Electron Transfer by Copper Centers

Insights into water coordination associated with the CuII/CuI electron transfer at a biomimetic Cu centre

The coordination chemistry of an aqua Cu complex was investigated in non-coordinating solvents and in ionic liquids.

De novo-designed metallopeptides with type 2 copper centers: modulation of reduction potentials and nitrite reductase activities

Enzymatic reactions involving redox processes are highly sensitive to the local electrostatic environment. Despite considerable effort, the complex interactions among different influential factors in native proteins impede progress toward complete understanding of the structure-function relationship. Of particular interest is the type 2 copper center Cu(His)3, which may act as an electron transfer center in peptidylglycine α-hydroxylating monooxygenase (PHM) or a catalytic center in copper nitrite reductase (CuNiR). A de novo design strategy is used to probe the effect of modifying charged amino acid residues around, but not directly bound to, a Cu(His)3 center embedded in three-stranded coiled coils (TRI-H)3 [TRI-H = Ac-G WKALEEK LKALEEK LKALEEK HKALEEK G-NH2]. Specifically, the peptide TRI-EH (=TRI-HK22E) alters an important lysine to glutamate just above the copper binding center. With a series of TRI-EH peptides mutated below the metal center, we use a variety of spectroscopies (EPR, UV-vis, XAS) to show a direct impact on the protonation equilibria, copper binding affinities, reduction potentials, and nitrite reductase activities of these copper-peptide complexes. The potentials at a specific pH vary by 100 mV, and the nitrite reductase activities range over a factor of 4 in rates. We also observe that the affinities, potentials, and catalytic activities are strongly influenced by the pH conditions (pH 5.8-7.4). In general, Cu(II) affinities for the peptides are diminished at low pH values. The interplay among these factors can lead to a 200 mV shift in reduction potential across these peptides, which is determined by the pH-dependent affinities of copper in both oxidation states. This study illustrates the strength of de novo protein design in elucidating the influence of ionizable residues on a particular redox system, an important step toward understanding the factors that govern the properties of this metalloenzyme with a goal of eventually improving the catalytic activity.

Copper redox transformation and complexation by reduced and oxidized soil humic acid. 1. X-ray absorption spectroscopy study

Natural organic matter (NOM) exerts strong influence on copper speciation and bioavailability in soils and aquatic systems. In redox-dynamic environments, electron transfer reactions between copper and redox-active moieties of NOM may trigger Cu(I) and Cu(0) formation. To date, little is known about Cu-NOM redox interactions and Cu(I) binding to NOM. Here, we present X-ray absorption spectroscopy results on copper redox transformations upon addition of Cu(II) or Cu(I) to untreated and electrochemically reduced soil humic acid (HA) under oxic and anoxic conditions. Both untreated and reduced HA mediated copper redox transformations. Under anoxic conditions, Cu(II) and Cu(I) added to reduced HA were primarily complexed and thereby stabilized as Cu(I)-HA at low loadings, whereas high copper loadings resulted in the additional formation of Cu(0) nanoparticles (16-64% of total copper). Cu(I) bound to HA was predominantly 2-fold coordinated and to a lower extent 3- to 4-fold coordinated, with a contribution of at least one nitrogen and/or sulfur ligand group. Under oxic conditions, Cu(II)-HA complexes prevailed, but smaller fractions of copper were also stabilized as Cu(I)-HA in a 3- to 4-fold coordination. Our results show that Cu-HA redox interactions are strongly affected by binding of Cu(II) and Cu(I) to HA and that HA contributes to the stabilization of Cu(I) against disproportionation.

Dynamics of the His79-heme alkaline transition of yeast iso-1-cytochrome c probed by conformationally gated electron transfer with Co(II)bis(terpyridine)

Alkaline conformers of cytochrome c may be involved in both its electron transport and apoptotic functions. We use cobalt(II)bis(terpyridine), Co(terpy)2(2+), as a reagent for conformationally gated electron-transfer (gated ET) experiments to study the alkaline conformational transition of K79H variants of yeast iso-1-cytochrome c expressed in Escherichia coli , WT*K79H, with alanine at position 72 and Saccharomyces cerevisiae , yK79H, with trimethyllysine (Tml) at position 72. Co(terpy)2(2+) is well-suited to the 100 ms to 1 s time scale of the His79-mediated alkaline conformational transition of these variants. Reduction of the His79-heme alkaline conformer by Co(terpy)2(2+) occurs primarily by gated ET, which involves conversion to the native state followed by reduction, with a small fraction of the His79-heme alkaline conformer directly reduced by Co(terpy)2(2+). The gated ET experiments show that the mechanism of formation of the His79-heme alkaline conformer involves only two ionizable groups. In previous work, we showed that the mechanism of the His73-mediated alkaline conformational transition requires three ionizable groups. Thus, the mechanism of heme crevice opening depends upon the position of the ligand mediating the process. The microscopic rate constants provided by gated ET studies show that mutation of Tml72 (yK79H variant) in the heme crevice loop to Ala72 (WT*K79H variant) affects the dynamics of heme crevice opening through a small destabilization of both the native conformer and the transition state relative to the His79-heme alkaline conformer. Previous pH jump data had indicated that the Tml72→Ala mutation primarily stabilized the transition state for the His79-mediated alkaline conformational transition.

