Relation between microRNA expression and progression and prognosis of gastric cancer: a microRNA expression analysis

Hypertension and angiotensin system inhibitors: impact on outcome in sunitinib-treated patients for metastatic renal cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND

To examine the association between hypertension (HTN), angiotensin system inhibitors (ASI) use and survival outcomes in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC) treated with sunitinib (SU).

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed all patients with mRCC who received SU as first-line treatment in Gustave Roussy from April 2004 to November 2013. The HTN (either pre-existing or secondary to SU), use of ASI (either before or during SU) were analysed. Overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS) of different exposures were compared with log-rank test. The associations between exposures and survival outcomes were estimated with hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence interval (CI) through a multivariable Cox model adjusted for age, gender, International mRCC Database Consortium risk group and histology.

RESULTS

Among 213 patients with a 3.6-year median follow-up, 134 were hypertensive and 105 were ASI users with a significant association between the two exposures (P < 0.0001). Hypertensive patients have longer OS (median: 41.6 versus 16.4 months, P < 0.0001) and longer PFS (median: 12.9 versus 5.6 months, P < 0.0001) than non-hypertensive patients (n = 79). ASI users (n = 105) had more HTN_PRE compared with those (n = 108) who did not (65% versus 19%, P < 0.001). Multivariable analysis showed that hypertensive patients were significantly associated with OS (P = 0.05) and marginally with PFS (P = 0.06) while ASI intake was significantly associated with better OS [HR = 0.40; 95% CI (0.24-0.66), P < 0.001] and PFS [HR = 0.55 (0.35-0.86), P = 0.009]. The latter remain statistically significantly associated after controlling for the number of metastases. There is no difference on outcome between patients who receive ASI before starting SU and those who received ASI during SU treatment.

CONCLUSION

Concomitant use of ASI may significantly improve OS and PFS in mRCC patients receiving SU. HTN is marginally associated with the outcome in these patients.

Feasibly of axitinib as first-line therapy for advanced or metastatic renal cell carcinoma: a single-institution experience in Japan

Background

Clinical benefit of axitinib as a first line agent to treat patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC), or locally advanced renal cell carcinoma (RCC) have not been clearly demonstrated. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of axitinib as first-line therapy in Japanese patients with locally advanced RCC or mRCC.

Methods

In this retrospective study, we focused on eighteen patients who underwent first-line therapy with axitinib between May 2012 and May 2014 at Hirosaki University. Axitinib was orally administered at a dose of 10 mg daily. Progression-free survival (PFS) was the primary endpoint, while secondary endpoints included overall response rate (ORR) and adverse events (AEs).

Results

All patients had histologically proven clear cell RCC. The median duration of the administration of axitinib was 10.8 months. According to the response evaluation criteria for solid tumors, five patients (27.8%) achieved a partial response and nine (50%) had stable disease. The 1-year PFS rate was 84.4%, and the median PFS was 20.4 months (95% confidence interval, 17.5 – 21.7). No serious AEs were reported during the study, and there were no toxicity-related deaths.

Conclusions

In the current study, axitinib showed acceptable oncological outcomes and favorable safety profile as first-line therapy for locally advanced RCC or mRCC in treatment-naïve Japanese patients. Thus, first-line therapy with axitinib may provide a feasible option for treatment of advanced RCC or mRCC patients.

Genotype Correlations With Blood Pressure and Efficacy From a Randomized Phase III Trial of Second-Line Axitinib Versus Sorafenib in Metastatic Renal Cell Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

In the phase III axitinib second-line (AXIS) trial, axitinib significantly prolonged progression-free survival (PFS) versus sorafenib in patients with previously treated metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC). Analyses of associations between germline single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and outcomes are reported.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

DNA samples from blood were genotyped using TaqMan allelic discrimination. Logistic/Cox regression analyses were used to evaluate association of 15 SNPs in vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A, VEGF receptor (VEGFR)1, VEGFR2, or hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α with outcomes for blood pressure (BP; Grade ≥ 3 hypertension, diastolic BP > 90 mm Hg, and increase ≥ 15 mm Hg from baseline) and efficacy (independent review committee-assessed objective response rate and PFS, and overall survival [OS]). Multivariate analyses assessed SNPs and baseline characteristics as potential predictors of PFS and OS.

