Functionalized quantum dots for biosensing and bioimaging and concerns on toxicity

Applications of zero-valent silicon nanostructures in biomedicine

Zero-valent, or elemental, silicon nanostructures exhibit a number of properties that render them attractive for applications in nanomedicine. These materials hold significant promise for improving existing diagnostic and therapeutic techniques. This review summarizes some of the essential aspects of the fabrication techniques used to generate these fascinating nanostructures, comparing their material properties and suitability for biomedical applications. We examine the literature in regards to toxicity, biocompatibility and biodistribution of silicon nanoparticles, nanowires and nanotubes, with an emphasis on surface modification and its influence on cell adhesion and endocytosis. In the final part of this review, our attention is focused on current applications of the fabricated silicon nanostructures in nanomedicine, specifically examining drug and gene delivery, bioimaging and biosensing.

Photon Antibunching in Small Clusters of CdSe/ZnS Core/Shell Quantum Dots

Coincident photon histogram measurements of fluorescence antibunching via confocal microscopy correlated with atomic force microscopy were carried out on (i) individual CdSe/ZnS core/shell quantum dots (QDs), (ii) several well separated QDs, and (iii) clusters of QDs. Individual QDs and well separated QDs showed the expected degree of antibunching for a single emitter and several independent emitters, respectively. The degree of antibunching in small, compact clusters was more characteristic of a single emitter than multiple emitters. The antibunching in clusters provides strong evidence of nonradiative energy transfer between QDs in a cluster. A minimal phenomenological model of energy transfer gives reasonable quantitative agreement with the experimental results.

Self-illuminating quantum dots for non-invasive bioluminescence imaging of mammalian gametes

Background

The fertility performance of animals is still a mystery and the full comprehension of mammalian gametes maturation and early embryonic development remains to be elucidated. The recent development in nanotechnology offers a new opportunity for real-time study of reproductive cells in their physiological environments. As a first step toward that goal, we evaluated the effectiveness of a fluorescent and luminescent nanoparticle for in vitro and ex vivo imaging of porcine gametes.

Methods

Freshly harvested boar sperm were labeled with red-shifted (655 nm) quantum dot nanoparticles conjugated (QD+) or not (QD−) with plasminogen antibody and evaluated. Subsets of labeled spermatozoa were loaded into straws and placed within the lumen of gilt reproductive tracts for ex vivo intra-uterine imaging. Porcine cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs) were matured in the presence of QD− or QD+. Ovarian follicles were microinjected with QD− or QD+ and placed in culture for up to 4 days. After labeling, all samples were supplemented with coelenterazine, the luciferase substrate, and immediately submitted to bioluminescence analysis, followed by fluorescence and hyperspectral imaging. Data were analyzed with ANOVA and P < 0.05 indicated significant differences.

Results

All labeled-samples revealed bioluminescence emission that was confirmed by fluorescence and hyperspectral imaging of the QD localization within the cells and tissues. Over 76% of spermatozoa and both immature and mature COCs were successfully labeled with QD− or QD+. The QD− fluorescence appeared homogenously distributed in the oocytes, while found in the entire sperm length with a higher accumulation within the mid-piece. Labeled-follicles exhibited a progressive migration of QD nanoparticles within the follicle wall during culture. In contrast, QD+ fluorescence signals appeared condensed and stronger in the follicle cells, sperm head, and sub-plasma membrane area of mature oocytes. Weaker QD+ signals were detected in the cumulus cells. Fluorescence and hyperspectral microscope imaging showed comparable intracellular QD localization. Ex-vivo intra-uterine bioluminescence imaging of labeled spermatozoa revealed stronger signals captured over the oviducts, with uterine body allowing the lowest signal detection.