Structural modification on copper(I)-pyridylpyrimidine complexes for modulation of rotational dynamics, redox properties, and phototriggered isomerization

The redox properties of copper pyridylpyrimidine complexes, which undergo linkage isomerism based on pyrimidine ring rotation, were compared under different coordination environments. A newly synthesized compound, [Cu(Mepypm)(L(Mes))]BF4 (1·BF4, Mepypm = 4-methyl-2-(2'-pyridyl)pyrimidine, L(Mes) = 2,9-dimesityl-1,10-phenanthroline) was compared with previously reported complexes of [Cu(MepmMepy)(L(Mes))]BF4 (2·BF4, MepmMepy = 4-methyl-2-(6'-methyl-2'-pyridyl)pyrimidine), Cu(Mepypm)(DPEphos)]BF4 (3·BF4, DPEphos = bis[2-(diphenylphosphino)phenyl]ether), [Cu(Mepypm)(L(Anth))]BF4 (4·BF4, L(Anth) = 2,9-bis(9-anthryl)-1,10-phenanthroline), and [Cu(Mepypm)(L(Macro))]BF4 (5·BF4). Isomer ratios, isomerization dynamics, redox properties, and photoelectron conversion functions varied with the coordination structure. Methyl substituents on the 6-position of the pyridine moiety increased steric repulsion and contributed to quicker rotation, enhanced photoluminescence, and increased photodriven rotational isomerization.

Isomorphic deactivation of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa oxidoreductase: The crystal structure of Ag(I) metallated azurin at 1.7 Å

Multiple biophysical methods demonstrate that silver effectively metallates Pseudomonas aeruginosa apo-azurin in solution. X-ray crystallography of the silver-modified protein reveals that silver binds to azurin at the traditional copper mediated active site with nearly identical geometry. Cyclic voltammetry indicates that the silver adduct is redox inert. Our results suggest that a potential mechanism for the microbial toxicity of silver is the deactivation of copper oxidoreductases by the effective binding and structural mimicry by silver without the corresponding function.

Coordination programming of photofunctional molecules

Our recent achievements relating to photofunctional molecules are addressed. Section 1 discloses a new concept of photoisomerization. Pyridylpyrimidine-copper complexes undergo a ring inversion that can be modulated by the redox state of the copper center. In combination with an intermolecular photoelectron transfer (PET) initiated by the metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) transition of the Cu(I) state, we realize photonic regulation of the ring inversion. Section 2 reports on the first examples of heteroleptic bis(dipyrrinato)zinc(II) complexes. Conventional homoleptic bis(dipyrrinato)zinc(II) complexes suffered from low fluorescence quantum yields, whereas the heteroleptic ones feature bright fluorescence even in polar solvents. Section 3 describes our new findings on Pechmann dye, which was first synthesized in 1882. New synthetic procedures for Pechmann dye using dimethyl bis(arylethynyl)fumarate as a starting material gives rise to its new structural isomer. We also demonstrate potentiality of a donor-acceptor-donor type of Pechmann dye in organic electronics.

Copper versus thioether-centered oxidation: mechanistic insights into the non-innocent redox behavior of tripodal benzimidazolylaminothioether ligands

A series of Cu(+) complexes with ligands that feature varying numbers of benzimidazole/thioether donors and methylene or ethylene linkers between the central nitrogen atom and the thioether sulfur atoms have been spectroscopically and electrochemically characterized. Cyclic voltammetry measurements indicated that the highest Cu(2+)/Cu(+) redox potentials correspond to sulfur-rich coordination environments, with values decreasing as the thioether donors are replaced by nitrogen-donating benzimidazoles. Both Cu(2+) and Cu(+) complexes were studied by DFT. Their electronic properties were determined by analyzing their frontier orbitals, relative energies, and the contributions to the orbitals involved in redox processes, which revealed that the HOMOs of the more sulfur-rich copper complexes, particularly those with methylene linkers (-N-CH2-S-), show significant aromatic thioether character. Thus, the theoretically predicted initial oxidation at the sulfur atom of the methylene-bridged ligands agrees with the experimentally determined oxidation waves in the voltammograms of the NS3- and N2S2-type ligands as being ligand-based, as opposed to the copper-based processes of the ethylene-bridged Cu(+) complexes. The electrochemical and theoretical results are consistent with our previously reported mechanistic proposal for Cu(2+)-promoted oxidative C-S bond cleavage, which in this work resulted in the isolation and complete characterization (including by X-ray crystallography) of the decomposition products of two ligands employed, further supporting the novel reactivity pathway invoked. The combined results raise the possibility that the reactions of copper-thioether complexes in chemical and biochemical systems occur with redox participation of the sulfur atom.