RESULTS

Genotype data were available for 305 (42.7%) of 714 patients; 159 received axitinib and 146 sorafenib. After Bonferroni adjustment, no SNP was associated with BP outcomes. In axitinib-treated patients, VEGF-A rs699947 (A/A vs. C/C) and rs833061 (C/C vs. T/T) were associated with longer OS (27.0 vs. 13.4 months; hazard ratio [HR], 0.39; Padjusted = .015). In sorafenib-treated patients, VEGFR2 rs2071559 (G/G vs. A/A) was associated with longer OS (26.8 vs. 13.8 months; HR, 0.41; Padjusted = .030). In multivariate analyses, no SNP predicted axitinib efficacy; VEGFR2 rs2071559 predicted PFS (P = .0053) and OS (P = .0027) for sorafenib. Sensitivity/specificity of VEGFR2 rs2071559 for OS was < 80%.

CONCLUSION

No SNP predicted axitinib outcomes. Although VEGFR2 rs2071559 predicted sorafenib efficacy in patients with mRCC, sensitivity/specificity limitations preclude its use for selecting individual patients for sorafenib treatment.

Axitinib dose titration: analyses of exposure, blood pressure and clinical response from a randomized phase II study in metastatic renal cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND

In a randomized, double-blind phase II trial in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC), axitinib versus placebo titration yielded a significantly higher objective response rate. We evaluated pharmacokinetic and blood pressure (BP) data from this study to elucidate relationships among axitinib exposure, BP change, and efficacy.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Patients received axitinib 5 mg twice daily during a lead-in period. Patients who met dose-titration criteria were randomized 1:1 to stepwise dose increases with axitinib or placebo. Patients ineligible for randomization continued without dose increases. Serial 6-h and sparse pharmacokinetic sampling were carried out; BP was measured at clinic visits and at home in all patients, and by 24-h ambulatory BP monitoring (ABPM) in a subset of patients.

RESULTS

Area under the plasma concentration-time curve from 0 to 24 h throughout the course of treatment (AUCstudy) was higher in patients with complete or partial responses than those with stable or progressive disease in the axitinib-titration arm, but comparable between these groups in the placebo-titration and nonrandomized arms. In the overall population, AUCstudy and efficacy outcomes were not strongly correlated. Mean BP across the population was similar when measured in clinic, at home, or by 24-h ABPM. Weak correlations were observed between axitinib steady-state exposure and diastolic BP. When grouped by change in diastolic BP from baseline, patients in the ≥10 and ≥15 mmHg groups had longer progression-free survival.

CONCLUSIONS

Optimal axitinib exposure may differ among patients with mRCC. Pharmacokinetic or BP measurements cannot be used exclusively to guide axitinib dosing. Individualization of treatment with vascular endothelial growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors, including axitinib, is thus more complex than anticipated and cannot be limited to a single clinical factor.

Evaluating the safety and efficacy of axitinib in the treatment of advanced renal cell carcinoma

Axitinib is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor, platelet-derived growth factor receptor-α, and c-kit. Phase I studies demonstrated 5 mg twice daily as the recommended starting dose with notable effects seen in renal cell carcinoma, an observation confirmed in Phase II trials. The trial of comparative effectivess of axitinib versus sorafenib in advanced renal cell carcinoma (AXIS) was an international randomized Phase III study designed for registration purposes, compared axitinib to sunitinib. This trial randomized 723 patients with metastatic kidney cancer to axitinib or sunitinib in the second-line setting and demonstrated a median progression-free survival of 6.7 months for axitinib versus 4.7 months for sorafenib (P<0.0001). Clinical benefit was detected regardless of prior therapy, but no overall survival benefit has been observed. Axitinib is well tolerated without a significant effect on quality of life. The most common grade 3 toxicities are hypertension (16%), diarrhea (11%), and fatigue (11%), with other notable side effects being anorexia, nausea, hand–foot syndrome, and rash. Patients who developed diastolic blood pressure >90 mmHg were noted to have significantly longer median overall survival and overall response rates when compared to normotensive patients. Therefore, the manufacturer recommends escalating the twice-daily dose to 7 mg and 10 mg, as tolerated, if there is no significant increase in blood pressure on treatment. Currently, axitinib is approved for use in the second-line setting for patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma. Research is ongoing in other disease settings.

