151
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Petras D, Hempel BF, Göçmen B, Karis M, Whiteley G, Wagstaff SC, Heiss P, Casewell NR, Nalbantsoy A, Süssmuth RD. Intact protein mass spectrometry reveals intraspecies variations in venom composition of a local population of Vipera kaznakovi in Northeastern Turkey. J Proteomics 2019; 199:31-50. [PMID: 30763806 PMCID: PMC7613002 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2019.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2018] [Revised: 01/30/2019] [Accepted: 02/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
We report on the variable venom composition of a population of the Caucasus viper (Vipera kaznakovi) in Northeastern Turkey. We applied a combination of venom gland transcriptomics, de-complexing bottom-up and top-down venomics. In contrast to sole bottom-up venomics approaches and gel or chromatography based venom comparison, our combined approach enables a faster and more detailed comparison of venom proteomes from multiple individuals. In total, we identified peptides and proteins from 15 toxin families, including snake venom metalloproteinases (svMP; 37.8%), phospholipases A2 (PLA2; 19.0%), snake venom serine proteinases (svSP; 11.5%), C-type lectins (CTL; 6.9%) and cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISP; 5.0%), in addition to several low abundant toxin families. Furthermore, we identified intraspecies variations of the venom composition of V. kaznakovi, and find these were mainly driven by the age of the animals, with lower svSP abundance detected in juveniles. On the proteoform level, several small molecular weight toxins between 5 and 8 kDa in size, as well as PLA2s, drove the differences observed between juvenile and adult individuals. This study provides novel insights into the venom variability of V. kaznakovi and highlights the utility of intact mass profiling for fast and detailed comparison of snake venom. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Population level and ontogenetic venom variation (e.g. diet, habitat, sex or age) can result in a loss of antivenom efficacy against snakebites from wide ranging snake populations. The current state of the art for the analysis of snake venoms are de-complexing bottom-up proteomics approaches. While useful, these have the significant drawback of being time-consuming and following costly protocols, and consequently are often applied to pooled venom samples. To overcome these shortcomings and to enable rapid and detailed profiling of large numbers of individual venom samples, we integrated an intact protein analysis workflow into a transcriptomics-guided bottom-up approach. The application of this workflow to snake individuals of a local population of V. kaznakovi revealed intraspecies variations in venom composition, which are primarily explained by the age of the animals, and highlighted svSP abundance to be one of the molecular drivers for the compositional differences observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Petras
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Strasse des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany; University of California San Diego, Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States.
| | - Benjamin-Florian Hempel
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Strasse des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Bayram Göçmen
- Zoology Section, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ege University, 35100 Bornova, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Mert Karis
- Zoology Section, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ege University, 35100 Bornova, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Gareth Whiteley
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Simon C Wagstaff
- Research Computing Unit, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Heiss
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Strasse des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Ayse Nalbantsoy
- Department of Bioengineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ege University, Bornova 35100, Izmir, Turkey.
| | - Roderich D Süssmuth
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Strasse des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany.
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152
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Dobson JS, Zdenek CN, Hay C, Violette A, Fourmy R, Cochran C, Fry BG. Varanid Lizard Venoms Disrupt the Clotting Ability of Human Fibrinogen through Destructive Cleavage. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E255. [PMID: 31067768 PMCID: PMC6563220 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11050255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2019] [Revised: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 05/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The functional activities of Anguimorpha lizard venoms have received less attention compared to serpent lineages. Bite victims of varanid lizards often report persistent bleeding exceeding that expected for the mechanical damage of the bite. Research to date has identified the blockage of platelet aggregation as one bleeding-inducing activity, and destructive cleavage of fibrinogen as another. However, the ability of the venoms to prevent clot formation has not been directly investigated. Using a thromboelastograph (TEG5000), clot strength was measured after incubating human fibrinogen with Heloderma and Varanus lizard venoms. Clot strengths were found to be highly variable, with the most potent effects produced by incubation with Varanus venoms from the Odatria and Euprepriosaurus clades. The most fibrinogenolytically active venoms belonged to arboreal species and therefore prey escape potential is likely a strong evolutionary selection pressure. The results are also consistent with reports of profusive bleeding from bites from other notably fibrinogenolytic species, such as V. giganteus. Our results provide evidence in favour of the predatory role of venom in varanid lizards, thus shedding light on the evolution of venom in reptiles and revealing potential new sources of bioactive molecules useful as lead compounds in drug design and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- James S Dobson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Christina N Zdenek
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Chris Hay
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Aude Violette
- Alphabiotoxine Laboratory sprl, Barberie 15, 7911 Montroeul-au-bois, Belgium.
| | - Rudy Fourmy
- Alphabiotoxine Laboratory sprl, Barberie 15, 7911 Montroeul-au-bois, Belgium.
| | - Chip Cochran
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA.
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
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153
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New insights into the phylogeographic distribution of the 3FTx/PLA2 venom dichotomy across genus Micrurus in South America. J Proteomics 2019; 200:90-101. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2019.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2019] [Revised: 03/24/2019] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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154
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Monteiro dos Santos J, Cardoso dos Santos J, Marques EE, Araújo GCD, Seibert CS, Lopes-Ferreira M, Lima C. Stingray (Potamotrygon rex) maturity is associated with inflammatory capacity of the venom. Toxicon 2019; 163:74-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2018] [Revised: 03/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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155
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Romano JD, Tatonetti NP. Informatics and Computational Methods in Natural Product Drug Discovery: A Review and Perspectives. Front Genet 2019; 10:368. [PMID: 31114606 PMCID: PMC6503039 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2019.00368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The discovery of new pharmaceutical drugs is one of the preeminent tasks-scientifically, economically, and socially-in biomedical research. Advances in informatics and computational biology have increased productivity at many stages of the drug discovery pipeline. Nevertheless, drug discovery has slowed, largely due to the reliance on small molecules as the primary source of novel hypotheses. Natural products (such as plant metabolites, animal toxins, and immunological components) comprise a vast and diverse source of bioactive compounds, some of which are supported by thousands of years of traditional medicine, and are largely disjoint from the set of small molecules used commonly for discovery. However, natural products possess unique characteristics that distinguish them from traditional small molecule drug candidates, requiring new methods and approaches for assessing their therapeutic potential. In this review, we investigate a number of state-of-the-art techniques in bioinformatics, cheminformatics, and knowledge engineering for data-driven drug discovery from natural products. We focus on methods that aim to bridge the gap between traditional small-molecule drug candidates and different classes of natural products. We also explore the current informatics knowledge gaps and other barriers that need to be overcome to fully leverage these compounds for drug discovery. Finally, we conclude with a "road map" of research priorities that seeks to realize this goal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph D. Romano
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
- Data Science Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Nicholas P. Tatonetti
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
- Data Science Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
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156
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Haney RA, Matte T, Forsyth FS, Garb JE. Alternative Transcription at Venom Genes and Its Role as a Complementary Mechanism for the Generation of Venom Complexity in the Common House Spider. Front Ecol Evol 2019; 7. [PMID: 31431897 PMCID: PMC6700725 DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The complex composition of venom, a proteinaceous secretion used by
diverse animal groups for predation or defense, is typically viewed as being
driven by gene duplication in conjunction with positive selection, leading to
large families of diversified toxins with selective venom gland expression. Yet,
the production of alternative transcripts at venom genes is often overlooked as
another potentially important process that could contribute proteins to venom,
and requires comprehensive datasets integrating genome and transcriptome
sequences together with proteomic characterization of venom to be fully
documented. In the common house spider, Parasteatoda
tepidariorum, we used RNA sequencing of four tissue types in
conjunction with the sequenced genome to provide a comprehensive transcriptome
annotation. We also used mass spectrometry to identify a minimum of 99 distinct
proteins in P tepidariorum venom, including at least 33
latrotoxins, pore-forming neurotoxins shared with the confamilial black widow.