Temperature-independent catalytic two-electron reduction of dioxygen by ferrocenes with a copper(II) tris[2-(2-pyridyl)ethyl]amine catalyst in the presence of perchloric acid

Selective two-electron plus two-proton (2e(-)/2H(+)) reduction of O(2) to hydrogen peroxide by ferrocene (Fc) or 1,1'-dimethylferrocene (Me(2)Fc) in the presence of perchloric acid is catalyzed efficiently by a mononuclear copper(II) complex, [Cu(II)(tepa)](2+) (1; tepa = tris[2-(2-pyridyl)ethyl]amine) in acetone. The E(1/2) value for [Cu(II)(tepa)](2+) as measured by cyclic voltammetry is 0.07 V vs Fc/Fc(+) in acetone, being significantly positive, which makes it possible to use relatively weak one-electron reductants such as Fc and Me(2)Fc for the overall two-electron reduction of O(2). Fast electron transfer from Fc or Me(2)Fc to 1 affords the corresponding Cu(I) complex [Cu(I)(tepa)](+) (2), which reacts at low temperature (193 K) with O(2), however only in the presence of HClO(4), to afford the hydroperoxo complex [Cu(II)(tepa)(OOH)](+) (3). A detailed kinetic study on the homogeneous catalytic system reveals the rate-determining step to be the O(2)-binding process in the presence of HClO(4) at lower temperature as well as at room temperature. The O(2)-binding kinetics in the presence of HClO(4) were studied, demonstrating that the rate of formation of the hydroperoxo complex 3 as well as the overall catalytic reaction remained virtually the same with changing temperature. The apparent lack of activation energy for the catalytic two-electron reduction of O(2) is shown to result from the existence of a pre-equilibrium between 2 and O(2) prior to the formation of the hydroperoxo complex 3. No further reduction of [Cu(II)(tepa)(OOH)](+) (3) by Fc or Me(2)Fc occurred, and instead 3 is protonated by HClO(4) to yield H(2)O(2) accompanied by regeneration of 1, thus completing the catalytic cycle for the two-electron reduction of O(2) by Fc or Me(2)Fc.

Effects of electronic and nuclear interactions on the excited-state properties and structural dynamics of copper(I) diimine complexes

The effects of structural constraints on the metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) excited state structural dynamics of cuprous bis-2,9-diphenyl-phenanthroline ([Cu(I)(dpp)(2)](+)) in both coordinating acetonitrile and noncoordinating toluene were studied using X-ray transient absorption (XTA) spectroscopy and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The phenyl groups attached to the phenanthroline ligands not only effectively shield the Cu(I) center from solvent molecules, but also force a flattened tetrahedral coordination geometry of the Cu(I) center. Consequently, the MLCT state lifetime in [Cu(I)(dpp)(2)](+) is solvent-independent, unlike the previously studied 2,9-methyl substituted bis-phenanthroline Cu(I) complex. The MLCT state of [Cu(I)(dpp)(2)](+) still undergoes a "pseudo Jahn-Teller distortion," with the angle between the two phenanthroline ligand planes decreased further by 7°. The XTA results indicate that, in the MLCT excited state of [Cu(I)(dpp)(2)](+), the phenyls at the 2, 9 positions of the phenanthroline rotate, breaking the π-π interaction with the phenanthroline ligands without ever rotating in-plane with the phenanthroline ligands. Hence, the transferred electron density from the Cu(I) center is localized on the phenanthroline moiety with no charge density present on the phenyl rings. The insight about the effect of the structural constraints on the MLCT state properties will guide the design of Cu(I) diimine complexes with suitable excited-state properties to function as earth-abundant dye sensitizers for solar electricity generation.