Conclusion

Findings indicate that conjugated and non-conjugated fluorescent nanoparticles can be used for effective labeling of mammalian gametes for in vitro monitoring and potential in vivo targeted-imaging.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12951-015-0097-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Decorating CdTe QD-Embedded Mesoporous Silica Nanospheres with Ag NPs to Prevent Bacteria Invasion for Enhanced Anticounterfeit Applications

Quantum dots (QDs) as potent candidates possess advantageous superiority in fluorescence imaging applications, but they are susceptible to the biological circumstances (e.g., bacterial environment), leading to fluorescence quenching or lose of fluorescent properties. In this work, CdTe QDs were embedded into mesoporous silica nanospheres (m-SiO2 NSs) for preventing QD agglomeration, and then CdTe QD-embedded m-SiO2 NSs (m-SiO2/CdTe NSs) were modified with Ag nanoparticles (Ag NPs) to prevent bacteria invasion for enhanced anticounterfeit applications. The m-SiO2 NSs, which serve as intermediate layers to combine CdTe QDs with Ag NPs, help us establish a highly fluorescent and long-term antibacterial system (i.e., m-SiO2/CdTe/Ag NSs). More importantly, CdTe QD-embedded m-SiO2 NSs showed fluorescence quenching when they encounter bacteria, which was avoided by attaching Ag NPs outside. Ag NPs are superior to CdTe QDs for preventing bacteria invasion because of the structure (well-dispersed Ag NPs), size (small diameter), and surface charge (positive zeta potentials) of Ag NPs. The plausible antibacterial mechanisms of m-SiO2/CdTe/Ag NSs toward both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria were established. As for potential applications, m-SiO2/CdTe/Ag NSs were developed as fluorescent anticounterfeiting ink for enhanced imaging applications.

Facile Synthesis of pH-sensitive Germanium Nanocrystals with High Quantum Yield for Intracellular Acidic Compartment Imaging

A green-light emitting germanium nanocrystal-based biosensor to monitor lysosomal pH changes is developed. The Ge nanocrystals are synthesized in an aqueous solution with a significantly enhanced photoluminescence quantum yield of 26%. This synthesis involves a facile solution based route which avoided the use of toxic or environmentally unfriendly agents. Importantly, the photoluminescence intensity of the synthesized Ge nanocrystals is particularly sensitive to changes in pH between 5 and 6. When incubated with cultured cells, the nanocrystals are internalized and subsequently translocated via the lysosomal pathway, and the Ge nanocrystals' fluorescence are greatly enhanced, even when the lysosomal pH is only slightly increased. These results reveal that the Ge nanocrystals possess high pH sensitivity compared to a commercially available dye, LysoSensor Green DND-189. The fluorescent properties of the Ge nanocrystals are demonstrated to be dependent on both the crystal form and their surface chemistry. The superior fluorescence properties and bioapplicability of the Ge nanocrystals makes them a promising intracellular bioimaging probe for monitoring various pH-sensitive processes in cells.

Nanomaterial-based biosensors using dual transducing elements for solution phase detection

Biosensors incorporating nanomaterials have demonstrated superior performance compared to their conventional counterparts. Most reported sensors use nanomaterials as a single transducer of signals, while biosensor designs using dual transducing elements have emerged as new approaches to further improve overall sensing performance. This review focuses on recent developments in nanomaterial-based biosensors using dual transducing elements for solution phase detection. The review begins with a brief introduction of the commonly used nanomaterial transducers suitable for designing dual element sensors, including quantum dots, metal nanoparticles, upconversion nanoparticles, graphene, graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes, and carbon nanodots. This is followed by the presentation of the four basic design principles, namely Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET), Amplified Fluorescence Polarization (AFP), Bio-barcode Assay (BCA) and Chemiluminescence (CL), involving either two kinds of nanomaterials, or one nanomaterial and an organic luminescent agent (e.g. organic dyes, luminescent polymers) as dual transducers. Biomolecular and chemical analytes or biological interactions are detected by their control of the assembly and disassembly of the two transducing elements that change the distance between them, the size of the fluorophore-containing composite, or the catalytic properties of the nanomaterial transducers, among other property changes. Comparative discussions on their respective design rules and overall performances are presented afterwards. Compared with the single transducer biosensor design, such a dual-transducer configuration exhibits much enhanced flexibility and design versatility, allowing biosensors to be more specifically devised for various purposes. The review ends by highlighting some of the further development opportunities in this field.