We found that venom proteins are much more likely to come from multiple
transcript genes, whose transcripts produced distinct protein sequences. The
presence of multiple distinct proteins in venom from transcripts at individual
genes was confirmed for eight loci by mass spectrometry, and is possible at 21
others. Alternative transcripts from the same gene, whether encoding or not
encoding a protein found in venom, showed a range of expression patterns, but
were not necessarily restricted to the venom gland. However, approximately half
of venom protein encoding transcripts were found among the 1,318 transcripts
with strongly venom gland biased expression. Our findings revealed an important
role for alternative transcription in generating venom protein complexity and
expanded the traditional model of venom evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Haney
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA, United States
| | - Taylor Matte
- Center for Regenerative Medicine, Boston University, Medical, Boston, MA, United States
| | - FitzAnthony S Forsyth
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA, United States
| | - Jessica E Garb
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA, United States
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157
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Jones BK, Saviola AJ, Reilly SB, Stubbs AL, Arida E, Iskandar DT, McGuire JA, Yates JR, Mackessy SP. Venom Composition in a Phenotypically Variable Pit Viper ( Trimeresurus insularis) across the Lesser Sunda Archipelago. J Proteome Res 2019; 18:2206-2220. [PMID: 30958009 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.9b00077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The genus Trimeresurus comprises a group of venomous pitvipers endemic to Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands. Of these, Trimeresurus insularis, the White-lipped Island Pitviper, is a nocturnal, arboreal species that occurs on nearly every major island of the Lesser Sunda archipelago. In the current study, venom phenotypic characteristics of T. insularis sampled from eight Lesser Sunda Islands (Flores, Lembata, Lombok, Pantar, Sumba, Sumbawa, Timor, and Wetar) were evaluated via SDS-PAGE, enzymatic activity assays, fibrinogenolytic assays, gelatin zymography, and RP-HPLC, and the Sumbawa sample was characterized by venomic analysis. For additional comparative analyses, venoms were also examined from several species in the Trimeresurus complex, including T. borneensis, T. gramineus, T. puniceus, T. purpureomaculatus, T. stejnegeri, and Protobothrops flavoviridis. Despite the geographical isolation, T. insularis venoms from all eight islands demonstrated remarkable similarities in gel electrophoretic profiles and RP-HPLC patterns, and all populations had protein bands in the mass ranges of phosphodiesterases (PDE), l-amino acid oxidases (LAAO), P-III snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMP), serine proteases, cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISP), phospholipases A2 (PLA2), and C-type lectins. An exception was observed in the Lombok sample, which lacked protein bands in the mass range of serine protease and CRISP. Venomic analysis of the Sumbawa venom also identified these protein families, in addition to several proteins of lesser abundance (<1%), including glutaminyl cyclase, aminopeptidase, PLA2 inhibitor, phospholipase B, cobra venom factor, 5'-nucleotidase, vascular endothelial growth factor, and hyaluronidase. All T. insularis venoms exhibited similarities in thrombin-like and PDE activities, while significant differences were observed for LAAO, SVMP, and kallikrein-like activities, though these differences were only observed for a few islands. Slight but noticeable differences were also observed with fibrinogen and gelatin digestion activities. Trimeresurus insularis venoms exhibited overall similarity to the other Trimeresurus complex species examined, with the exception of P. flavoviridis venom, which showed the greatest overall differentiation. Western blot analysis revealed that all major T. insularis venom proteins were recognized by Green Pitviper ( T. albolabris) antivenom, and reactivity was also seen with most venom proteins of the other Trimeresurus species, but incomplete antivenom-venom recognition was observed against P. flavoviridis venom proteins. These results demonstrate significant conservation in the venom composition of T. insularis across the Lesser Sunda archipelago relative to the other Trimeresurus species examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenda Kathryn Jones
- School of Biological Sciences , University of Northern Colorado , 501 20th Street, CB 92 , Greeley , Colorado 80639-0017 , United States
| | - Anthony J Saviola
- School of Biological Sciences , University of Northern Colorado , 501 20th Street, CB 92 , Greeley , Colorado 80639-0017 , United States.,Department of Molecular Medicine and Neurobiology , The Scripps Research Institute , 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road , La Jolla , California 92037 , United States
| | - Sean B Reilly
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology and Department of Integrative Biology , University of California , 3101 Valley Life Sciences Building , Berkeley , California 94720-3160 , United States
| | - Alexander L Stubbs
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology and Department of Integrative Biology , University of California , 3101 Valley Life Sciences Building , Berkeley , California 94720-3160 , United States
| | - Evy Arida
- Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense , Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) , Jalan Raya Bogor-Jakarta Km. 46 , Cibinong 16911 , Indonesia
| | - Djoko T Iskandar
- School of Life Sciences and Technology , Institut Teknologi Bandung , 10, Jalan Ganesa , Bandung , Java 40132 , Indonesia
| | - Jimmy A McGuire
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology and Department of Integrative Biology , University of California , 3101 Valley Life Sciences Building , Berkeley , California 94720-3160 , United States
| | - John R Yates
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Neurobiology , The Scripps Research Institute , 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road , La Jolla , California 92037 , United States
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- School of Biological Sciences , University of Northern Colorado , 501 20th Street, CB 92 , Greeley , Colorado 80639-0017 , United States
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158
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Rex CJ, Mackessy SP. Venom composition of adult Western Diamondback Rattlesnakes (Crotalus atrox) maintained under controlled diet and environmental conditions shows only minor changes. Toxicon 2019; 164:51-60. [PMID: 30954451 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.03.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Revised: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 03/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Many species of snakes produce venom as a chemical means of procuring potentially fractious prey. Studies have increasingly focused on venom compositional variation between and within individual snakes of the same species/subspecies, with significant differences often being observed. This variation in composition has been attributed to differences in age, season, diet, and environment, suggesting that these factors could help explain the inter- and intra-specific variation found in some snake venoms, perhaps via some type of feedback mechanism(s). To address several of these possible sources of variation, this study utilized wild-caught Western Diamondback Rattlesnakes (Crotalus atrox) from Cochise Co., AZ. Sixteen adult C. atrox were maintained in the lab on a diet of NSA mice for eight months to determine whether venom composition changed in captivity under a static diet in a stable environment. Reducing 1-D SDS-PAGE, fibrinogen degradation assays, reversed-phase HPLC, and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry revealed only minor differences over time within individuals. Venom L-amino acid oxidase (LAAO) and phosphodiesterase activities significantly increased over the course of captivity, with no changes occurring in azocasein metalloproteinase, kallikrein-like serine proteinase (KLSP), or thrombin-like serine proteinase (TLSP) activities. Snake total length was positively correlated with TLSP activity and negatively correlated with LAAO and KLSP activity. There was typically a much higher degree of variation between individuals than within individuals for all analyses performed and measurements collected. Because the overall "fingerprint" of each snake's venom remained more/less constant, it is concluded that biologically significant changes in venom composition did not occur within individual C. atrox as a function of captivity/diet. However, this study does indicate that differences in activity levels do occur in minor venom enzyme components, but the differences observed are likely to be of minimal significance to the production of antivenom or to subsequent treatment of human envenomations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Rex
- Department of Biological Sciences, 501 20th St., University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, 80639-0017, USA
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- Department of Biological Sciences, 501 20th St., University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, 80639-0017, USA.
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159
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Exploring the Diversity and Novelty of Toxin Genes in Naja sumatrana, the Equatorial Spitting Cobra from Malaysia through De Novo Venom-Gland Transcriptomics. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11020104. [PMID: 30754700 PMCID: PMC6409529 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11020104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2018] [Revised: 01/23/2019] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The equatorial spitting cobra, Naja sumatrana, is a distinct species of medically important venomous snakes, listed as WHO Category 1 in Southeast Asia. The diversity of its venom genes has not been comprehensively examined, although a few toxin sequences annotated to Naja sputatrix were reported previously through cloning studies. To investigate this species venom genes’ diversity, de novo venom-gland transcriptomics of N. sumatrana from West Malaysia was conducted using next-generation sequencing technology. Genes encoding toxins represented only 60 of the 55,396 transcripts, but were highly expressed, contributing to 79.22% of total gene expression (by total FPKM) in the venom-glands. The toxin transcripts belong to 21 families, and 29 transcripts were further identified as full-length. Three-finger toxins (3FTx) composed of long, short, and non-conventional groups, constituted the majority of toxin transcripts (91.11% of total toxin FPKM), followed by phospholipase A2 (PLA2, 7.42%)—which are putatively pro-inflammatory and cytotoxic. The remaining transcripts in the 19 families were expressed at extremely low levels. Presumably, these toxins were associated with ancillary functions. Our findings unveil the diverse toxin genes unique to N. sumatrana, and provide insights into the pathophysiology of N. sumatrana envenoming.
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160
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Harris RJ, Jenner RA. Evolutionary Ecology of Fish Venom: Adaptations and Consequences of Evolving a Venom System. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E60. [PMID: 30678265 PMCID: PMC6409815 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11020060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Revised: 01/14/2019] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Research on venomous animals has mainly focused on the molecular, biochemical, and pharmacological aspects of venom toxins. However, it is the relatively neglected broader study of evolutionary ecology that is crucial for understanding the biological relevance of venom systems. As fish have convergently evolved venom systems multiple times, it makes them ideal organisms to investigate the evolutionary ecology of venom on a broader scale. This review outlines what is known about how fish venom systems evolved as a result of natural enemy interactions and about the ecological consequences of evolving a venom system. This review will show how research on the evolutionary ecology of venom in fish can aid in understanding the evolutionary ecology of animal venoms more generally. Further, understanding these broad ecological questions can shed more light on the other areas of toxinology, with applications across multiple disciplinary fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Harris
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia.
| | - Ronald A Jenner
- Department of Life Sciences, the Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, SW7 5BD London, UK.
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161
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Healy K, Carbone C, Jackson AL. Snake venom potency and yield are associated with prey-evolution, predator metabolism and habitat structure. Ecol Lett 2019; 22:527-537. [PMID: 30616302 DOI: 10.1111/ele.13216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2018] [Revised: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 12/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Snake venom is well known for its ability to incapacitate and kill prey. Yet, potency and the amount of venom available varies greatly across species, ranging from the seemingly harmless to those capable of killing vast numbers of potential prey. This variation is poorly understood, with comparative approaches confounded by the use of atypical prey species as models to measure venom potency. Here, we account for such confounding issues by incorporating the phylogenetic similarity between a snake's diet and the species used to measure its potency. In a comparative analysis of 102 species we show that snake venom potency is generally prey-specific. We also show that venom yields are lower in species occupying three dimensional environments and increases with body size corresponding to metabolic rate, but faster than predicted from increases in prey size. These results underline the importance of physiological and environmental factors in the evolution of predator traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Healy
- Department of Zoology, School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland.,School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, KY16 9TH, UK.,School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Chris Carbone
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London, UK
| | - Andrew L Jackson
- Department of Zoology, School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
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162
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Moon BR, Penning DA, Segall M, Herrel A. Feeding in Snakes: Form, Function, and Evolution of the Feeding System. FEEDING IN VERTEBRATES 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-13739-7_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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163
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Kini RM, Sidhu SS, Laustsen AH. Biosynthetic Oligoclonal Antivenom (BOA) for Snakebite and Next-Generation Treatments for Snakebite Victims. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10120534. [PMID: 30551565 PMCID: PMC6315346 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10120534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Revised: 12/06/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming is a neglected tropical disease that each year claims the lives of 80,000–140,000 victims worldwide. The only effective treatment against envenoming involves intravenous administration of antivenoms that comprise antibodies that have been isolated from the plasma of immunized animals, typically horses. The drawbacks of such conventional horse-derived antivenoms include their propensity for causing allergenic adverse reactions due to their heterologous and foreign nature, an inability to effectively neutralize toxins in distal tissue, a low content of toxin-neutralizing antibodies, and a complex manufacturing process that is dependent on husbandry and procurement of snake venoms. In recent years, an opportunity to develop a fundamentally novel type of antivenom has presented itself. By using modern antibody discovery strategies, such as phage display selection, and repurposing small molecule enzyme inhibitors, next-generation antivenoms that obviate the drawbacks of existing plasma-derived antivenoms could be developed. This article describes the conceptualization of a novel therapeutic development strategy for biosynthetic oligoclonal antivenom (BOA) for snakebites based on recombinantly expressed oligoclonal mixtures of human monoclonal antibodies, possibly combined with repurposed small molecule enzyme inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Manjunatha Kini
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543, Singapore.
| | - Sachdev S Sidhu
- Department of Molecular Genetics, The Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada.