Axitinib plasma pharmacokinetics and ethnic differences

Axitinib, a potent and selective tyrosine kinase inhibitor of vascular endothelial growth factor receptors 1, 2, and 3, showed improved progression-free survival over sorafenib in patients previously treated for advanced renal cell carcinoma in the AXIS trial. Although a few studies had established the efficacy and safety of axitinib in Asian patients, additional evaluation was necessary to obtain regulatory approval in several Asian countries, especially in light of ethnic differences that are known to exist in genetic polymorphisms for metabolizing enzymes such as cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A5, CYP2C19 and uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) 1A1, which are involved in axitinib metabolism. Axitinib plasma pharmacokinetics following single or multiple administration of oral axitinib in Asian (Japanese or Chinese) healthy subjects as well as Asian patients with advanced solid tumors was compared with that obtained in Caucasians. Upon review, the data demonstrated that axitinib can be characterized as not sensitive to ethnic factors based on its pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties. Axitinib exhibited similar pharmacokinetics in Asian and non-Asian subjects. A pooled population pharmacokinetic analysis indicated lack of a clinically meaningful effect of ethnicity on axitinib disposition. Therefore, dose adjustment for axitinib on the basis of ethnicity is not currently warranted.

Common questions regarding clinical use of axitinib in advanced renal cell carcinoma

PURPOSE

An overview of the responses to some of the most frequently asked questions regarding axitinib administration and dosage modifications used in clinical practice are presented.

SUMMARY

Axitinib was approved for second-line treatment of advanced renal cell carcinoma by the Food and Drug Administration on January 27, 2012. Inquiries received over the first six months after the approval date were reviewed. A large number of questions were related to administration of axitinib in different patient populations or in patients with various comorbidities, such as its (1) use in patients unable to swallow oral medication or administration of axitinib via a nasogastric tube, (2) use in patients with renal or hepatic impairment, (3) central nervous system penetration and use in patients with brain metastases, (4) drug interactions, particularly with anticoagulants, and (5) dosage modifications. Responses to these inquiries were provided based on the published literature or from data on file from the manufacturer. The dosage of axitinib can be adjusted for use in patients with hepatic impairment or in patients who cannot otherwise tolerate the usual regimen. Patients taking concomitant warfarin can also take axitinib, and patients who cannot swallow oral medications can receive a liquid formulation of the drug, though its efficacy and comparability to the tablet formulation has not been tested.

CONCLUSION

Based on the published literature and company data on file, the axitinib dosage may be modified to accommodate patients with renal or hepatic impairment, who cannot swallow oral medication, are receiving concomitant warfarin, or who cannot otherwise tolerate the standard dosage regimen. For patients who cannot swallow, an oral suspension can be prepared because crushing axitinib is not recommended.

Alternate sunitinib schedules in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma

Sunitinib malate is an oral multitargeted tyrosine kinase inhibitor exhibiting antiangiogenic activity. Sunitinib demonstrated improved outcomes in comparison to interferon-α in a large phase III study of treatment naïve patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma. Maintaining patients on sunitinib treatment is essential for a sustained disease control as higher exposure to sunitinib has been associated with an improved overall response rate, progression-free survival and overall survival. Various studies have compared the outcomes of patients undergoing sunitinib therapy based on modifications from their standard dose and schedule. Several studies have shown that switching to an alternate schedule with more frequent dose interruptions without affecting dose density over a 6-week cycle is associated with improved outcomes and increased tolerability.

A phase II trial of second-line axitinib following prior antiangiogenic therapy in advanced hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Second-line treatment options in advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are limited. Axitinib, a selective potent tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) of vascular endothelial growth factor VEGF) receptors 1, 2, and 3, merits exploration in HCC.

METHODS

This was a single-arm phase II trial of axitinib in advanced HCC. Eligible patients were Child-Pugh A/B7, with measurable progressive disease after TKIs/antiangiogenic drugs. Axitinib was started at 5 mg twice daily orally, titrated from 2 to 10 mg twice daily as tolerated. The primary end point was tumor control at 16 weeks by RECIST1.1; secondary end points were response rate, comparing response by RECIST1.1 to Choi and modified RECIST, exploring dynamic contrast-enhanced imaging models, safety, progression-free (PFS), and overall survival (OS).