Synthesis and characterization of water-soluble polythiophene derivatives for cell imaging

In this work, four water-soluble polythiophene derivatives (PT, PT-DDA, PT-ADA, and PT-ADA-PPR) with different pendant moieties were synthesized via oxidative copolymerization by FeCl₃. By increasing the hydrophobic ability of side chain moieties, there is a gradually blue shift for the maximum absorption wavelength and red shift for the maximum emission wavelength, a reducing trend for fluorescence quantum yields, a growing trend for Stokes shift, and an increasing trend for the mean sizes in the order of PT, PT-ADA, and PT-DDA. All the synthesized polymers show low toxicity and good photostability and accumulate in the lysosomes of A549 cells. Furthermore, the introduction of porphyrin group to PT-ADA side chain (PT-ADA-PPR) broadens the absorption and emission ranges of PT-ADA. PT-ADA-PPR could be excited at two different excitation wavelengths (488 nm and 559 nm) and exhibits two emission pathways, and dual-color fluorescence images (orange and red) of PT-ADA-PPR accumulated in A549 cells are observed. Thus, PT-ADA-PPR could be used as an excellent dual-color fluorescent and lysosome-specific imaging material.

Quantum dots: bright and versatile in vitro and in vivo fluorescence imaging biosensors

Colourful cells and tissues: semiconductor quantum dots and their versatile applications in multiplexed bioimaging research.

The composition effect on the optical properties of aqueous synthesized Cu–In–S and Zn–Cu–In–S quantum dot nanocrystals

The relationship between the optical properties and the compositional variation was investigated in aqueous synthesized Cu–In–S and Zn–Cu–In–S QDs.

Recent advances in the field of bionanotechnology: an insight into optoelectric bacteriorhodopsin, quantum dots, and noble metal nanoclusters

Molecular sensors and molecular electronics are a major component of a recent research area known as bionanotechnology, which merges biology with nanotechnology. This new class of biosensors and bioelectronics has been a subject of intense research over the past decade and has found application in a wide variety of fields. The unique characteristics of these biomolecular transduction systems has been utilized in applications ranging from solar cells and single-electron transistors (SETs) to fluorescent sensors capable of sensitive and selective detection of a wide variety of targets, both organic and inorganic. This review will discuss three major systems in the area of molecular sensors and electronics and their application in unique technological innovations. Firstly, the synthesis of optoelectric bacteriorhodopsin (bR) and its application in the field of molecular sensors and electronics will be discussed. Next, this article will discuss recent advances in the synthesis and application of semiconductor quantum dots (QDs). Finally, this article will conclude with a review of the new and exciting field of noble metal nanoclusters and their application in the creation of a new class of fluorescent sensors.

Interactions between CdTe quantum dots and DNA revealed by capillary electrophoresis with laser-induced fluorescence detection

Quantum dots (QDs) are one of the most promising nanomaterials, due to their size-dependent characteristics as well as easily controllable size during the synthesis process. They are promising label material and their interaction with biomolecules is of great interest for science. In this study, CdTe QDs were synthesized under optimal conditions for 2 nm size. Characterization and verification of QDs synthesis procedure were done by fluorimetric method and with CE. Afterwards, QDs interaction with chicken genomic DNA and 500 bpDNA fragment was observed employing CE-LIF and gel electrophoresis. Performed interaction relies on possible matching between size of QDs and major groove of the DNA, which is approximately 2.1 nm.

Lighting up cells with lanthanide self-assembled helicates

Lanthanide bioprobes and bioconjugates are ideal luminescent stains in view of their low propensity to photobleaching, sharp emission lines and long excited state lifetimes permitting time-resolved detection for enhanced sensitivity. We show here how the interplay between physical, chemical and biochemical properties allied to microfluidics engineering leads to self-assembled dinuclear lanthanide luminescent probes illuminating live cells and selectively detecting biomarkers expressed by cancerous human breast cells.

Computational design of in vivo biomarkers

Fluorescent semiconductor nanocrystals (or quantum dots) are very promising agents for bioimaging applications because their optical properties are superior compared to those of conventional organic dyes. However, not all the properties of these quantum dots suit the stringent criteria of in vivo applications, i.e. their employment in living organisms that might be of importance in therapy and medicine. In our review, we first summarize the properties of an 'ideal' biomarker needed for in vivo applications. Despite recent efforts, no such hand-made fluorescent quantum dot exists that may be considered as 'ideal' in this respect. We propose that ab initio atomistic simulations with predictive power can be used to design 'ideal' in vivo fluorescent semiconductor nanoparticles. We briefly review such ab initio methods that can be applied to calculate the electronic and optical properties of very small nanocrystals, with extra emphasis on density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT which are the most suitable approaches for the description of these systems. Finally, we present our recent results on this topic where we investigated the applicability of nanodiamonds and silicon carbide nanocrystals for in vivo bioimaging.