Jahn-Teller dynamics in a series of high-symmetry Co(II) chelates determine paramagnetic relaxation enhancements

NMR paramagnetic relaxation enhancements (PREs) of a series of structurally characterized, trigonal bis-trispyrazolylborate (Tp) chelates of high-spin Co(II), spanning 100-850 MHz in field, are reported. Prior knowledge of the metal-nucleus distances allows numerical extraction of position-dependent electron spin relaxation rates (τ(c)(-1)) from direct measurement of the individual PREs of the four symmetry distinct protons in Co(Tp)(2), using available closed-form expressions. The data for this electronically complex system where spin-orbit coupling defines the ground state electronic structure are analyzed in terms of the Solomon-Bloembergen-Morgan (SBM) relations, as well as available zero-field splitting limit theories. A simple angular correction is shown to be sufficient to reconcile the individual τ(c)(T) data for the four classes of protons. The data identify a previously unrecognized dynamic Jahn-Teller effect in these historically important complexes, with a barrier of ~230 cm(-1), pointing to a level of dynamics in trispyrazolylborate chemistry that has not been described before, and further show that it is the Jahn-Teller that is responsible for the PREs in fluid solution. A field-dependent component is also identified for the two protons nearest g(//), which is suggested to arise due to Zeeman mixing of excited state character into the ground level.

Use of metal oxide nanoparticle band gap to develop a predictive paradigm for oxidative stress and acute pulmonary inflammation

We demonstrate for 24 metal oxide (MOx) nanoparticles that it is possible to use conduction band energy levels to delineate their toxicological potential at cellular and whole animal levels. Among the materials, the overlap of conduction band energy (E(c)) levels with the cellular redox potential (-4.12 to -4.84 eV) was strongly correlated to the ability of Co(3)O(4), Cr(2)O(3), Ni(2)O(3), Mn(2)O(3), and CoO nanoparticles to induce oxygen radicals, oxidative stress, and inflammation. This outcome is premised on permissible electron transfers from the biological redox couples that maintain the cellular redox equilibrium to the conduction band of the semiconductor particles. Both single-parameter cytotoxic as well as multi-parameter oxidative stress assays in cells showed excellent correlation to the generation of acute neutrophilic inflammation and cytokine responses in the lungs of C57 BL/6 mice. Co(3)O(4), Ni(2)O(3), Mn(2)O(3), and CoO nanoparticles could also oxidize cytochrome c as a representative redox couple involved in redox homeostasis. While CuO and ZnO generated oxidative stress and acute pulmonary inflammation that is not predicted by E(c) levels, the adverse biological effects of these materials could be explained by their solubility, as demonstrated by ICP-MS analysis. These results demonstrate that it is possible to predict the toxicity of a large series of MOx nanoparticles in the lung premised on semiconductor properties and an integrated in vitro/in vivo hazard ranking model premised on oxidative stress. This establishes a robust platform for modeling of MOx structure-activity relationships based on band gap energy levels and particle dissolution. This predictive toxicological paradigm is also of considerable importance for regulatory decision-making about this important class of engineered nanomaterials.

The X-ray absorption spectroscopic model of the copper(II) imidazole complex ion in liquid aqueous solution: a strongly solvated square pyramid

Cu K-edge extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) and Minuit X-ray absorption near-edge structure (MXAN) analyses were combined to evaluate the structure of the copper(II) imidazole complex ion in liquid aqueous solution. Both methods converged to the same square-pyramidal inner coordination sphere [Cu(Im)(4)L(ax)](2+) (L(ax) indeterminate) with four equatorial nitrogen atoms at EXAFS, 2.02 ± 0.01 Å, and MXAN, 1.99 ± 0.03 Å. A short-axial N/O scatterer (L(ax)) was found at 2.12 ± 0.02 Å (EXAFS) or 2.14 ± 0.06 Å (MXAN). A second but very weak axial Cu-N/O interaction was found at 2.9 ± 0.1 Å (EXAFS) or 3.0 ± 0.1 Å (MXAN). In the MXAN fits, only a square-pyramidal structural model successfully reproduced the doubled maximum of the rising K-edge X-ray absorption spectrum, specifically excluding an octahedral model. Both EXAFS and MXAN also found eight outlying oxygen scatterers at 4.2 ± 0.3 Å that contributed significant intensity over the entire spectral energy range. Two prominent rising K-edge shoulders at 8987.1 and 8990.5 eV were found to reflect multiple scattering from the 3.0 Å axial scatterer and the imidazole rings, respectively. In the MXAN fits, the imidazole rings took in-plane rotationally staggered positions about copper. The combined (EXAFS and MXAN) model for the unconstrained cupric imidazole complex ion in liquid aqueous solution is an axially elongated square-pyramidal core, with a weak nonbonded interaction at the second axial coordination position and a solvation shell of eight nearest-neighbor water molecules. This core square-pyramidal motif has persisted through [Cu(H(2)O)(5)](2+), [Cu(NH(3))(4)(NH(3),H(2)O)](2+), (1, 2) and now [Cu(Im)(4)L(ax))](2+) and appears to be the geometry preferred by unconstrained aqueous-phase copper(II) complex ions.