RESULTS

Thirty patients were treated. Of 26 patients evaluable for response, there were 3 partial responses (PR) per RECIST1.1; 13 PR by Choi, 6 PR and 1 complete response by modified RECIST. Tumor control rate at 16 weeks was 42.3%. Two-week perfusion changes were noted on functional imaging. Of 21 patients with evaluable α-fetoprotein response, 43% had >50% decrease from baseline. Most common axitinib-related grade 3/4 adverse events (AEs) were hypertension, thrombocytopenia and diarrhea. Of 11 patients with any grade hypertension, 7 had disease control >36 wks. Four patients discontinued treatment due to AEs. Median PFS was 3.6 months. Median OS was 7.1 months.

CONCLUSIONS

With 42.3% tumor control at 16 weeks, primary endpoint was met. Axitinib has shown encouraging tolerable clinical activity in VEGF-pretreated HCC patients but further study should be in a selected population incorporating potential biomarkers of response.

Sunitinib dose escalation overcomes transient resistance in clear cell renal cell carcinoma and is associated with epigenetic modifications

Sunitinib is considered a first-line therapeutic option for patients with advanced clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC). Despite sunitinib's clinical efficacy, patients eventually develop drug resistance and disease progression. Herein, we tested the hypothesis whether initial sunitinib resistance may be transient and could be overcome by dose increase. In selected patients initially treated with 50 mg sunitinib and presenting with minimal toxicities, sunitinib dose was escalated to 62.5 mg and/or 75 mg at the time of tumor progression. Mice bearing two different patient-derived ccRCC xenografts (PDX) were treated 5 days per week with a dose-escalation schema (40-60-80 mg/kg sunitinib). Tumor tissues were collected before dose increments for immunohistochemistry analyses and drug levels. Selected intrapatient sunitinib dose escalation was safe and several patients had added progression-free survival. In parallel, our preclinical results showed that PDXs, although initially responsive to sunitinib at 40 mg/kg, eventually developed resistance. When the dose was incrementally increased, again we observed tumor response to sunitinib. A resistant phenotype was associated with transient increase of tumor vasculature despite intratumor sunitinib accumulation at higher dose. In addition, we observed associated changes in the expression of the methyltransferase EZH2 and histone marks at the time of resistance. Furthermore, specific EZH2 inhibition resulted in increased in vitro antitumor effect of sunitinib. Overall, our results suggest that initial sunitinib-induced resistance may be overcome, in part, by increasing the dose, and highlight the potential role of epigenetic changes associated with sunitinib resistance that can represent new targets for therapeutic intervention.

Renal cell carcinoma

The treatment of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) has changed greatly over the past 15 years. Progress in the surgical management of the primary tumor and increased understanding of the molecular biology and genomics of the disease have led to the development of new therapeutic agents. The management of the primary tumor has changed owing to the realization that clean margins around the primary lesion are sufficient to prevent local recurrence, as well as the development of more sophisticated tools and techniques that increase the safety of partial nephrectomy. The management of advanced disease has altered even more dramatically as a result of new agents that target the tumor vasculature or that attenuate the activation of intracellular oncogenic pathways. This review summarizes data from prospective randomized phase III studies on the surgical management and systemic treatment of RCC, and provides an up to date summary of the histology, genomics, staging, and prognosis of RCC. It describes the management of the primary tumor and offers an overview of systemic agents that form the mainstay of treatment for advanced disease. The review concludes with an introduction to the exciting new class of immunomodulatory agents that are currently in clinical trials and may form the basis of a new therapeutic approach for patients with advanced RCC.

[Alternative prescription schedules of sunitinib in metastatic kidney cancer: from the underground to the light?]