One-pot synthesis of DNA-CdTe:Zn2+ nanocrystals using Na2TeO3 as the Te source

DNA-functionalized quantum dots (QDs) are powerful tools for biosensing and bioimaging applications. Facile labeling methods with good fluorescence properties are desirable for the development of DNA-functionalized QDs. In this article, we describe a novel and simple approach that leads to the synthesis of DNA-functionalized CdTe:Zn(2+) QDs in one step. It is the first time that DNA-functionalized QDs have been prepared using sodium tellurite as the tellurium source by a hydrothermal method. This approach will greatly reduce the synthesis time (only about 1 h) and simplify the synthesis process as well as reduce the complexity of the required experimental techniques. The as-prepared QDs exhibit high quantum yield, small size, and low toxicity. UV-vis spectra and FTIR characterization proved that the abundance of DNA on the surface of the QDs increased with the increase in the concentration of the feed DNA. Most importantly, these QDs functionalized with DNA have great potential to bind specifically to DNA, protein, and cell surface receptors.

Detection of DNA damage based on metal-mediated molecular beacon and DNA strands displacement reaction

DNA hairpin structure probes are usually designed by forming intra-molecular duplex based on Watson-Crick hydrogen bonds. In this paper, a molecular beacon based on silver ions-mediated cytosine-Ag(+)-cytosine base pairs was used to detect DNA. The inherent characteristic of the metal ligation facilitated the design of functional probe and the adjustment of its binding strength compared to traditional DNA hairpin structure probes, which make it be used to detect DNA in a simple, rapid and easy way with the help of DNA strands displacement reaction. The method was sensitive and also possesses the good specificity to differentiate the single base mismatched DNA from the complementary DNA. It was also successfully applied to study the damage effect of classic genotoxicity chemicals such as styrene oxide and sodium arsenite on DNA, which was significant in food science, environmental science and pharmaceutical science.

Dye-doped silica nanoparticles as luminescent organized systems for nanomedicine

This review summarizes developments and applications of luminescent dye doped silica nanoparticles as versatile organized systems for nanomedicine.

Ultra-small fluorescent inorganic nanoparticles for bioimaging

The recent advances of ultra-small fluorescence inorganic nanoparticles including quantum dots, metal nanoclusters, carbon and graphene dots, up-conversion nanocrystals, and silicon nanoparticles have been comprehensively reviewed.

Dextran-coated fluorapatite nanorods doped with lanthanides in labelling and directing osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells

A novel approach for labelling and tracking BMSCs in bone tissue engineering by using dextran-coated fluorapatite nanorods doped with lanthanides.

Revisiting the principles of preparing aqueous quantum dots for biological applications: the effects of surface ligands on the physicochemical properties of quantum dots

Aqueous CdSe/CdS/ZnS quantum dots with different surface ligands were prepared through ligand exchange and extensively characterized for biological applications.

Intrinsic focusing of the particle size distribution in colloids containing nanocrystals of two different crystal phases

We have studied the Ostwald ripening of colloids containing nanocrystals of two different crystal phases of the same material. Ostwald ripening in such polymorphic systems is shown to result in an intrinsic focusing of the particle size distribution of the thermodynamically preferred phase while the particles of the less stable phase completely dissolve. Experimentally, a colloidal system of this kind was realized by mixing small NaEuF4 nanocrystals of the cubic α-phase with particles of the hexagonal β-phase having the same mean size and size distribution. The temporal evolution of the particle sizes of both phases can be understood and numerically simulated within the framework of LSW theory. The simulations show that small differences in the bulk solubility or the surface energy of the two phases are sufficient to explain the experimentally observed narrowing of the particle size distribution.

