151
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Sotiropoulos M, Taylor MJ, Henthorn NT, Warmenhoven JW, Mackay RI, Kirkby KJ, Merchant MJ. Geant4 interaction model comparison for dose deposition from gold nanoparticles under proton irradiation. Biomed Phys Eng Express 2017. [DOI: 10.1088/2057-1976/aa69cc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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152
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Ferrero V, Visonà G, Dalmasso F, Gobbato A, Cerello P, Strigari L, Visentin S, Attili A. Targeted dose enhancement in radiotherapy for breast cancer using gold nanoparticles, part 1: A radiobiological model study. Med Phys 2017; 44:1983-1992. [DOI: 10.1002/mp.12180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Revised: 12/15/2016] [Accepted: 02/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Ferrero
- Physics Department; Università degli Studi di Torino; Torino Italy
- Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN); Torino Italy
| | - Giovanni Visonà
- Physics Department; Università degli Studi di Torino; Torino Italy
| | - Federico Dalmasso
- Physics Department; Università degli Studi di Torino; Torino Italy
- Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN); Torino Italy
| | - Andrea Gobbato
- Physics Department; Università degli Studi di Torino; Torino Italy
- Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN); Torino Italy
| | | | - Lidia Strigari
- Laboratory of Medical Physics and Expert Systems; National Cancer Institute Regina Elena; Roma Italy
| | - Sonja Visentin
- Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN); Torino Italy
- Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences Department; Università degli Studi di Torino; Torino Italy
| | - Andrea Attili
- Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN); Torino Italy
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153
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Byrne HL, Gholami Y, Kuncic Z. Impact of fluorescence emission from gold atoms on surrounding biological tissue—implications for nanoparticle radio-enhancement. Phys Med Biol 2017; 62:3097-3110. [DOI: 10.1088/1361-6560/aa6233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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154
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Gold nanoparticles, radiations and the immune system: Current insights into the physical mechanisms and the biological interactions of this new alliance towards cancer therapy. Pharmacol Ther 2017; 178:1-17. [PMID: 28322970 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2017.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Considering both cancer's serious impact on public health and the side effects of cancer treatments, strategies towards targeted cancer therapy have lately gained considerable interest. Employment of gold nanoparticles (GNPs), in combination with ionizing and non-ionizing radiations, has been shown to improve the effect of radiation treatment significantly. GNPs, as high-Z particles, possess the ability to absorb ionizing radiation and enhance the deposited dose within the targeted tumors. Furthermore, they can convert non-ionizing radiation into heat, due to plasmon resonance, leading to hyperthermic damage to cancer cells. These observations, also supported by experimental evidence both in vitro and in vivo systems, reveal the capacity of GNPs to act as radiosensitizers for different types of radiation. In addition, they can be chemically modified to selectively target tumors, which renders them suitable for future cancer treatment therapies. Herein, a current review of the latest data on the physical properties of GNPs and their effects on GNP circulation time, biodistribution and clearance, as well as their interactions with plasma proteins and the immune system, is presented. Emphasis is also given with an in depth discussion on the underlying physical and biological mechanisms of radiosensitization. Furthermore, simulation data are provided on the use of GNPs in photothermal therapy upon non-ionizing laser irradiation treatment. Finally, the results obtained from the application of GNPs at clinical trials and pre-clinical experiments in vivo are reported.
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155
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A mechanistic study of gold nanoparticle radiosensitisation using targeted microbeam irradiation. Sci Rep 2017; 7:44752. [PMID: 28300190 PMCID: PMC5353761 DOI: 10.1038/srep44752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2016] [Accepted: 02/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) have been demonstrated as effective radiosensitizing agents in a range of preclinical models using broad field sources of various energies. This study aimed to distinguish between these mechanisms by applying subcellular targeting using a soft X-ray microbeam in combination with GNPs. DNA damage and repair kinetics were determined following nuclear and cytoplasmic irradiation using a soft X-ray (carbon K-shell, 278 eV) microbeam in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer and AG01522 fibroblast cells with and without GNPs. To investigate the mechanism of the GNP induced radiosensitization, GNP-induced mitochondrial depolarisation was quantified by TMRE staining, and levels of DNA damage were compared in cells with depolarised and functional mitochondria. Differential effects were observed following radiation exposure between the two cell lines. These findings were validated 24 hours after removal of GNPs by flow cytometry analysis of mitochondrial depolarisation. This study provides further evidence that GNP radiosensitisation is mediated by mitochondrial function and it is the first report applying a soft X-ray microbeam to study the radiobiological effects of GNPs to enable the separation of physical and biological effects.