| | - Andreas Hougaard Laustsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
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164
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van der Walt AJ, Muller GJ. Berg adder (Bitis atropos) envenoming: an analysis of 14 cases. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2018; 57:131-136. [PMID: 30522357 DOI: 10.1080/15563650.2018.1499931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The berg adder (Bitis atropos) is a little-studied, lesser-known viperid snake found in southern Africa and there is limited information available regarding the manifestations of envenoming. MATERIALS AND METHODS This observational series of 14 cases documents features of berg adder envenoming over a period of 16 years (1987-2003). Clinical features of envenomed patients: All 14 patients developed local cytotoxic effects. Thirteen patients developed systemic effects manifesting and documented in varying degrees. These include (1) prominent vomiting (2) disturbances in cranial nerve function (anosmia and altered taste, an ophthalmological triad of ptosis, mydriasis and visual disturbances including loss of accommodation, and dysphagia) (3) a global decrease in motor power where mechanical ventilation was often required for respiratory failure and (4) hyponatraemia (lowest value recorded 111 mmol/L), sometimes with associated convulsions. DISCUSSION The full range of polypeptides present in berg adder venom is yet to be characterised. However, two closely related phospholipases A2 (PLA2; PLA2-1 and PLA2-2) have been purified from the venom of B. atropos and clinical evidence suggests that a natriuretic peptide is also possibly present. Envenoming results in distinctive, sometimes life-threatening, manifestations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew John van der Walt
- a Midlands Endocrine & Medicine (private practice) , Life Hilton Private Hospital , Hilton , South Africa
| | - Gert Jacobus Muller
- b Division of Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Tygerberg Poison Information Centre , Stellenbosch University , Cape Town , South Africa
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Evidence for divergent patterns of local selection driving venom variation in Mojave Rattlesnakes (Crotalus scutulatus). Sci Rep 2018; 8:17622. [PMID: 30514908 PMCID: PMC6279745 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35810-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Snake venoms represent an enriched system for investigating the evolutionary processes that lead to complex and dynamic trophic adaptations. It has long been hypothesized that natural selection may drive geographic variation in venom composition, yet previous studies have lacked the population genetic context to examine these patterns. We leverage range-wide sampling of Mojave Rattlesnakes (Crotalus scutulatus) and use a combination of venom, morphological, phylogenetic, population genetic, and environmental data to characterize the striking dichotomy of neurotoxic (Type A) and hemorrhagic (Type B) venoms throughout the range of this species. We find that three of the four previously identified major lineages within C. scutulatus possess a combination of Type A, Type B, and a ‘mixed’ Type A + B venom phenotypes, and that fixation of the two main venom phenotypes occurs on a more fine geographic scale than previously appreciated. We also find that Type A + B individuals occur in regions of inferred introgression, and that this mixed phenotype is comparatively rare. Our results support strong directional local selection leading to fixation of alternative venom phenotypes on a fine geographic scale, and are inconsistent with balancing selection to maintain both phenotypes within a single population. Our comparisons to biotic and abiotic factors further indicate that venom phenotype correlates with fang morphology and climatic variables. We hypothesize that links to fang morphology may be indicative of co-evolution of venom and other trophic adaptations, and that climatic variables may be linked to prey distributions and/or physiology, which in turn impose selection pressures on snake venoms.
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166
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Borja M, Neri-Castro E, Pérez-Morales R, Strickland JL, Ponce-López R, Parkinson CL, Espinosa-Fematt J, Sáenz-Mata J, Flores-Martínez E, Alagón A, Castañeda-Gaytán G. Ontogenetic Change in the Venom of Mexican Black-Tailed Rattlesnakes ( Crotalus molossus nigrescens). Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10120501. [PMID: 30513722 PMCID: PMC6315878 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10120501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Revised: 11/22/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Ontogenetic changes in venom composition have important ecological implications due the relevance of venom in prey acquisition and defense. Additionally, intraspecific venom variation has direct medical consequences for the treatment of snakebite. However, ontogenetic changes are not well documented in most species. The Mexican Black-tailed Rattlesnake (Crotalus molossus nigrescens) is large-bodied and broadly distributed in Mexico. To document venom variation and test for ontogenetic changes in venom composition, we obtained venom samples from twenty-seven C. m. nigrescens with different total body lengths (TBL) from eight states in Mexico. The primary components in the venom were detected by reverse-phase HPLC, western blot, and mass spectrometry. In addition, we evaluated the biochemical (proteolytic, coagulant and fibrinogenolytic activities) and biological (LD50 and hemorrhagic activity) activities of the venoms. Finally, we tested for recognition and neutralization of Mexican antivenoms against venoms of juvenile and adult snakes. We detected clear ontogenetic venom variation in C. m. nigrescens. Venoms from younger snakes contained more crotamine-like myotoxins and snake venom serine proteinases than venoms from older snakes; however, an increase of snake venom metalloproteinases was detected in venoms of larger snakes. Venoms from juvenile snakes were, in general, more toxic and procoagulant than venoms from adults; however, adult venoms were more proteolytic. Most of the venoms analyzed were hemorrhagic. Importantly, Mexican antivenoms had difficulties recognizing low molecular mass proteins (<12 kDa) of venoms from both juvenile and adult snakes. The antivenoms did not neutralize the crotamine effect caused by the venom of juveniles. Thus, we suggest that Mexican antivenoms would have difficulty neutralizing some human envenomations and, therefore, it may be necessary improve the immunization mixture in Mexican antivenoms to account for low molecular mass proteins, like myotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Borja
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Av. Universidad s/n. Fracc. Filadelfia, C.P. 35010 Gómez Palacio, Dgo., Mexico.
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Av. Artículo 123 s/n. Fracc. Filadelfia, Apartado Postal No. 51, C.P. 35010 Gómez Palacio, Dgo., Mexico.
| | - Edgar Neri-Castro
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad 2001, Chamilpa, C.P. 62210 Cuernavaca, Mor., Mexico.
- Programa de Doctorado en Ciencias Biomédicas UNAM, C.P. 04510 México D.F., Mexico.
| | - Rebeca Pérez-Morales
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Av. Artículo 123 s/n. Fracc. Filadelfia, Apartado Postal No. 51, C.P. 35010 Gómez Palacio, Dgo., Mexico.
| | - Jason L Strickland
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, 190 Collings St., Clemson, SC 29634, USA.
| | - Roberto Ponce-López
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad 2001, Chamilpa, C.P. 62210 Cuernavaca, Mor., Mexico.
| | - Christopher L Parkinson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, 190 Collings St., Clemson, SC 29634, USA.
- Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, 190 Collings St., Clemson, SC 29634, USA.
| | - Jorge Espinosa-Fematt
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Calz. Palmas 1, Revolución, 35050 Gómez Palacio, Dgo., Mexico.
| | - Jorge Sáenz-Mata
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Av. Universidad s/n. Fracc. Filadelfia, C.P. 35010 Gómez Palacio, Dgo., Mexico.
| | - Esau Flores-Martínez
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Av. Universidad s/n. Fracc. Filadelfia, C.P. 35010 Gómez Palacio, Dgo., Mexico.
| | - Alejandro Alagón
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad 2001, Chamilpa, C.P. 62210 Cuernavaca, Mor., Mexico.
| | - Gamaliel Castañeda-Gaytán
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Av. Universidad s/n. Fracc. Filadelfia, C.P. 35010 Gómez Palacio, Dgo., Mexico.
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167
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Debono J, Bos MHA, Nouwens A, Ge L, Frank N, Kwok HF, Fry BG. Habu coagulotoxicity: Clinical implications of the functional diversification of Protobothrops snake venoms upon blood clotting factors. Toxicol In Vitro 2018; 55:62-74. [PMID: 30471431 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2018.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Revised: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Venom can affect any part of the body reachable via the bloodstream. Toxins which specifically act upon the coagulation cascade do so either by anticoagulant or procoagulant mechanisms. Here we investigated the coagulotoxic effects of six species within the medically important pit viper genus Protobothrops (Habu) from the Chinese mainland and Japanese islands, a genus known to produce hemorrhagic shock in envenomed patients. Differential coagulotoxicity was revealed: P. jerdonii and P. mangshanensis produced an overall net anticoagulant effect through the pseudo-procoagulant clotting of fibrinogen; P. flavoviridis and P. tokarensis exhibit a strong anticoagulant activity through the destructive cleavage of fibrinogen; and while P. elegans and P. mucrosquamatus both cleaved the A-alpha and B-beta chains of fibrinogen they did not exhibit strong anticoagulant activity. These variations in coagulant properties were congruent with phylogeny, with the closest relatives exhibiting similar venom effects in their action upon fibrinogen. Ancestral state reconstruction indicated that anticoagulation mediated by pseudo-procoagulant cleavage of fibrinogen is the basal state, while anticoagulation produced by destructive cleavage of fibrinogen is the derived state within this genus. This is the first in depth study of its kind highlighting extreme enzymatic variability, functional diversification and clotting diversification within one genus surrounding one target site, governed by variability in co-factor dependency. The documentation that the same net overall function, anticoagulation, is mediated by differential underlying mechanics suggests limited antivenom cross-reactivity, although this must be tested in future work. These results add to the body of knowledge necessary to inform clinical management of the envenomed patient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan Debono
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Mettine H A Bos
- Division of Thrombosis and Hemostasis, Einthoven Laboratory for Vascular and Regenerative Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Amanda Nouwens
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia 4072, Australia
| | - Lilin Ge
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, Macau, China; Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Functional Substance of Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, 138 Xianlin Avenue, Qixia District, Nanjing 215400, China
| | | | - Hang Fai Kwok
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, Macau, China.
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
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168
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Hofmann EP, Rautsaw RM, Strickland JL, Holding ML, Hogan MP, Mason AJ, Rokyta DR, Parkinson CL. Comparative venom-gland transcriptomics and venom proteomics of four Sidewinder Rattlesnake (Crotalus cerastes) lineages reveal little differential expression despite individual variation. Sci Rep 2018; 8:15534. [PMID: 30341342 PMCID: PMC6195556 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-33943-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Changes in gene expression can rapidly influence adaptive traits in the early stages of lineage diversification. Venom is an adaptive trait comprised of numerous toxins used for prey capture and defense. Snake venoms can vary widely between conspecific populations, but the influence of lineage diversification on such compositional differences are unknown. To explore venom differentiation in the early stages of lineage diversification, we used RNA-seq and mass spectrometry to characterize Sidewinder Rattlesnake (Crotalus cerastes) venom. We generated the first venom-gland transcriptomes and complementary venom proteomes for eight individuals collected across the United States and tested for expression differences across life history traits and between subspecific, mitochondrial, and phylotranscriptomic hypotheses. Sidewinder venom was comprised primarily of hemorrhagic toxins, with few cases of differential expression attributable to life history or lineage hypotheses. However, phylotranscriptomic lineage comparisons more than doubled instances of significant expression differences compared to all other factors. Nevertheless, only 6.4% of toxins were differentially expressed overall, suggesting that shallow divergence has not led to major changes in Sidewinder venom composition. Our results demonstrate the need for consensus venom-gland transcriptomes based on multiple individuals and highlight the potential for discrepancies in differential expression between different phylogenetic hypotheses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erich P Hofmann
- Clemson University, Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Rhett M Rautsaw
- Clemson University, Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Jason L Strickland
- Clemson University, Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
- University of Central Florida, Department of Biology, Orlando, FL, 32816, USA
| | - Matthew L Holding
- Clemson University, Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
- Florida State University, Department of Biological Science, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Michael P Hogan
- Florida State University, Department of Biological Science, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Andrew J Mason
- Clemson University, Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Darin R Rokyta
- Florida State University, Department of Biological Science, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Christopher L Parkinson
- Clemson University, Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA.
- Clemson University, Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA.