Sunitinib was the first targeted therapy improving progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC) in the first line of treatment. Classically, sunitinib is administered at a dose of 50 mg/day during four weeks followed by two weeks off (schedule 4/6). This schedule has two pitfalls: intermittent exposure with two weeks "off" and the increase in toxicity during the fourth week. Several alternative prescription schedules were studied with the aim of limiting the intensity of toxicity while maintaining efficacy. This review summarizes the published data on alternative schedules of sunitinib in terms of safety and efficacy. All articles and abstracts on alternative schedule of sunitinib in the mRCC were reviewed. Clinical trials were also searched. Studies evaluating the continuous schedule have not provided evidence of its superiority compared to the 4/6 schedules in terms of activity, tolerance or dose-intensity. Retrospective data of patients treated in a schedule two weeks of treatment "on" one week "off" (schedule 2/3) with sunitinib 50 mg/day show PFS that seem superior to those obtained with a schedule 4/ 6, while having a better safety profile. The alternating schedule of sunitinib 2/3 (50 mg/day) may be a better alternative to schedule 4/6 in terms of tolerance. If toxicity occurs with 50 mg/day on a schedule 4/6, it would probably offer a better alternative in terms of efficiency than dose reduction. The results of ongoing and future studies are expected to prospectively validate the concept.

The circadian timing system in clinical oncology

The circadian timing system (CTS) controls several critical molecular pathways for cancer processes and treatment effects over the 24 hours, including drug metabolism, cell cycle, apoptosis, and DNA damage repair mechanisms. This results in the circadian time dependency of whole-body and cellular pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of anticancer agents. However, CTS robustness and phase varies among cancer patients, based on circadian monitoring of rest- activity, body temperature, sleep, and/or hormonal secretion rhythms. Circadian disruption has been further found in up to 50% of patients with metastatic cancer. Such disruption was associated with poor outcomes, including fatigue, anorexia, sleep disorders, and short progression-free and overall survival. Novel, minimally invasive devices have enabled continuous CTS assessment in non-hospitalized cancer patients. They revealed up to 12-hour differences in individual circadian phase. Taken together, the data support the personalization of chronotherapy. This treatment method aims at the adjustment of cancer treatment delivery according to circadian rhythms, using programmable-in-time pumps or novel release formulations, in order to increase both efficacy and tolerability. A fixed oxaliplatin, 5-fluorouracil and leucovorin chronotherapy protocol prolonged median overall survival in men with metastatic colorectal cancer by 3.3 months as compared to conventional delivery, according to a meta-analysis (P=0.009). Further analyses revealed the need for the prevention of circadian disruption or the restoration of robust circadian function in patients on chronotherapy, in order to further optimize treatment effects. The strengthening of external synchronizers could meet such a goal, through programmed exercise, meal timing, light exposure, improved social support, sleep scheduling, and the properly timed administration of drugs that target circadian clocks. Chrono-rehabilitation warrants clinical testing for improving quality of life and survival in cancer patients.

Oral anticancer drugs: how limited dosing options and dose reductions may affect outcomes in comparative trials and efficacy in patients

Historically, cancer medicine has avoided the problem of unequal dosing by comparing maximum-tolerated doses of intravenous regimens with proportionate dose reductions for toxicity. However, in recent years, with the development of numerous oral anticancer agents, dosing options are arbitrarily and increasingly limited by the size of pills. We contend that an underappreciated consequence of pill size is unequal dosing in comparative clinical trials and that this can have an impact on outcomes. We discuss how comparative effectiveness trials can be unbalanced and how the use of doses that are not sustainable might affect outcomes, especially marginal ones. We further argue that because of their poor tolerability and their limited dosing options, which often result in large dose adjustments in response to toxicity, the real-world clinical effectiveness of oral anticancer agents may be diminished and may not emulate results achieved in registration trials.

Drug safety evaluation of sorafenib for treatment of solid tumors: consequences for the risk assessment and management of cancer patients

INTRODUCTION

Sorafenib is a multi-tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI). Considerable clinical experience has been accumulated since its first Phase III clinical trial in metastatic renal cancer patients in 2007. The management of its early acute toxicity in fit patients is well known. The management of prolonged treatment becomes the new challenge.

AREAS COVERED

Using sorafenib as a key word for PubMed search, we review preclinical and clinical data and discuss the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of sorafenib, its acute and cumulative toxicities and their consequences for patient management.