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156
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Detappe A, Thomas E, Tibbitt MW, Kunjachan S, Zavidij O, Parnandi N, Reznichenko E, Lux F, Tillement O, Berbeco R. Ultrasmall Silica-Based Bismuth Gadolinium Nanoparticles for Dual Magnetic Resonance-Computed Tomography Image Guided Radiation Therapy. NANO LETTERS 2017; 17:1733-1740. [PMID: 28145723 PMCID: PMC5505266 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b05055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Selective killing of cancer cells while minimizing damage to healthy tissues is the goal of clinical radiation therapy. This therapeutic ratio can be improved by image-guided radiation delivery and selective radiosensitization of cancer cells. Here, we have designed and tested a novel trimodal theranostic nanoparticle made of bismuth and gadolinium for on-site radiosensitization and image contrast enhancement to improve the efficacy and accuracy of radiation therapy. We demonstrate in vivo magnetic resonance (MR), computed tomography (CT) contrast enhancement, and tumor suppression with prolonged survival in a non-small cell lung carcinoma model during clinical radiation therapy. Histological studies show minimal off-target toxicities due to the nanoparticles or radiation. By mimicking existing clinical workflows, we show that the bismuth-gadolinium nanoparticles are highly compatible with current CT-guided radiation therapy and emerging MR-guided approaches. This study reports the first in vivo proof-of-principle for image-guided radiation therapy with a new class of theranostic nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Detappe
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
- Institut Lumière Matière, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS UMR5306, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
- Corresponding Authors: .
| | - Eloise Thomas
- Institut Lumière Matière, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS UMR5306, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Mark W. Tibbitt
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Sijumon Kunjachan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Oksana Zavidij
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Broad Institute at Harvard and MIT, Boston, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Nishita Parnandi
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Elizaveta Reznichenko
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - François Lux
- Institut Lumière Matière, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS UMR5306, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Olivier Tillement
- Institut Lumière Matière, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS UMR5306, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Ross Berbeco
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
- Corresponding Authors: .
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157
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Enhancing the effect of 4 MeV electron beam using gold nanoparticles in breast cancer cells. Phys Med 2017; 35:18-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmp.2017.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2016] [Revised: 01/25/2017] [Accepted: 02/14/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
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158
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Daniels JL, Crawford TM, Andreev OA, Reshetnyak YK. Synthesis and characterization of pHLIP ® coated gold nanoparticles. Biochem Biophys Rep 2017; 10:62-69. [PMID: 28955736 PMCID: PMC5614664 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2017.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2016] [Revised: 02/19/2017] [Accepted: 02/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Novel approaches in synthesis of spherical and multispiked gold nanoparticles coated with polyethylene glycol (PEG) and pH Low Insertion Peptide (pHLIP®) were introduced. The presence of a tumor-targeting pHLIP® peptide in the nanoparticle coating enhances the stability of particles in solution and promotes a pH-dependent cellular uptake. The spherical particles were prepared with sodium citrate as a gold reducing agent to form particles of 7.0±2.5 nm in mean metallic core diameter and ∼43 nm in mean hydrodynamic diameter. The particles that were injected into tumors in mice (21 µg of gold) were homogeneously distributed within a tumor mass with no staining of the muscle tissue adjacent to the tumor. Up to 30% of the injected gold dose remained within the tumor one hour post-injection. The multispiked gold nanoparticles with a mean metallic core diameter of 146.0±50.4 nm and a mean hydrodynamic size of ~161 nm were prepared using ascorbic acid as a reducing agent and disk-like bicelles as a template. Only the presence of a soft template, like bicelles, ensured the appearance of spiked nanoparticles with resonance in the near infrared region. The irradiation of spiked gold nanoparticles by an 805 nm laser led to the time- and concentration-dependent increase of temperature. Both pHLIP® and PEG coated gold spherical and multispiked nanoparticles might find application in radiation and thermal therapies of tumors. pHLIP®-PEG coated pH-sensitive gold spherical nanoparticles were synthesized. 30% of the injected gold dose remained within the tumor one hour post-injection. pHLIP®-PEG coated pH-sensitive gold multispiked nanoparticles were synthesized. Bicelles were used as a soft template to obtain multispiked nanoparticles. Temperature increases after 805 nm irradiation of spiked gold nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L Daniels
