciTech 2009; 10:183-92. [PMID: 19238556 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-009-9192-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2008] [Accepted: 01/13/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to combine the advantages of self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems and tablets as a conventional dosage form emphasizing the excipients' effect on the development of a new dosage form. Systems composed of HCO-40, Transcutol HP, and medium-chain triglyceride were prepared. Essential properties of the prepared systems regarding carvedilol solubility, a model drug, and self-emulsification time were determined. In order to optimize self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDS), formulation dispersion-drug precipitation test was performed in the absence and presence of cellulosic polymers. Furthermore, SNEDDS was loaded onto liquisolid powders. P-glycoprotein (P-gp) activity of the selected SNEDDS was tested using HCT-116 cells. Carvedilol showed acceptable solubility in the selected excipients. It also demonstrated improvement in the stability upon dilution with aqueous media in the presence of cellulosic polymers. Use of granulated silicon dioxide improved the physical properties of liquisolid powders containing SNEDDS. It improved the compressibility of the selected powders and the tested SNEDDS showed marked P-gp inhibition activity. Prepared self-nanoemulsifying tablet produced acceptable properties of immediate-release dosage forms and expected to increase the bioavailability of carvedilol.
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199
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Ditner C, Bravo R, Imanidis G, Kuentz M. A Systematic Dilution Study of Self-Microemulsifying Drug Delivery Systems in Artificial Intestinal Fluid Using Dynamic Laser Light Backscattering. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 2009; 35:199-208. [DOI: 10.1080/03639040802244318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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200
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