Ligand exchange and the stoichiometry of metal chalcogenide nanocrystals: spectroscopic observation of facile metal-carboxylate displacement and binding

We demonstrate that metal carboxylate complexes (L-M(O2CR)2, R = oleyl, tetradecyl, M = Cd, Pb) are readily displaced from carboxylate-terminated ME nanocrystals (ME = CdSe, CdS, PbSe, PbS) by various Lewis bases (L = tri-n-butylamine, tetrahydrofuran, tetradecanol, N,N-dimethyl-n-butylamine, tri-n-butylphosphine, N,N,N',N'-tetramethylbutylene-1,4-diamine, pyridine, N,N,N',N'-tetramethylethylene-1,2-diamine, n-octylamine). The relative displacement potency is measured by (1)H NMR spectroscopy and depends most strongly on geometric factors such as sterics and chelation, although also on the hard/soft match with the cadmium ion. The results suggest that ligands displace L-M(O2CR)2 by cooperatively complexing the displaced metal ion as well as the nanocrystal. Removal of up to 90% of surface-bound Cd(O2CR)2 from CdSe and CdS nanocrystals decreases the Cd/Se ratio from 1.1 ± 0.06 to 1.0 ± 0.05, broadens the 1S(e)-2S(3/2h) absorption, and decreases the photoluminescence quantum yield (PLQY) from 10% to <1% (CdSe) and from 20% to <1% (CdS). These changes are partially reversed upon rebinding of M(O2CR)2 at room temperature (∼60%) and fully reversed at elevated temperature. A model is proposed in which electron-accepting M(O2CR)2 complexes (Z-type ligands) reversibly bind to nanocrystals, leading to a range of stoichiometries for a given core size. The results demonstrate that nanocrystals lack a single chemical formula, but are instead dynamic structures with concentration-dependent compositions. The importance of these findings to the synthesis and purification of nanocrystals as well as ligand exchange reactions is discussed.

A novel ascorbic acid sensor based on the Fe3+/Fe2+ modulated photoluminescence of CdTe quantum dots@SiO2 nanobeads

In this paper, CdTe quantum dot (QD)@silica nanobeads were used as modulated photoluminescence (PL) sensors for the sensing of ascorbic acid in aqueous solution for the first time. The sensor was developed based on the different quenching effects of Fe(2+) and Fe(3+) on the PL intensity of the CdTe QD@ silica nanobeads. Firstly, the PL intensity of the CdTe QDs was quenched in the presence of Fe(3+). Although both Fe(2+) and Fe(3+) could quench the PL intensity of the CdTe QDs, the quenching efficiency were quite different for Fe(2+) and Fe(3+). The PL intensity of the CdTe QD@silica nanobeads can be quenched by about 15% after the addition of Fe(3+) (60 μmol L(-1)), while the PL intensity of the CdTe QD@silica nanobeads can be quenched about 49% after the addition of Fe(2+) (60 μmol L(-1)). Therefore, the PL intensity of the CdTe QD@silica nanobeads decreased significantly when Fe(3+) was reduced to Fe(2+) by ascorbic acid. To confirm the strategy of PL modulation in this sensing system, trace H2O2 was introduced to oxidize Fe(2+) to Fe(3+). As a result, the PL intensity of the CdTe QD@silica nanobeads was partly recovered. The proposed sensor could be used for ascorbic acid sensing in the concentration range of 3.33-400 μmol L(-1), with a detection limit (3σ) of 1.25 μmol L(-1) The feasibility of the proposed sensor for ascorbic acid determination in tablet samples was also studied, and satisfactory results were obtained.

Structural and physicochemical aspects of silica encapsulated ZnO quantum dots with high quantum yield and their natural uptake in HeLa cells

Photoluminescent semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) are of significant interest for bioimaging and fluorescence labeling. In this regard, we describe here the design of high sensitivity and high specificity non-toxic ZnO QDs (∼5 nm) with long-term stability of up to 12 months. The embedding of ZnO QDs on silica nanospheres led to significant increase in photoluminescence intensity rendering them highly bright QD-based probes. The QDs were characterized in vitro with respect to cancer cells (HeLa) and evaluated in terms of viability, fluorescence and cytoskeletal organization. The immobilization of ZnO QDs on silica nanospheres promoted the internalization and enhanced fluorescence emission of HeLa cells. The fluorescence emission from QDs was stable for 3 days, indicating excellent stability toward photobleaching. Cytoskeletal reorganization was observed after internalization of QDs such that the ZnO QDS on silica nanospheres resulted in broadening of the actin cytoskeleton. The study underscores that ZnO QDs immobilized on Si nanospheres are promising for tracking cancer cells in cell therapy.