- Physics Department, University of Rhode Island, 2 Lippitt Rd., Kingston, RI 02881, USA
| | - Troy M Crawford
- Physics Department, University of Rhode Island, 2 Lippitt Rd., Kingston, RI 02881, USA
| | - Oleg A Andreev
- Physics Department, University of Rhode Island, 2 Lippitt Rd., Kingston, RI 02881, USA
| | - Yana K Reshetnyak
- Physics Department, University of Rhode Island, 2 Lippitt Rd., Kingston, RI 02881, USA
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159
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Strigari L, Ferrero V, Visonà G, Dalmasso F, Gobbato A, Cerello P, Visentin S, Attili A. Targeted dose enhancement in radiotherapy for breast cancer using gold nanoparticles, part 2: A treatment planning study. Med Phys 2017; 44:1993-2001. [PMID: 28236658 DOI: 10.1002/mp.12178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2016] [Revised: 12/15/2016] [Accepted: 02/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE In recent years, there has been growing interest in the use of gold nanoparticles (GNPs) combined with radiotherapy to improve tumor control. However, the complex interplay between GNP uptake and dose distribution in realistic clinical treatment are still somewhat unknown. METHODS The effects of different concentrations of 2 nm diameter GNP, ranging from 0 to 5×105 nanoparticles per tumoral cell, were theoretically investigated. A parametrization of the GNP distribution outside the target was carried out using a Gaussian standard deviation σ, from a zero value, relative to a selective concentration of GNPs inside the tumor volume alone, to 50mm, when GNPs are spatially distributed also in the healthy tissues surrounding the tumor. Treatment simulations of five patients with breast cancer were performed with 6 and 15 MV photons assuming a partial breast irradiation. A closed analytical reformulation of the Local Effect Model coupled with the estimation of local dose deposited around a GNP was validated using an in vitro study for MDA-MB-231 tumoral cells. The expected treatment outcome was quantified in terms of tumor control probability (TCP) and normal tissue complication probability (NTCP) as a function of the spatially varying gold uptake. RESULTS Breast cancer treatment planning simulations show improved treatment outcomes when GNPs are selectively concentrated in the tumor volume (i.e., σ = 0 mm). In particular, the TCP increases up to 18% for 5×105 nanoparticles per cell in the tumor region depending on the treatment schedules, whereas an improvement of the therapeutic index is observed only for concentrations of about 105 GNPs per tumoral cell and limited spatial distribution in the normal tissue. CONCLUSIONS The model provides a useful framework to estimate the nanoparticle-driven radiosensitivity in breast cancer treatment irradiation, accounting for the complex interplay between dose and GNP uptake distributions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lidia Strigari
- Laboratory of Medical Physics and Expert Systems, National Cancer Institute Regina Elena, Roma, Italy
| | - Veronica Ferrero
- Physics Department, Università degli Studi di Torino, Torino, Italy.,Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), Torino, Italy
| | - Giovanni Visonà
- Physics Department, Università degli Studi di Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Federico Dalmasso
- Physics Department, Università degli Studi di Torino, Torino, Italy.,Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), Torino, Italy
| | - Andrea Gobbato
- Physics Department, Università degli Studi di Torino, Torino, Italy.,Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), Torino, Italy
| | | | - Sonja Visentin
- Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), Torino, Italy.,Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences Department, Università degli Studi di Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Andrea Attili
- Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), Torino, Italy
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160
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McMahon SJ, McNamara AL, Schuemann J, Prise KM, Paganetti H. Mitochondria as a target for radiosensitisation by gold nanoparticles. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1088/1742-6596/777/1/012008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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161
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Rosa S, Connolly C, Schettino G, Butterworth KT, Prise KM. Biological mechanisms of gold nanoparticle radiosensitization. Cancer Nanotechnol 2017; 8:2. [PMID: 28217176 PMCID: PMC5288470 DOI: 10.1186/s12645-017-0026-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2016] [Accepted: 01/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