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169
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Coagulotoxicity of Bothrops (Lancehead Pit-Vipers) Venoms from Brazil: Differential Biochemistry and Antivenom Efficacy Resulting from Prey-Driven Venom Variation. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10100411. [PMID: 30314373 PMCID: PMC6215258 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10100411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Revised: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Lancehead pit-vipers (Bothrops genus) are an extremely diverse and medically important group responsible for the greatest number of snakebite envenomations and deaths in South America. Bothrops atrox (common lancehead), responsible for majority of snakebites and related deaths within the Brazilian Amazon, is a highly adaptable and widely distributed species, whose venom variability has been related to several factors, including geographical distribution and habitat type. This study examined venoms from four B. atrox populations (Belterra and Santarém, PA; Pres. Figueiredo, AM and São Bento, MA), and two additional Bothrops species (B. jararaca and B. neuwiedi) from Southeastern region for their coagulotoxic effects upon different plasmas (human, amphibian, and avian). The results revealed inter– and intraspecific variations in coagulotoxicity, including distinct activities between the three plasmas, with variations in the latter two linked to ecological niche occupied by the snakes. Also examined were the correlated biochemical mechanisms of venom action. Significant variation in the relative reliance upon the cofactors calcium and phospholipid were revealed, and the relative dependency did not significantly correlate with potency. Relative levels of Factor X or prothrombin activating toxins correlated with prey type and prey escape potential. The antivenom was shown to perform better in neutralising prothrombin activation activity than neutralising Factor X activation activity. Thus, the data reveal new information regarding the evolutionary selection pressures shaping snake venom evolution, while also having significant implications for the treatment of the envenomed patient. These results are, therefore, an intersection between evolutionary biology and clinical medicine.
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170
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Pekár S, Bočánek O, Michálek O, Petráková L, Haddad CR, Šedo O, Zdráhal Z. Venom gland size and venom complexity-essential trophic adaptations of venomous predators: A case study using spiders. Mol Ecol 2018; 27:4257-4269. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.14859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2018] [Revised: 08/23/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stano Pekár
- Department of Botany and Zoology; Faculty of Science; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Bočánek
- Central European Institute of Technology; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
- National Centre for Biomolecular Research; Faculty of Science; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Michálek
- Department of Botany and Zoology; Faculty of Science; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
| | - Lenka Petráková
- Department of Botany and Zoology; Faculty of Science; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
| | - Charles R. Haddad
- Department of Zoology & Entomology; University of the Free State; Bloemfontein South Africa
| | - Ondrej Šedo
- Central European Institute of Technology; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
| | - Zbyněk Zdráhal
- Central European Institute of Technology; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
- National Centre for Biomolecular Research; Faculty of Science; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
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171
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Kalita B, Mackessy SP, Mukherjee AK. Proteomic analysis reveals geographic variation in venom composition of Russell's Viper in the Indian subcontinent: implications for clinical manifestations post-envenomation and antivenom treatment. Expert Rev Proteomics 2018; 15:837-849. [PMID: 30247947 DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2018.1528150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The Russell's Viper (RV) (Daboia russelii), a category I medically important snake, is responsible for a significant level of morbidity and mortality in the Indian sub-continent. Areas covered: The current review highlights the variation in RV venom (RVV) composition from different geographical locales on the Indian sub-continent, as revealed by biochemical and proteomic analyses. A comparison of these RVV proteomes revealed significant differences in the number of toxin isoforms and relative toxin abundances, highlighting the impact of geographic location on RVV composition. Antivenom efficacy studies have shown differential neutralization of toxicity and enzymatic activity of different RVV samples from the Indian sub-continent by commercial polyvalent antivenom (PAV). The proteome analysis has provided deeper insights into the variation of RVV composition leading to differences in antivenom efficacy and severity of clinical manifestations post RV-envenomation across the Indian sub-continent. Expert commentary: Variation in RVV antigenicity due to geographical differences and poor recognition of low molecular mass (<20 kDa) RVV toxins by PAV are serious concerns for effective antivenom treatment against RV envenomation. Improvements in immunization protocols that take into account the poorly immunogenic components and geographic variation in RVV composition, can lead to better hospital management of RV bite patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhargab Kalita
- a Microbial Biotechnology and Protein Research Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology , Tezpur University , Tezpur , India
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- b School of Biological Sciences , University of Northern Colorado , Greeley , CO , USA
| | - Ashis K Mukherjee
- a Microbial Biotechnology and Protein Research Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology , Tezpur University , Tezpur , India
- b School of Biological Sciences , University of Northern Colorado , Greeley , CO , USA
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172
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Antibody Cross-Reactivity in Antivenom Research. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10100393. [PMID: 30261694 PMCID: PMC6215175 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10100393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2018] [Revised: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Antivenom cross-reactivity has been investigated for decades to determine which antivenoms can be used to treat snakebite envenomings from different snake species. Traditionally, the methods used for analyzing cross-reactivity have been immunodiffusion, immunoblotting, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), enzymatic assays, and in vivo neutralization studies. In recent years, new methods for determination of cross-reactivity have emerged, including surface plasmon resonance, antivenomics, and high-density peptide microarray technology. Antivenomics involves a top-down assessment of the toxin-binding capacities of antivenoms, whereas high-density peptide microarray technology may be harnessed to provide in-depth knowledge on which toxin epitopes are recognized by antivenoms. This review provides an overview of both the classical and new methods used to investigate antivenom cross-reactivity, the advantages and disadvantages of each method, and examples of studies using the methods. A special focus is given to antivenomics and high-density peptide microarray technology as these high-throughput methods have recently been introduced in this field and may enable more detailed assessments of antivenom cross-reactivity.
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173
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Fingerhut LCHW, Strugnell JM, Faou P, Labiaga ÁR, Zhang J, Cooke IR. Shotgun Proteomics Analysis of Saliva and Salivary Gland Tissue from the Common Octopus Octopus vulgaris. J Proteome Res 2018; 17:3866-3876. [PMID: 30220204 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.8b00525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The salivary apparatus of the common octopus ( Octopus vulgaris) has been the subject of biochemical study for over a century. A combination of bioassays, behavioral studies and molecular analysis on O. vulgaris and related species suggests that its proteome should contain a mixture of highly potent neurotoxins and degradative proteins. However, a lack of genomic and transcriptomic data has meant that the amino acid sequences of these proteins remain almost entirely unknown. To address this, we assembled the posterior salivary gland transcriptome of O. vulgaris and combined it with high resolution mass spectrometry data from the posterior and anterior salivary glands of two adults, the posterior salivary glands of six paralarvae and the saliva from a single adult. We identified a total of 2810 protein groups from across this range of salivary tissues and age classes, including 84 with homology to known venom protein families. Additionally, we found 21 short secreted cysteine rich protein groups of which 12 were specific to cephalopods. By combining protein expression data with phylogenetic analysis we demonstrate that serine proteases expanded dramatically within the cephalopod lineage and that cephalopod specific proteins are strongly associated with the salivary apparatus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Legana C H W Fingerhut
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology , James Cook University , Townsville , Queensland 4811 , Australia
| | - Jan M Strugnell
- Centre for Sustainable Tropical Fisheries and Aquaculture, College of Science and Engineering , James Cook University , Townsville , Queensland 4811 , Australia.,Department of Ecology, Environment and Evolution, School of Life Sciences , La Trobe University , Melbourne , Victoria 3086 , Australia
| | - Pierre Faou
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science , La Trobe University , Melbourne , Victoria 3086 , Australia
| | - Álvaro Roura Labiaga
- Department of Ecology and Marine Biodiversity , Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas de Vigo (IIM-CSIC) , Vigo 36208 , Spain
| | - Jia Zhang
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology , James Cook University , Townsville , Queensland 4811 , Australia
| | - Ira R Cooke
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology , James Cook University , Townsville , Queensland 4811 , Australia.,Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science , La Trobe University , Melbourne , Victoria 3086 , Australia
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174
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The Venom of Spectacled Cobra (Elapidae: Naja naja): In Vitro Study from Distinct Geographical Origins in Sri Lanka. J Toxicol 2018; 2018:7358472. [PMID: 30363742 PMCID: PMC6180993 DOI: 10.1155/2018/7358472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2018] [Revised: 07/18/2018] [Accepted: 08/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Several countries residing envenomation due to Naja naja had revealed a disparity in the venom composition according to their geographic location and Sri Lankan cobra still lacks the evidence to support this. Therefore, the current study was focused on addressing relationship between the histopathological changes according to geographic variation of Sri Lankan N. naja venom. The histopathological changes in vital organs and muscle tissues following intramuscular administration of venom of N. naja were studied using BALB/c mice. The median lethal dose of venom of N. naja in the present study was determined to be 0.55, 0.66, 0.68, 0.62, and 0.7 mg/kg for North (NRP), Central (CRP), Western, Southern, and Sabaragamuwa Regional Population venoms, respectively. Histopathological changes were observed in different levels in vital organs and muscle tissues of mice. NRP accompanied significantly higher infiltration of inflammatory and necrotic cells into skeletal muscle and CRP venom demonstrated high level of cardiotoxic effects comparing to other regions. This study revealed a certain extent of variations in the pathological effects of N. naja venom samples according to their geographical distribution.
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175
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Pekár S, Líznarová E, Bočánek O, Zdráhal Z. Venom of prey-specialized spiders is more toxic to their preferred prey: A result of prey-specific toxins. J Anim Ecol 2018; 87:1639-1652. [PMID: 30125357 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
In specialized predators, a variety of adaptations have evolved to such a level of specificity that they allow very effective exploitation of focal prey. Venom is an essential adaptive trait of predatory venomous species, such as spiders, yet our knowledge of spider venom is incomplete. In agreement with the prey preference hypothesis, we expected that the venom of spider specialists should be more toxic to focal than to alternative prey, because it is composed of prey-specific toxins. Here we used spiders with three types of trophic specializations: specialists that were ant-eating, termite-eating and spider-eating. We compared the efficacy of prey capture of preferred and alternative prey (measured as paralysis latency) with that of related generalists and profiled the venom of the studied species using proteomic methods. We used 22 spider species: six myrmecophagous, two termitophagous, three araneophagous and 11 euryphagous generalist species belonging to different families. We found that ten of the eleven specialist species induced significantly shorter paralysis latency in preferred prey than in alternative prey. Generalists exhibited either similar efficiency on both prey types or slightly higher efficiency on preferred prey. Multivariate analysis of proteomic profiles (peptides and proteins) revealed significant differences between trophic specializations, particularly in peptides. Specialists appear to have venom composed of unique specific compounds as revealed by the multivariate ordination and indicator analysis. These components are likely prey-specific toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stano Pekár
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Líznarová
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Bočánek
- Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.,National Centre for Biomolecular Research, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Zbyněk Zdráhal
- Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.,National Centre for Biomolecular Research, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
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176
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Zhang H, Fu Y, Wang L, Liang A, Chen S, Xu A. Identifying novel conopepetides from the venom ducts of Conus litteratus through integrating transcriptomics and proteomics. J Proteomics 2018; 192:346-357. [PMID: 30267875 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2018.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Revised: 09/20/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The venom ducts of marine cone snails secrete highly complex mixtures of cysteine-rich active peptides, which are generally known as conotoxins or conopeptides and provide a potential fertile resource for pharmacological neuroscience research and the discovery of new drugs. Previous studies have devoted substantial effort to the identification of novel conopeptides, and the 109 cone snail species have yielded 7000 known conopeptides to date. Here, we used de novo deep transcriptome sequencing analyses combined with traditional Sanger sequencing and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to identify 30 distinct conopeptide precursors. Twenty of these were previously reported and the other 10 were novel conopeptide precursors. The study provides the first identification of the Con-ikot-ikot, NSF-bt05, O3 and I1 gene superfamilies in C. litteratus. A new putative superfamily was identified. In addition, the following cysteine frameworks were first identified in this study: CC-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-CC-C-C-C-C-C and C-C-C-C-C-CC-C. Several isomerases involved in post-translational modification of conopeptides were identified as well. The discovery of new conopeptides in C. litteratus will enhance our understanding of the conopeptide diversity in this particular clade of cone snails. We also found the existence of intraspecific variations in vermivorous species. Finally, the analysis strategy offers a relatively reliable workflow for screening for peptide drug candidates. SIGNIFICANCE: These novel conopeptides provide a potential resource for the development of new channel-targeting drugs. The intraspecific variation in C. litteratus enhance our understanding of the conopeptide diversity in this particular clade of cone snails. The identified three cysteine residues, which might participate in the formation of disulfide bonds, provide a clue to get the connectivity of cysteine frameworks. Finally, the analysis strategy offers a relatively reliable workflow for screening for peptide drug candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Functional Genes, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China; Shenzhen Research Institute, Sun Yat-Sen University, People's Republic of China
| | - Yonggui Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Functional Genes, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China; Shenzhen Research Institute, Sun Yat-Sen University, People's Republic of China
| | - Lei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Functional Genes, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China; Shenzhen Research Institute, Sun Yat-Sen University, People's Republic of China
| | - Anwen Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Functional Genes, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Shangwu Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Functional Genes, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China; Shenzhen Research Institute, Sun Yat-Sen University, People's Republic of China.