EXPERT OPINION

The systematic multi-disciplinary risk assessment of cancer patients prior to TKI initiation reduces the risks of acute and late toxicity, especially drug-drug interactions and arterial risks. Sarcopenia is now identified as a major risk of severe toxicity. The very diverse clinical pictures of cumulative toxicity must be known. The monitoring of sorafenib systemic exposure is helpful especially in elderly patients. Moreover, at disease progression, it allows distinguishing between underexposure to sorafenib and truly acquired resistance to the drug. The optimal use of sorafenib should allow improving the reported results of flat-dose. Finally, most of this knowledge could be used for the development and optimal use of the other TKIs.

Impact of everolimus blood concentration on its anti-cancer activity in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma

PURPOSE

Everolimus has demonstrated its efficacy in metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC). Preliminary studies have shown high variability of everolimus blood concentrations (EBC). In other settings, its activity was correlated with EBC. We therefore decided to monitor EBC in patients treated with mRCC to assess its influence on oncologic outcomes.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Our study analyzed first 3 months' trough EBC levels in 42 patients treated in 4 French oncologic centers between March 2010 and August 2013. Patients presented a histologically confirmed diagnosis of mRCC and have failed prior anti-angiogenic (AA) therapies.

RESULTS

Median follow-up was 25.9 months. A total of 113 EBC were analyzed. The median trough concentration was 14.1 μg/L (range 2.6-91.5). Fourteen patients (67 %) versus 8 (38 %) patients with median EBC above or below 14.1 μg/L were free from progression at 6 months (p = 0.06). Median progression-free survival was 13.3 versus 3.9 months (HR 0.66 95 % CI 0.33-1.31; p = 0.23), and the median overall survival was 26.2 versus 9.9 months (HR 0.62 95 % CI 0.28-1.37; p = 0.24), for patients above or below the median value of trough concentrations, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Impact of drug exposure for AA tyrosine kinase inhibitors activity has been demonstrated in mRCC setting. Interpatients EBC variability was confirmed in the present study, and the results suggest a relationship between initial EBC within the first 3 months and the drug activity. It underlines the need to prospectively include EBC monitoring in future clinical trials to determine the need of its implementation in routine use.

Targeted treatments in advanced renal cell carcinoma: focus on axitinib

Antiangiogenesis options have evolved rapidly in the last few years, with an increasing number of agents currently approved by the US Food and Drug Administration and European Medicines Agency. Angiogenesis inhibitors have been shown to be very effective for the treatment of metastatic renal cancer cell. Axitinib is a third-generation inhibitor of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor and is currently being developed for the treatment of various malignancies. The pharmacokinetic properties of axitinib may have a selective therapeutic effect, with minimal adverse reactions and enhanced safety. In a large Phase III study of previously treated patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma, axitinib achieved a longer progression-free survival than sorafenib with an acceptable safety profile and good quality of life. This review focuses on the pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and clinical activity of axitinib in the current treatment of renal cell carcinoma. The role of axitinib in the adjuvant and/or neoadjuvant setting needs to be evaluated in further clinical trials.

Immunologics and chemotherapeutics for renal cell carcinoma

Treatment of metastatic renal cell carcinoma remains a challenge for clinicians. Traditional chemotherapy is ineffective and immunotherapy with interleukin-2 is only occasionally beneficial. The development of numerous agents targeting vascular endothelial growth factor and mammalian target of rapamycin signaling pathways that have been studied in phase III trials have resulted in significant improvement in survival for patients with clear cell renal cell carcinoma. Currently available U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved first line targeted agents include sunitinib, pazopanib, temsirolimus, and bevacizumab (with interferon), while axitinib, everolimus, and sorafenib are most extensively used following progression as second- or third line therapy. Attempts to augment the activity of these agents by combining them together or with chemotherapy or immunotherapy have not yet proven to improve outcomes. As a result, the sequential use of single agents remains the current standard of care.