There has been growing interest in the use of nanomaterials for a range of biomedical applications over the last number of years. In particular, gold nanoparticles (GNPs) possess a number of unique properties that make them ideal candidates as radiosensitizers on the basis of their strong photoelectric absorption coefficient and ease of synthesis. However, despite promising preclinical evidence in vitro supported by a limited amount of in vivo experiments, along with advances in mechanistic understanding, GNPs have not yet translated into the clinic. This may be due to disparity between predicted levels of radiosensitization based on physical action, observed biological response and an incomplete mechanistic understanding, alongside current experimental limitations. This paper provides a review of the current state of the field, highlighting the potential underlying biological mechanisms in GNP radiosensitization and examining the barriers to clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soraia Rosa
- Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queens University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast, BT9 7AE Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Chris Connolly
- Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queens University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast, BT9 7AE Northern Ireland, UK
- National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, London, TW11 0LW UK
| | | | - Karl T. Butterworth
- Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queens University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast, BT9 7AE Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Kevin M. Prise
- Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queens University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast, BT9 7AE Northern Ireland, UK
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162
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Brivio D, Nguyen PL, Sajo E, Ngwa W, Zygmanski P. A Monte Carlo study of I-125 prostate brachytherapy with gold nanoparticles: dose enhancement with simultaneous rectal dose sparing via radiation shielding. Phys Med Biol 2017; 62:1935-1948. [PMID: 28140338 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6560/aa5bc7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
We investigate via Monte Carlo simulations a new 125I brachytherapy treatment technique for high-risk prostate cancer patients via injection of Au nanoparticle (AuNP) directly into the prostate. The purpose of using the nanoparticles is to increase the therapeutic index via two synergistic effects: enhanced energy deposition within the prostate and simultaneous shielding of organs at risk from radiation escaping from the prostate. Both uniform and non-uniform concentrations of AuNP are studied. The latter are modeled considering the possibility of AuNP diffusion after the injection using brachy needles. We study two extreme cases of coaxial AuNP concentrations: centered on brachy needles and centered half-way between them. Assuming uniform distribution of 30 mg g-1 of AuNP within the prostate, we obtain a dose enhancement larger than a factor of 2 to the prostate. Non-uniform concentration of AuNP ranging from 10 mg g-1 and 66 mg g-1 were studied. The higher the concentration in a given region of the prostate the greater is the enhancement therein. We obtain the highest dose enhancement when the brachytherapy needles are coincident with AuNP injection needles but, at the same time, the regions in the tail are colder (average dose ratio of 0.7). The best enhancement uniformity is obtained with the seeds in the tail of the AuNP distribution. In both uniform and non-uniform cases the urethra and rectum receive less than 1/3 dose compared to an analog treatment without AuNP. Remarkably, employing AuNP not only significantly increases dose to the target but also decreases dose to the neighboring rectum and even urethra, which is embedded within the prostate. These are mutually interdependent effects as more enhancement leads to more shielding and vice-versa. Caution must be paid since cold spot or hot spots may be created if the AuNP concentration versus seed position is not properly distributed respect to the seed locations.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Brivio
- Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States of America. Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, United States of America. Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States of America
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163
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Brown R, Corde S, Oktaria S, Konstantinov K, Rosenfeld A, Lerch M, Tehei M. Nanostructures, concentrations and energies: an ideal equation to extend therapeutic efficiency on radioresistant 9L tumor cells using ${{\rm{Ta}}}_{2}{{\rm{O}}}_{5}$ ceramic nanostructured particles. Biomed Phys Eng Express 2017. [DOI: 10.1088/2057-1976/aa56f2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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164