| | - Anlong Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Functional Genes, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China; School of Life Science, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, People's Republic of China.
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177
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Estevão-Costa MI, Sanz-Soler R, Johanningmeier B, Eble JA. Snake venom components in medicine: From the symbolic rod of Asclepius to tangible medical research and application. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2018; 104:94-113. [PMID: 30261311 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2018.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2018] [Revised: 09/03/2018] [Accepted: 09/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Both mythologically and logically, snakes have always fascinated man. Snakes have attracted both awe and fear not only because of the elegant movement of their limbless bodies, but also because of the potency of their deadly venoms. Practically, in 2017, the world health organization (WHO) listed snake envenomation as a high priority neglected disease, as snakes inflict up to 2.7 million poisonous bites, around 100.000 casualties, and about three times as many invalidities on man. The venoms of poisonous snakes are a cocktail of potent compounds which specifically and avidly target numerous essential molecules with high efficacy. The individual effects of all venom toxins integrate into lethal dysfunctions of almost any organ system. It is this efficacy and specificity of each venom component, which after analysis of its structure and activity may serve as a potential lead structure for chemical imitation. Such toxin mimetics may help in influencing a specific body function pharmaceutically for the sake of man's health. In this review article, we will give some examples of snake venom components which have spurred the development of novel pharmaceutical compounds. Moreover, we will provide examples where such snake toxin-derived mimetics are in clinical use, trials, or consideration for further pharmaceutical exploitation, especially in the fields of hemostasis, thrombosis, coagulation, and metastasis. Thus, it becomes clear why a snake captured its symbolic place at the Asclepius rod with good reason still nowadays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria-Inacia Estevão-Costa
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, University of Münster, Waldeyerstr. 15, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Raquel Sanz-Soler
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, University of Münster, Waldeyerstr. 15, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Benjamin Johanningmeier
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, University of Münster, Waldeyerstr. 15, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Johannes A Eble
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, University of Münster, Waldeyerstr. 15, 48149, Münster, Germany.
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178
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Three-Finger Toxin Diversification in the Venoms of Cat-Eye Snakes (Colubridae: Boiga). J Mol Evol 2018; 86:531-545. [PMID: 30206667 DOI: 10.1007/s00239-018-9864-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The Asian genus Boiga (Colubridae) is among the better studied non-front-fanged snake lineages, because their bites have minor, but noticeable, effects on humans. Furthermore, B. irregularis has gained worldwide notoriety for successfully invading Guam and other nearby islands with drastic impacts on the local bird populations. One of the factors thought to allow B. irregularis to become such a noxious pest is irditoxin, a dimeric neurotoxin composed of two three-finger toxins (3FTx) joined by a covalent bond between two newly evolved cysteines. Irditoxin is highly toxic to diapsid (birds and reptiles) prey, but roughly 1000 × less potent to synapsids (mammals). Venom plays an important role in the ecology of all species of Boiga, but it remains unknown if any species besides B. irregularis produce irditoxin-like dimeric toxins. In this study, we use transcriptomic analyses of venom glands from five species [B. cynodon, B. dendrophila dendrophila, B. d. gemmicincta, B. irregularis (Brisbane population), B. irregularis (Sulawesi population), B. nigriceps, B. trigonata] and proteomic analyses of B. d. dendrophila and a representative of the sister genus Toxicodryas blandingii to investigate the evolutionary history of 3FTx within Boiga and its close relative. We found that 92.5% of Boiga 3FTx belong to a single clade which we refer to as denmotoxin-like because of the close relation between these toxins and the monomeric denmotoxin according to phylogenetic, sequence clustering, and protein similarity network analyses. We show for the first time that species beyond B. irregularis secrete 3FTx with additional cysteines in the same position as both the A and B subunits of irditoxin. Transcripts with the characteristic mutations are found in B. d. dendrophila, B. d. gemmicincta, B. irregularis (Brisbane population), B. irregularis (Sulawesi population), and B. nigriceps. These results are confirmed by proteomic analyses that show direct evidence of dimerization within the venom of B. d. dendrophila, but not T. blandingii. Our results also suggest the possibility of novel dimeric toxins in other genera such as Telescopus and Trimorphodon. All together, this suggests that the origin of these peculiar 3FTx is far earlier than was appreciated and their evolutionary history has been complex.
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179
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Walker AA, Hernández-Vargas MJ, Corzo G, Fry BG, King GF. Giant fish-killing water bug reveals ancient and dynamic venom evolution in Heteroptera. Cell Mol Life Sci 2018; 75:3215-3229. [PMID: 29427076 PMCID: PMC11105384 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-018-2768-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2017] [Revised: 01/29/2018] [Accepted: 02/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
True Bugs (Insecta: Heteroptera) produce venom or saliva with diverse bioactivities depending on their feeding strategies. However, little is known about the molecular evolution of the venom toxins underlying these biological activities. We examined venom of the giant fish-killing water bug Lethocerus distinctifemur (Insecta: Belostomatidae) using infrared spectroscopy, transcriptomics, and proteomics. We report 132 venom proteins including putative enzymes, cytolytic toxins, and antimicrobial peptides. Over 73% (96 proteins) showed homology to venom proteins from assassin bugs (Reduviidae), including 21% (28 proteins from seven families) not known from other sources. These data suggest that numerous protein families were recruited into venom and diversified rapidly following the switch from phytophagy to predation by ancestral heteropterans, and then were retained over > 200 my of evolution. In contrast, trophic switches to blood-feeding (e.g. in Triatominae and Cimicidae) or reversions to plant-feeding (e.g., in Pentatomomorpha) were accompanied by rapid changes in the composition of venom/saliva, including the loss of many protein families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew A Walker
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia.
| | | | - Gerardo Corzo
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 61500, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Glenn F King
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia.
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180
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Modahl CM, Frietze S, Mackessy SP. Transcriptome-facilitated proteomic characterization of rear-fanged snake venoms reveal abundant metalloproteinases with enhanced activity. J Proteomics 2018; 187:223-234. [PMID: 30092380 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2018.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2018] [Revised: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 08/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
High-throughput technologies were used to identify venom gland toxin expression and to characterize the venom proteomes of two rear-fanged snakes, Ahaetulla prasina (Asian Green Vine Snake) and Borikenophis portoricensis (Puerto Rican Racer). Sixty-nine complete toxin-coding transcripts from 12 venom protein superfamilies (A. prasina) and 50 complete coding transcripts from 11 venom protein superfamilies (B. portoricensis) were identified in the venom glands. However, only 18% (A. prasina) and 32% (B. portoricensis) of the translated protein isoforms were detected in the proteome of these venoms. Both venom gland transcriptomes and venom proteomes were dominated by P-III metalloproteinases. Three-finger toxins, cysteine-rich secretory proteins, and C-type lectins were present in moderate amounts, but other protein superfamilies showed very low abundances. Venoms contained metalloproteinase activity comparable to viperid snake venom levels, but other common venom enzymes were absent or present at negligible levels. Western blot analysis showed metalloproteinase and cysteine-rich secretory protein epitopes shared with the highly venomous Boomslang (Dispholidus typus). The abundance of metalloproteinases emphasizes the important trophic role of these toxins. Comprehensive, transcriptome-informed definition of proteomes and functional characterization of venom proteins in rear-fanged snake families help to elucidate toxin evolution and provide models for protein structure-function analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassandra M Modahl
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th St., Greeley, CO 80639-0017, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
| | - Seth Frietze
- Department of Biomedical and Health Sciences, University of Vermont, 302 Rowell, Burlington, VT 05405, USA
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th St., Greeley, CO 80639-0017, USA.
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181
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Calvete JJ, Casewell NR, Hernández-Guzmán U, Quesada-Bernat S, Sanz L, Rokyta DR, Storey D, Albulescu LO, Wüster W, Smith CF, Schuett GW, Booth W. Venom Complexity in a Pitviper Produced by Facultative Parthenogenesis. Sci Rep 2018; 8:11539. [PMID: 30068934 PMCID: PMC6070573 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-29791-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2017] [Accepted: 07/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Facultative parthenogenesis (FP) is asexual reproduction in plant and animal species that would otherwise reproduce sexually. This process in vertebrates typically results from automictic development (likely terminal fusion) and is phylogenetically widespread. In squamate reptiles and chondrichthyan fishes, FP has been reported to occur in nature and can result in the production of reproductively viable offspring; suggesting that it is of ecological and evolutionary significance. However, terminal fusion automixis is believed to result in near genome-wide reductions in heterozygosity; thus, FP seems likely to affect key phenotypic characters, yet this remains almost completely unstudied. Snake venom is a complex phenotypic character primarily used to subjugate prey and is thus tightly linked to individual fitness. Surprisingly, the composition and function of venom produced by a parthenogenetic pitviper exhibits a high degree of similarity to that of its mother and conspecifics from the same population. Therefore, the apparent loss of allelic diversity caused by FP appears unlikely to have a significant impact on the prey-capturing ability of this snake. Accordingly, the pitviper offspring produced by FP retained complex phenotypic characteristics associated with fitness. This result reinforces the potential ecological and evolutionary importance of FP and questions our understanding of the inheritance of venom-associated genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- J J Calvete
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, CSIC, Valencia, Spain.
| | - N R Casewell
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK.