Targeted therapy in gastric cancer: personalizing cancer treatment based on patient genome

Gastric cancer is the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Conventional cytotoxic chemotherapy has limited efficacy for metastatic gastric cancer, with an overall survival of approximately ten months. Recent advances in high-throughput technologies have enabled the implementation of personalized cancer therapy for high-risk patients. The use of such high-throughput technologies, including microarray and next generation sequencing, have promoted the discovery of novel targets that offer new treatment strategies for patients lacking other therapeutic options. Many molecular pathways are currently under investigation as therapeutic targets in gastric cancer, including those related to the epidermal growth factor receptor family, the mesenchymal-epithelial transition factor axis, and the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-AKT-mammalian target of rapamycin factors. Advances in molecular diagnostic tools further support the discovery of new molecular targets. Limitations exist, however; not all patients can be tested for biomarkers, and numerous challenges hamper implementation of targeted therapy in clinical settings. Indeed, the scale of tumor genomic profiling is rapidly outpacing our ability to appropriately synthesize all the information in order to optimally refine patient care. Therefore, clinicians must continue to educate themselves regarding new tools and frameworks, and to utilize multidisciplinary team science, comprised of oncologists, geneticists, pathologists, biologists and bioinformaticians, to successfully implement this genomic approach therapeutically.

Phase 2 trial of neoadjuvant axitinib in patients with locally advanced nonmetastatic clear cell renal cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have shown a modest impact of tyrosine kinase inhibitors on primary renal tumors. Those studies were mostly retrospective or heterogeneous in their eligibility criteria with regard to histology, disease stage, duration of therapy, and time off therapy prior to surgery.

OBJECTIVE

To prospectively investigate the safety and efficacy of axitinib in downsizing tumors in patients with nonmetastatic biopsy-proven clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC).

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This was a single-institution, single-arm phase 2 clinical trial. Patients with locally advanced nonmetastatic biopsy-proven ccRCC were eligible.

INTERVENTION

Patients received axitinib 5mg for up to 12 wk. Axitinib was continued until 36h prior to surgery. Patients underwent partial or radical nephrectomy after axitinib therapy.

OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

The primary outcome was objective response rate prior to surgery. Secondary outcomes included safety, tolerability, and quality of life. A dedicated radiologist independently reviewed all computed tomography scans to evaluate for response using Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors (RECIST).

RESULTS AND LIMITATIONS

A total of 24 patients were treated. Twenty-two patients continued axitinib for 12 wk; 1 patient continued axitinib for 11 wk and underwent surgery as planned. One patient stopped treatment at 7 wk due to adverse events (AEs). Median reduction of primary renal tumor diameter was 28.3%. Eleven patients experienced a partial response per RECIST; 13 had stable disease. There was no progression of disease while on axitinib. The most common AEs were hypertension, fatigue, oral mucositis, hypothyroidism, and hand-foot syndrome. Postoperatively, 2 grade 3 and 13 grade 2 complications were noted. No grade 4 or 5 complications occurred. Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Kidney Specific Index-15 changed over time, with quality of life worsening while on therapy, but by week 19, it was not statistically different from screening. Limitations include single-arm design and small patient numbers.

CONCLUSIONS

Axitinib was clinically active and reasonably well tolerated in the neoadjuvant setting in patients with locally advanced nonmetastatic ccRCC.

PATIENT SUMMARY

In this prospective clinical trial, we found that axitinib, when given prior to surgery, results in significant shrinking of kidney cancers. Larger studies are needed prior to further clinical use.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

This clinical trial was registered with clinicaltrials.gov (NCT01263769).

Axitinib for the treatment of advanced renal cell carcinoma

INTRODUCTION

Advanced understanding of the pathogenesis of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) has led to development and approval of several molecularly targeted therapies since 2005. Axitinib is a potent and selective inhibitor of vascular endothelial growth factor receptors 1, 2 and 3. In the randomized Phase III AXIS trial, axitinib significantly prolonged progression-free survival compared with sorafenib, respectively (6.7 vs 4.7 months; p < 0.0001), and improved objective response rate (19 vs 9%; p = 0.0001), resulting in its approval for advanced or metastatic RCC after failure of one systemic therapy. However, overall survival was similar with axitinib and sorafenib. Common adverse events associated with axitinib include diarrhea, hypertension and fatigue.

AREAS COVERED

The properties, clinical efficacy, adverse events, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of axitinib are summarized and its position in the overall therapeutic landscape for metastatic RCC among several targeted therapies is described.

EXPERT OPINION

Axitinib is generally well-tolerated and provides definitive clinical benefits in patients with advanced or metastatic RCC as second-line therapy. However, as with other tyrosine kinase inhibitors of the same class, axitinib does not prolong overall survival; therefore, selection of second-line tyrosine kinase inhibitor therapy, including axitinib, must be carefully considered to maximize outcomes for each patient.