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Brown JMC, Currell FJ. A local effect model-based interpolation framework for experimental nanoparticle radiosensitisation data. Cancer Nanotechnol 2017; 8:1. [PMID: 28217175 PMCID: PMC5285431 DOI: 10.1186/s12645-016-0025-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
A local effect model (LEM)-based framework capable of interpolating nanoparticle-enhanced photon-irradiated clonogenic cell survival fraction measurements as a function of nanoparticle concentration was developed and experimentally benchmarked for gold nanoparticle (AuNP)-doped bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAECs) under superficial kilovoltage X-ray irradiation. For three different superficial kilovoltage X-ray spectra, the BAEC survival fraction response was predicted for two different AuNP concentrations and compared to experimental data. The ability of the developed framework to predict the cell survival fraction trends is analysed and discussed. This developed framework is intended to fill in the existing gaps of individual cell line response as a function of NP concentration under photon irradiation and assist the scientific community in planning future pre-clinical trials of high Z nanoparticle-enhanced photon radiotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy M C Brown
- School of Mathematics and Physics, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Fred J Currell
- School of Mathematics and Physics, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
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165
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Kim SR, Kim EH. Gold nanoparticles as dose-enhancement agent for kilovoltage X-ray therapy of melanoma. Int J Radiat Biol 2017; 93:517-526. [PMID: 28044470 DOI: 10.1080/09553002.2017.1276309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Melanoma is mainly treated by surgery and rarely with radiation because of the high radioresistance of this tumor. Nevertheless, radiotherapy is the preferred treatment modality for unresectable lesions and avoiding cosmetic disfigurement caused by surgical excision. This study investigated the therapeutic advantage of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) for kilovoltage X-ray treatment of melanoma. MATERIALS AND METHODS Commercial AuNPs were evaluated for cytotoxicity and cellular internalization. The sensitivity of human skin melanoma cells to 150 and 450 kVp X-ray exposure was assessed in terms of clonogenicity with or without spherical AuNP treatment. RESULTS AuNP treatment elicited dose enhancement effect on melanoma cells exposed to kilovoltage X-rays. Treatment with 320 μM 50 nm AuNPs before exposure to 150 kVp X-rays at 2 Gy resulted in clonogenic cell death equivalent to that caused by 4.3 Gy X-rays without AuNP treatment. CONCLUSION AuNPs of 50 nm in size can regulate melanoma cells in kilovoltage X-ray treatment by functioning as dose-enhancement agent and thus improving radioresponse of the cells. Melanomas of stages T1-T3 gain therapeutic benefits from 150 kVp X-ray treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- So-Ra Kim
- a Radiation Bioengineering Laboratory, Department of Nuclear Engineering , Seoul National University , Gwanak-gu, Seoul , Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Hee Kim
- a Radiation Bioengineering Laboratory, Department of Nuclear Engineering , Seoul National University , Gwanak-gu, Seoul , Republic of Korea
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166
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Her S, Jaffray DA, Allen C. Gold nanoparticles for applications in cancer radiotherapy: Mechanisms and recent advancements. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2017; 109:84-101. [PMID: 26712711 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2015.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 483] [Impact Index Per Article: 69.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2015] [Revised: 12/10/2015] [Accepted: 12/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have emerged as novel radiosensitizers owing to their high X-ray absorption, synthetic versatility, and unique chemical, electronic and optical properties. Multi-disciplinary research performed over the past decade has demonstrated the potential of AuNP-based radiosensitizers, and identified possible mechanisms underlying the observed radiation enhancement effects of AuNPs. Despite promising findings from pre-clinical studies, the benefits of AuNP radiosensitization have yet to successfully translate into clinical practice. In this review, we present an overview of the current state of AuNP-based radiosensitization in the context of the physical, chemical and biological modes of radiosensitization. As well, recent advancements that focus on formulation design and enable multi-modality treatment and clinical utilization are discussed, concluding with design considerations to guide the development of next generation AuNPs for clinical applications.