| | - U Hernández-Guzmán
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, CSIC, Valencia, Spain
- Laboratorio de Química de Biomacromoléculas, Instituto de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Delegación Coyoacán C.P, 04510, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - S Quesada-Bernat
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, CSIC, Valencia, Spain
| | - L Sanz
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, CSIC, Valencia, Spain
| | - D R Rokyta
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - D Storey
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Environment Centre Wales, Bangor University, Bangor, LL57 2UW, UK
| | - L-O Albulescu
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK
| | - W Wüster
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Environment Centre Wales, Bangor University, Bangor, LL57 2UW, UK
- Chiricahua Desert Museum, P.O. Box 376, Rodeo, NM, USA
| | - C F Smith
- Chiricahua Desert Museum, P.O. Box 376, Rodeo, NM, USA
- The Copperhead Institute, P.O. Box 6755, Spartanburg, SC, USA
- Department of Biology, Wofford College, 429 North Church Street, Spartanburg, SC, USA
| | - G W Schuett
- Chiricahua Desert Museum, P.O. Box 376, Rodeo, NM, USA
- The Copperhead Institute, P.O. Box 6755, Spartanburg, SC, USA
- Department of Biology and Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - W Booth
- Chiricahua Desert Museum, P.O. Box 376, Rodeo, NM, USA
- The Copperhead Institute, P.O. Box 6755, Spartanburg, SC, USA
- Department of Biological Science, The University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK, USA
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182
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The habu genome reveals accelerated evolution of venom protein genes. Sci Rep 2018; 8:11300. [PMID: 30050104 PMCID: PMC6062510 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-28749-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2017] [Accepted: 06/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Evolution of novel traits is a challenging subject in biological research. Several snake lineages developed elaborate venom systems to deliver complex protein mixtures for prey capture. To understand mechanisms involved in snake venom evolution, we decoded here the ~1.4-Gb genome of a habu, Protobothrops flavoviridis. We identified 60 snake venom protein genes (SV) and 224 non-venom paralogs (NV), belonging to 18 gene families. Molecular phylogeny reveals early divergence of SV and NV genes, suggesting that one of the four copies generated through two rounds of whole-genome duplication was modified for use as a toxin. Among them, both SV and NV genes in four major components were extensively duplicated after their diversification, but accelerated evolution is evident exclusively in the SV genes. Both venom-related SV and NV genes are significantly enriched in microchromosomes. The present study thus provides a genetic background for evolution of snake venom composition.
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183
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Holding ML, Margres MJ, Rokyta DR, Gibbs HL. Local prey community composition and genetic distance predict venom divergence among populations of the northern Pacific rattlesnake (
Crotalus oreganus
). J Evol Biol 2018; 31:1513-1528. [DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2018] [Revised: 06/23/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew L. Holding
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology The Ohio State University Columbus OH USA
- Department of Biological Sciences Florida State University Tallahassee FL USA
| | - Mark J. Margres
- Department of Biological Sciences Florida State University Tallahassee FL USA
| | - Darin R. Rokyta
- Department of Biological Sciences Florida State University Tallahassee FL USA
| | - H. Lisle Gibbs
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology The Ohio State University Columbus OH USA
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184
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Sánchez MN, Teibler GP, López CA, Mackessy SP, Peichoto ME. Assessment of the potential toxicological hazard of the Green Parrot Snake (Leptophis ahaetulla marginatus): Characterization of its venom and venom-delivery system. Toxicon 2018; 148:202-212. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.04.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2018] [Revised: 04/11/2018] [Accepted: 04/25/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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185
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Phuong MA, Mahardika GN. Targeted Sequencing of Venom Genes from Cone Snail Genomes Improves Understanding of Conotoxin Molecular Evolution. Mol Biol Evol 2018; 35:1210-1224. [PMID: 29514313 PMCID: PMC5913681 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msy034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
To expand our capacity to discover venom sequences from the genomes of venomous organisms, we applied targeted sequencing techniques to selectively recover venom gene superfamilies and nontoxin loci from the genomes of 32 cone snail species (family, Conidae), a diverse group of marine gastropods that capture their prey using a cocktail of neurotoxic peptides (conotoxins). We were able to successfully recover conotoxin gene superfamilies across all species with high confidence (> 100× coverage) and used these data to provide new insights into conotoxin evolution. First, we found that conotoxin gene superfamilies are composed of one to six exons and are typically short in length (mean = ∼85 bp). Second, we expanded our understanding of the following genetic features of conotoxin evolution: 1) positive selection, where exons coding the mature toxin region were often three times more divergent than their adjacent noncoding regions, 2) expression regulation, with comparisons to transcriptome data showing that cone snails only express a fraction of the genes available in their genome (24-63%), and 3) extensive gene turnover, where Conidae species varied from 120 to 859 conotoxin gene copies. Finally, using comparative phylogenetic methods, we found that while diet specificity did not predict patterns of conotoxin evolution, dietary breadth was positively correlated with total conotoxin gene diversity. Overall, the targeted sequencing technique demonstrated here has the potential to radically increase the pace at which venom gene families are sequenced and studied, reshaping our ability to understand the impact of genetic changes on ecologically relevant phenotypes and subsequent diversification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Phuong
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Gusti N Mahardika
- Animal Biomedical and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Udayana University Bali, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia
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186
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Farias IBD, Morais-Zani KD, Serino-Silva C, Sant'Anna SS, Rocha MMD, Grego KF, Andrade-Silva D, Serrano SM, Tanaka-Azevedo AM. Functional and proteomic comparison of Bothrops jararaca venom from captive specimens and the Brazilian Bothropic Reference Venom. J Proteomics 2018; 174:36-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2017.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2017] [Revised: 12/01/2017] [Accepted: 12/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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187
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Cologna CT, Rodrigues RS, Santos J, de Pauw E, Arantes EC, Quinton L. Peptidomic investigation of Neoponera villosa venom by high-resolution mass spectrometry: seasonal and nesting habitat variations. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis 2018; 24:6. [PMID: 29467797 PMCID: PMC5816382 DOI: 10.1186/s40409-018-0141-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2017] [Accepted: 01/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Advancements in proteomics, including the technological improvement in instrumentation, have turned mass spectrometry into an indispensable tool in the study of venoms and toxins. In addition, the advance of nanoscale liquid chromatography coupled to nanoelectrospray mass spectrometry allows, due to its high sensitivity, the study of venoms from species previously left aside, such as ants. Ant venoms are a complex mixture of compounds used for defense, predation or communication purposes. The venom from Neoponera ants, a genus restricted to Neotropical regions, is known to have cytolytic, hemolytic, antimicrobial and insecticidal activities. Moreover, venoms from several Neoponera species have been compared and differences in their toxicity related to nesting habitat variation were reported. Therefore, the present study aimed to perform a deep peptidomic analysis of Neoponera villosa venom and a comparison of seasonal and nesting habitat variations using high-resolution mass spectrometry. Methods Specimens of N. villosa ants were captured in Panga Natural Reserve (Uberlândia, MG, Brazil) from arboreal and ground-dwelling nests during summer and winter time. The venom glands were dissected, pooled and disrupted by ultra-sonic waves. The venom collected from different habitats (arboreal and ground-dwelling) and different seasons (summer and winter) was injected into a nanoACQUITY ULPC hyphened to a Q-Exactive Orbitrap mass spectrometer. The raw data were analyzed using PEAKS 7. Results The results showed a molecular diversity of more than 500 peptides among these venoms, mostly in the mass range of 800–4000 Da. Mutations and post-translational modifications were described and differences among the venoms were observed. Part of the peptides matched with ponericins, a well-known antimicrobial peptide family. In addition, smaller fragments related to ponericins were also identified, suggesting that this class of antimicrobial peptide might undergo enzymatic cleavages. Conclusion There are substantial differences among the venom of N. villosa ants collected in different seasons and from different nest habitats. The venom composition is affected by climate changes that influence prey availability and predator presence. Clearly, nano-LC-MS boosted the knowledge about ant venom, a rich source of unexplored and promising bioactive compounds. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s40409-018-0141-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camila Takeno Cologna
- 1School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP Brazil.,2Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry, MolSys, Department of Chemistry, Liège Université, Liège, Belgium
| | | | - Jean Santos
- 3Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia, MG Brazil
| | - Edwin de Pauw
- 2Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry, MolSys, Department of Chemistry, Liège Université, Liège, Belgium
| | - Eliane Candiani Arantes
- 1School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP Brazil
| | - Loïc Quinton
- 2Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry, MolSys, Department of Chemistry, Liège Université, Liège, Belgium
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188
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Pekár S, Petráková L, Šedo O, Korenko S, Zdráhal Z. Trophic niche, capture efficiency and venom profiles of six sympatric ant-eating spider species (Araneae: Zodariidae). Mol Ecol 2018; 27:1053-1064. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.14485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2017] [Accepted: 12/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stano Pekár
- Department of Botany and Zoology; Faculty of Science; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
| | - Lenka Petráková
- Department of Botany and Zoology; Faculty of Science; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
| | - Ondrej Šedo
- Research Group Proteomics, CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
- National Centre for Biomolecular Research; Faculty of Science; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
| | - Stanislav Korenko
- Department of Agroecology and Biometeorology; Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources; Czech University of Life Sciences; Prague Czech Republic
| | - Zbyněk Zdráhal
- Research Group Proteomics, CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
- National Centre for Biomolecular Research; Faculty of Science; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
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189
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Dobson J, Yang DC, Op den Brouw B, Cochran C, Huynh T, Kurrupu S, Sánchez EE, Massey DJ, Baumann K, Jackson TNW, Nouwens A, Josh P, Neri-Castro E, Alagón A, Hodgson WC, Fry BG. Rattling the border wall: Pathophysiological implications of functional and proteomic venom variation between Mexican and US subspecies of the desert rattlesnake Crotalus scutulatus. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2018; 205:62-69. [PMID: 29074260 PMCID: PMC5825281 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2017.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2017] [Revised: 10/19/2017] [Accepted: 10/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
While some US populations of the Mohave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus) are infamous for being potently neurotoxic, the Mexican subspecies C. s. salvini (Huamantlan rattlesnake) has been largely unstudied beyond crude lethality testing upon mice. In this study we show that at least some populations of this snake are as potently neurotoxic as its northern cousin. Testing of the Mexican antivenom Antivipmyn showed a complete lack of neutralisation for the neurotoxic effects of C. s. salvini venom, while the neurotoxic effects of the US subspecies C. s. scutulatus were time-delayed but ultimately not eliminated. These results document unrecognised potent neurological effects of a Mexican snake and highlight the medical importance of this subspecies, a finding augmented by the ineffectiveness of the Antivipmyn antivenom. These results also influence our understanding of the venom evolution of Crotalus scutulatus, suggesting that neurotoxicity is the ancestral feature of this species, with the US populations which lack neurotoxicity being derived states.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Dobson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Daryl C Yang
- Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Bianca Op den Brouw
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Chip Cochran
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Tam Huynh
- Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Sanjaya Kurrupu
- Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Elda E Sánchez
- National Natural Toxins Research Center (NNTRC), Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University-Kingsville, MSC 224, 975 West Avenue B, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA
| | - Daniel J Massey
- Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center, 1295 N Martin Room B308, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; Banner University Medical Center, 1501 N. Campbell Ave, Tucson, AZ 85745, USA
| | - Kate Baumann
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Timothy N W Jackson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3000, Australia
| | - Amanda Nouwens
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Peter Josh
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Edgar Neri-Castro
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad # 2001, Colonia Chamilpa, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Alagón
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad # 2001, Colonia Chamilpa, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, Mexico
| | - Wayne C Hodgson
- Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
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190
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Accelerated proteomic visualization of individual predatory venoms of Conus purpurascens reveals separately evolved predation-evoked venom cabals. Sci Rep 2018; 8:330. [PMID: 29321522 PMCID: PMC5762640 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-17422-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2017] [Accepted: 11/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Cone snail venoms have separately evolved for predation and defense. Despite remarkable inter- and intra-species variability, defined sets of synergistic venom peptides (cabals) are considered essential for prey capture by cone snails. To better understand the role of predatory cabals in cone snails, we used a high-throughput proteomic data mining and visualisation approach. Using this approach, the relationship between the predatory venom peptides from nine C. purpurascens was systematically analysed. Surprisingly, potentially synergistic levels of κ-PVIIA and δ-PVIA were only identified in five of nine specimens. In contrast, the remaining four specimens lacked significant levels of these known excitotoxins and instead contained high levels of the muscle nAChR blockers ψ-PIIIE and αA-PIVA. Interestingly, one of nine specimens expressed both cabals, suggesting that these sub-groups might represent inter-breeding sub-species of C. purpurascens. High throughput cluster analysis also revealed these two cabals clustered with distinct groups of venom peptides that are presently uncharacterised. This is the first report showing that the cone snails of the same species can deploy two separate and distinct predatory cabals for prey capture and shows that the cabals deployed by this species can be more complex than presently realized. Our semi-automated proteomic analysis facilitates the deconvolution of complex venoms to identify co-evolved families of peptides and help unravel their evolutionary relationships in complex venoms.
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191
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Hempel BF, Damm M, Göçmen B, Karis M, Oguz MA, Nalbantsoy A, Süssmuth RD. Comparative Venomics of the Vipera ammodytes transcaucasiana and Vipera ammodytes montandoni from Turkey Provides Insights into Kinship. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10010023. [PMID: 29301241 PMCID: PMC5793110 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10010023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2017] [Revised: 12/26/2017] [Accepted: 12/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The Nose-horned Viper (Vipera ammodytes) is one of the most widespread and venomous snakes in Europe, which causes high frequent snakebite accidents. The first comprehensive venom characterization of the regional endemic Transcaucasian Nose-horned Viper (Vipera ammodytes transcaucasiana) and the Transdanubian Sand Viper (Vipera ammodytes montandoni) is reported employing a combination of intact mass profiling and bottom-up proteomics. The bottom-up analysis of both subspecies identified the major snake protein families of viper venoms. Furthermore, intact mass profiling revealed the presence of two tripeptidic metalloprotease inhibitors and their precursors. While previous reports applied multivariate analysis techniques to clarify the taxonomic status of the subspecies, an accurate classification of Vipera ammodytestranscaucasiana is still part of the ongoing research. The comparative analysis of the viper venoms on the proteome level reveals a close relationship between the Vipera ammodytes subspecies, which could be considered to clarify the classification of the Transcaucasian Nose-horned Viper. However, the slightly different ratio of some venom components could be indicating interspecific variations of the two studied subspecies or intraspecies alternations based on small sample size. Additionally, we performed a bioactivity screening with the crude venoms against several human cancerous and non-cancerous cell lines, which showed interesting results against a human breast adenocarcinoma epithelial cell line. Several fractions of Vipera a. transcaucasiana demonstrated a strong cytotoxic effect on triple negative MDA MB 231 breast cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Maik Damm
- Department of Chemistry, Technische Universität Berlin, 10623 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Bayram Göçmen
- Department of Biology, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey.
| | - Mert Karis
- Department of Biology, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey.
| | | | - Ayse Nalbantsoy
- Department of Bioengineering, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey.
| | - Roderich D Süssmuth
- Department of Chemistry, Technische Universität Berlin, 10623 Berlin, Germany.
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192
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Pla D, Petras D, Saviola AJ, Modahl CM, Sanz L, Pérez A, Juárez E, Frietze S, Dorrestein PC, Mackessy SP, Calvete JJ. Transcriptomics-guided bottom-up and top-down venomics of neonate and adult specimens of the arboreal rear-fanged Brown Treesnake, Boiga irregularis, from Guam. J Proteomics 2017; 174:71-84. [PMID: 29292096 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2017.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2017] [Revised: 12/18/2017] [Accepted: 12/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The Brown Treesnake (Boiga irregularis) is an arboreal, nocturnal, rear-fanged venomous snake native to northern and eastern regions of Australia, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. It was inadvertently introduced onto the island of Guam during the late 1940's to early 1950's, and it has caused massive declines and extirpations of the native bird, lizard, and mammal populations. In the current study, we report the characterization of the venom proteome of an adult and a neonate B. irregularis specimens from Guam by a combination of venom gland transcriptomic and venomic analyses. Venom gland transcriptomic analysis of an adult individual identified toxins belonging to 18 protein families, with three-finger toxin isoforms being the most abundantly expressed transcripts, comprising 94% of all venom protein transcript reads. Transcripts for PIII-metalloproteinases, C-type lectins, cysteine-rich secretory proteins, acetylcholinesterases, natriuretic peptides, ficolins, phospholipase A2 (PLA2) inhibitors, PLA2s, vascular endothelial growth factors, Kunitz-type protease inhibitors, cystatins, phospholipase Bs, cobra venom factors, waprins, SVMP inhibitors, matrix metalloproteinases, and hyaluronidases were also identified, albeit, at very low abundances ranging from 0.05% to 1.7% of the transcriptome. The venom proteomes of neonate and adult B. irregularis were also both overwhelmingly (78 and 84%, respectively) dominated by monomeric and dimeric 3FTxs, followed by moderately abundant (21% (N) and 13% (A)) CRISPs, low abundance (1% (N), 3% (A)) PIII-SVMPs, and very low abundance (<0.01%) PLA2 and SVMP inhibitors. The differences in relative toxin abundances identified between neonate and adult snakes likely correlates to shifts in prey preference between the two age classes, from nearly-exclusively lizards to lizards, birds and small mammals. Immunoaffinity antivenomics with experimentally designed rabbit anti-Brown Treesnake (anti-BTS) venom IgGs against homologous venom from adult snakes demonstrated that CRISPs, PIII-SVMPs, and 60-70% of 3FTxs were effectively immunocaptured. Western blot analysis showed that all venom proteins were recognized by anti-BTS IgGs, and cross-reactivity with other rear-fanged snake venoms was also observed. Incubation of anti-BTS venom IgGs with crude B. irregularis venom resulted in a significant decrease in proteolytic (SVMP) activity against azocasein. These results provide the first comparative venomic and anti-venomic analysis of neonate and adult B. irregularis from Guam, further highlighting evolutionary trends in venom composition among rear-fanged venomous snakes. SIGNIFICANCE PARAGRAPH The Brown Treesnake (Boiga irregularis) has caused extensive ecological and economic damage to the island of Guam where it has become a classic example of the negative impacts of invasive species. In the current study, we report the first combined transcriptomic and proteomic analysis of B. irregularis venom of Guam origin. The transcriptome of an adult snake contained toxin sequences belonging to 18 protein families, with three-finger toxin (3FTx) isoforms being the most abundant and representing 94% of all venom protein transcript reads. Our bottom-up and top-down venomic analyses confirmed that 3FTxs are the major components of B. irregularis venom, and a comparative analysis of neonate and adult venoms demonstrate a clear ontogenetic shift in toxin abundance, likely driven by dietary variation between the two age classes. Second-generation antivenomics and Western blot analysis using purified anti-Brown Treesnake rabbit serum IgGs (anti-BTS IgGs) showed strong immunoreactivity toward B. irregularis venom. Interestingly, our anti-BTS IgGs did not cross-react with 3FTxs found in several other rear-fanged snake venoms, or against 3FTxs in the venom of the elapid Ophiophagus hannah, indicating that epitopes in these 3FTx molecules are quite distinct.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davinia Pla
- Laboratorio de Venómica Estructural y Funcional, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Valencia, Spain
| | - Daniel Petras
- University of California San Diego, Skaggs School of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences, 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Anthony J Saviola
- Laboratorio de Venómica Estructural y Funcional, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Valencia, Spain; School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th Street, CB 92, Greeley, CO 80639, USA
| | - Cassandra M Modahl
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th Street, CB 92, Greeley, CO 80639, USA
| | - Libia Sanz
- Laboratorio de Venómica Estructural y Funcional, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Valencia, Spain
| | - Alicia Pérez
- Laboratorio de Venómica Estructural y Funcional, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Valencia, Spain
| | - Elena Juárez
- Laboratorio de Venómica Estructural y Funcional, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Valencia, Spain
| | - Seth Frietze
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th Street, CB 92, Greeley, CO 80639, USA
| | - Pieter C Dorrestein
- University of California San Diego, Skaggs School of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences, 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th Street, CB 92, Greeley, CO 80639, USA.
| | - Juan J Calvete
- Laboratorio de Venómica Estructural y Funcional, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Valencia, Spain.
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193
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Krishnan NM, Panda B. Comparative analyses of putative toxin gene homologs from an Old World viper, Daboia russelii. PeerJ 2017; 5:e4104. [PMID: 29230357 PMCID: PMC5721910 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Availability of snake genome sequences has opened up exciting areas of research on comparative genomics and gene diversity. One of the challenges in studying snake genomes is the acquisition of biological material from live animals, especially from the venomous ones, making the process cumbersome and time-consuming. Here, we report comparative sequence analyses of putative toxin gene homologs from Russell’s viper (Daboia russelii) using whole-genome sequencing data obtained from shed skin. When compared with the major venom proteins in Russell’s viper studied previously, we found 45–100% sequence similarity between the venom proteins and their putative homologs in the skin. Additionally, comparative analyses of 20 putative toxin gene family homologs provided evidence of unique sequence motifs in nerve growth factor (NGF), platelet derived growth factor (PDGF), Kunitz/Bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (Kunitz BPTI), cysteine-rich secretory proteins, antigen 5, andpathogenesis-related1 proteins (CAP) and cysteine-rich secretory protein (CRISP). In those derived proteins, we identified V11 and T35 in the NGF domain; F23 and A29 in the PDGF domain; N69, K2 and A5 in the CAP domain; and Q17 in the CRISP domain to be responsible for differences in the largest pockets across the protein domain structures in crotalines, viperines and elapids from the in silico structure-based analysis. Similarly, residues F10, Y11 and E20 appear to play an important role in the protein structures across the kunitz protein domain of viperids and elapids. Our study highlights the usefulness of shed skin in obtaining good quality high-molecular weight DNA for comparative genomic studies, and provides evidence towards the unique features and evolution of putative venom gene homologs in vipers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neeraja M Krishnan
- Ganit Labs, Bio-IT Centre, Institute of Bioinformatics and Applied Biotechnology, Bangalore, India
| | - Binay Panda
- Ganit Labs, Bio-IT Centre, Institute of Bioinformatics and Applied Biotechnology, Bangalore, India
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194
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Jimenez R, Ikonomopoulou MP, Lopez JA, Miles JJ. Immune drug discovery from venoms. Toxicon 2017; 141:18-24. [PMID: 29170055 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2017] [Revised: 11/14/2017] [Accepted: 11/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
This review catalogues recent advances in knowledge on venoms as standalone therapeutic agents or as blueprints for drug design, with an emphasis on venom-derived compounds that affects the immune system. We discuss venoms and venom-derived compounds that affect total immune cell numbers, immune cell proliferation, immune cell migration, immune cell phenotype and cytokine secretion. Identifying novel compounds that 'tune' the system, up-regulating the immune response during infectious disease and cancer and down-regulating the immune response during autoimmunity, will greatly expand the tool kit of human immunotherapeutics. Targeting these pathways may also open therapeutic options that alleviate symptoms of envenomation. Finally, combining recent advances in venomics with progress in low cost, high-throughput screening platforms will no doubt yield hundreds of prototype immune modulating compounds in the coming years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocio Jimenez
- Griffith University, School of Natural Sciences, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Maria P Ikonomopoulou
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia; Madrid Institute for Advanced Studies (IMDEA) in Food, CEI UAM+CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - J Alejandro Lopez
- Griffith University, School of Natural Sciences, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - John J Miles
- Griffith University, School of Natural Sciences, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia; Centre for Biodiscovery and Molecular Development of Therapeutics, AITHM, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland, Australia; Institute of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Heath Park, Cardiff, United Kingdom.
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195
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Somers CM, Graham CF, Martino JA, Frasier TR, Lance SL, Gardiner LE, Poulin RG. Conservation genetics of the eastern yellow-bellied racer (Coluber constrictor flaviventris) and bullsnake (Pituophis catenifer sayi): River valleys are critical features for snakes at northern range limits. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0187322. [PMID: 29095863 PMCID: PMC5667752 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0187322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2017] [Accepted: 10/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
On the North American Great Plains, several snake species reach their northern range limit where they rely on sparsely distributed hibernacula located in major river valleys. Independent colonization histories for the river valleys and barriers to gene flow caused by the lack of suitable habitat between them may have produced genetically differentiated snake populations. To test this hypothesis, we used 10 microsatellite loci to examine the population structure of two species of conservation concern in Canada: the eastern yellow-bellied racer (Coluber constrictor flaviventris) and bullsnake (Pituophis catenifer sayi) in 3 major river valleys in southern Saskatchewan. Fixation indices (FST) showed that populations in river valleys were significantly differentiated for both species (racers, FST = 0.096, P = 0.001; bullsnakes FST = 0.045–0.157, P = 0.001). Bayesian assignment (STRUCTURE) and ordination (DAPC) strongly supported genetically differentiated groups in the geographically distinct river valleys. Finer-scale subdivision of populations within river valleys was not apparent based on our data, but is a topic that should be investigated further. Our findings highlight the importance of major river valleys for snakes at the northern extent of their ranges, and raise the possibility that populations in each river valley may warrant separate management strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Carly F. Graham
- University of Regina, Department of Biology, Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Jessica A. Martino
- University of Regina, Department of Biology, Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Timothy R. Frasier
- Saint Mary’s University, Department of Biology, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Stacey L. Lance
- University of Georgia, Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, Aiken, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Laura E. Gardiner
- University of Regina, Department of Biology, Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Ray G. Poulin
- Royal Saskatchewan Museum, Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada
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196
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Rivas E, Neri-Castro E, Bénard-Valle M, Hernánez-Dávila AI, Zamudio F, Alagón A. General characterization of the venoms from two species of rattlesnakes and an intergrade population (C. lepidus x aquilus) from Aguascalientes and Zacatecas, Mexico. Toxicon 2017; 138:191-195. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2017] [Revised: 07/31/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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197
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Lister C, Arbuckle K, Jackson TNW, Debono J, Zdenek CN, Dashevsky D, Dunstan N, Allen L, Hay C, Bush B, Gillett A, Fry BG. Catch a tiger snake by its tail: Differential toxicity, co-factor dependence and antivenom efficacy in a procoagulant clade of Australian venomous snakes. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2017; 202:39-54. [PMID: 28757215 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2017.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2017] [Revised: 07/07/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A paradigm of venom research is adaptive evolution of toxins as part of a predator-prey chemical arms race. This study examined differential co-factor dependence, variations relative to dietary preference, and the impact upon relative neutralisation by antivenom of the procoagulant toxins in the venoms of a clade of Australian snakes. All genera were characterised by venoms rich in factor Xa which act upon endogenous prothrombin. Examination of toxin sequences revealed an extraordinary level of conservation, which indicates that adaptive evolution is not a feature of this toxin type. Consistent with this, the venoms did not display differences on the plasma of different taxa. Examination of the prothrombin target revealed endogenous blood proteins are under extreme negative selection pressure for diversification, this in turn puts a strong negative selection pressure upon the toxins as sequence diversification could result in a drift away from the target. Thus this study reveals that adaptive evolution is not a consistent feature in toxin evolution in cases where the target is under negative selection pressure for diversification. Consistent with this high level of toxin conservation, the antivenom showed extremely high-levels of cross-reactivity. There was however a strong statistical correlation between relative degree of phospholipid-dependence and clotting time, with the least dependent venoms producing faster clotting times than the other venoms even in the presence of phospholipid. The results of this study are not only of interest to evolutionary and ecological disciplines, but also have implications for clinical toxinology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Callum Lister
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Kevin Arbuckle
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2, 8PP, UK
| | - Timothy N W Jackson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia; Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Jordan Debono
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Christina N Zdenek
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Daniel Dashevsky
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | | | | | - Chris Hay
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Brian Bush
- Snakes Harmful & Harmless, 9 Birch Place, Stoneville, WA 6081, Australia
| | - Amber Gillett
- Fauna Vet Wildlife Veterinary Consultancy, Beerwah, QLD, Australia
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia.
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198
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McElroy T, McReynolds CN, Gulledge A, Knight KR, Smith WE, Albrecht EA. Differential toxicity and venom gland gene expression in Centruroides vittatus. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0184695. [PMID: 28976980 PMCID: PMC5627916 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0184695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2017] [Accepted: 08/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Variation in venom toxicity and composition exists in many species. In this study, venom potency and venom gland gene expression was evaluated in Centruroides vittatus, size class I-II (immature) and size class IV (adults/penultimate instars) size classes. Venom toxicity was evaluated by probit analysis and returned ED50 values of 50.1 μg/g for class IV compared to 134.2 μg/g for class I-II 24 hours post injection, suggesting size class IV was 2.7 fold more potent. Next generation sequencing (NGS and qPCR were used to characterize venom gland gene expression. NGS data was assembled into 36,795 contigs, and annotated using BLASTx with UNIPROT. EdgeR analysis of the sequences showed statistically significant differential expression in transcripts associated with sodium and potassium channel modulation. Sodium channel modulator expression generally favored size class IV; in contrast, potassium channel modulators were favored in size class I-II expression. Real-time quantitative PCR of 14 venom toxin transcripts detected relative expression ratios that paralleled NGS data and identified potential family members or splice variants for several sodium channel modulators. Our data suggests ontogenetic differences in venom potency and venom related genes expression exist between size classes I-II and IV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas McElroy
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Organismal Biology, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA, United States of America
| | - C. Neal McReynolds
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, Texas A&M International University, Laredo, TX, United States of America
| | - Alyssa Gulledge
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Organismal Biology, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA, United States of America
| | - Kelci R. Knight
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA, United States of America
| | - Whitney E. Smith
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA, United States of America
| | - Eric A. Albrecht
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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199
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A Review and Database of Snake Venom Proteomes. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9090290. [PMID: 28927001 PMCID: PMC5618223 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9090290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 349] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Revised: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 09/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Advances in the last decade combining transcriptomics with established proteomics methods have made possible rapid identification and quantification of protein families in snake venoms. Although over 100 studies have been published, the value of this information is increased when it is collated, allowing rapid assimilation and evaluation of evolutionary trends, geographical variation, and possible medical implications. This review brings together all compositional studies of snake venom proteomes published in the last decade. Compositional studies were identified for 132 snake species: 42 from 360 (12%) Elapidae (elapids), 20 from 101 (20%) Viperinae (true vipers), 65 from 239 (27%) Crotalinae (pit vipers), and five species of non-front-fanged snakes. Approximately 90% of their total venom composition consisted of eight protein families for elapids, 11 protein families for viperines and ten protein families for crotalines. There were four dominant protein families: phospholipase A2s (the most common across all front-fanged snakes), metalloproteases, serine proteases and three-finger toxins. There were six secondary protein families: cysteine-rich secretory proteins, l-amino acid oxidases, kunitz peptides, C-type lectins/snaclecs, disintegrins and natriuretic peptides. Elapid venoms contained mostly three-finger toxins and phospholipase A2s and viper venoms metalloproteases, phospholipase A2s and serine proteases. Although 63 protein families were identified, more than half were present in <5% of snake species studied and always in low abundance. The importance of these minor component proteins remains unknown.
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Abstract
Snakebite envenoming is a neglected tropical disease that kills >100,000 people and maims >400,000 people every year. Impoverished populations living in the rural tropics are particularly vulnerable; snakebite envenoming perpetuates the cycle of poverty. Snake venoms are complex mixtures of proteins that exert a wide range of toxic actions. The high variability in snake venom composition is responsible for the various clinical manifestations in envenomings, ranging from local tissue damage to potentially life-threatening systemic effects. Intravenous administration of antivenom is the only specific treatment to counteract envenoming. Analgesics, ventilator support, fluid therapy, haemodialysis and antibiotic therapy are also used. Novel therapeutic alternatives based on recombinant antibody technologies and new toxin inhibitors are being explored. Confronting snakebite envenoming at a global level demands the implementation of an integrated intervention strategy involving the WHO, the research community, antivenom manufacturers, regulatory agencies, national and regional health authorities, professional health organizations, international funding agencies, advocacy groups and civil society institutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, PO Box 11501-2060, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Juan J Calvete
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Valencia, Spain
| | | | - Robert A Harrison
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, UK
| | - David J Williams
- Charles Campbell Toxinology Centre, School of Medicine &Health Sciences, University of Papua New Guinea, Boroko, National Capital District, Papua New Guinea
- Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - David A Warrell
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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