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167
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168
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Koger B, Kirkby C. Optimization of photon beam energies in gold nanoparticle enhanced arc radiation therapy using Monte Carlo methods. Phys Med Biol 2016; 61:8839-8853. [PMID: 27910829 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6560/61/24/8839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
As a recent area of development in radiation therapy, gold nanoparticle (GNP) enhanced radiation therapy has shown potential to increase tumour dose while maintaining acceptable levels of healthy tissue toxicity. In this study, the effect of varying photon beam energy in GNP enhanced arc radiation therapy (GEART) is quantified through the introduction of a dose scoring metric, and GEART is compared to a conventional radiotherapy treatment. The PENELOPE Monte Carlo code was used to model several simple phantoms consisting of a spherical tumour containing GNPs (concentration: 15 mg Au g-1 tumour, 0.8 mg Au g-1 normal tissue) in a cylinder of tissue. Several monoenergetic photon beams, with energies ranging from 20 keV to 6 MeV, as well as 100, 200, and 300 kVp spectral beams, were used to irradiate the tumour in a 360° arc treatment. A dose metric was then used to compare tumour and tissue doses from GEART treatments to a similar treatment from a 6 MV spectrum. This was also performed on a simulated brain tumour using patient computed tomography data. GEART treatments showed potential over the 6 MV treatment for many of the simulated geometries, delivering up to 88% higher mean dose to the tumour for a constant tissue dose, with the effect greatest near a source energy of 50 keV. This effect is also seen with the inclusion of bone in a brain treatment, with a 14% increase in mean tumour dose over 6 MV, while still maintaining acceptable levels of dose to the bone and brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Koger
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
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169
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Local dose enhancement of proton therapy by ceramic oxide nanoparticles investigated with Geant4 simulations. Phys Med 2016; 32:1584-1593. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmp.2016.11.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2016] [Revised: 08/05/2016] [Accepted: 11/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
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170
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Jeon JK, Han SM, Min SK, Seo SJ, Ihm K, Chang WS, Kim JK. Coulomb nanoradiator-mediated, site-specific thrombolytic proton treatment with a traversing pristine Bragg peak. Sci Rep 2016; 6:37848. [PMID: 27897205 PMCID: PMC5126678 DOI: 10.1038/srep37848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 10/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Traversing proton beam-irradiated, mid/high-Z nanoparticles produce site-specific enhancement of X-ray photon-electron emission via the Coulomb nanoradiator (CNR) effect, resulting in a nano- to micro-scale therapeutic effect at the nanoparticle-uptake target site. Here, we demonstrate the uptake of iron oxide nanoparticles (IONs) and nanoradiator-mediated, site-specific thrombolysis without damaging the vascular endothelium in an arterial thrombosis mouse model. The enhancement of low-energy electron (LEE) emission and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production from traversing proton beam-irradiated IONs was examined. Flow recovery was only observed in CNR-treated mice, and greater than 50% removal of the thrombus was achieved. A 2.5-fold greater reduction in the thrombus-enabled flow recovery was observed in the CNR group compared with that observed in the untreated ION-only and proton-only control groups (p < 0.01). Enhancement of the X-ray photon-electron emission was evident from both the pronounced Shirley background in the electron yield and the 1.2- to 2.5-fold enhanced production of ROS by the proton-irradiated IONs, which suggests chemical degradation of the thrombus without potent emboli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae-Kun Jeon
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Catholic University of Daegu, School of Medicine, Daegu, Korea
| | - Sung-Mi Han
- Anatomy, and Diagnostic Imaging, Catholic University of Daegu, School of Medicine, Daegu, Korea
| | - Soon-Ki Min
- Catholic University of Daegu, School of Medicine, Daegu, Korea
| | - Seung-Jun Seo
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Catholic University of Daegu, School of Medicine, Daegu, Korea
| | - Kyuwook Ihm
- Pohang Accelerator Laboratory, Pohang, Korea
| | - Won-Seok Chang
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Catholic University of Daegu, School of Medicine, Daegu, Korea
| | - Jong-Ki Kim
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Catholic University of Daegu, School of Medicine, Daegu, Korea
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171
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Saberi A, Shahbazi-Gahrouei D, Abbasian M, Fesharaki M, Baharlouei A, Arab-Bafrani Z. Gold nanoparticles in combination with megavoltage radiation energy increased radiosensitization and apoptosis in colon cancer HT-29 cells. Int J Radiat Biol 2016; 93:315-323. [DOI: 10.1080/09553002.2017.1242816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alihossein Saberi
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Daryoush Shahbazi-Gahrouei
- Department of Medical Physics, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Mahdi Abbasian
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Agriculture, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran
- Stem Cell Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Science, Gorgan, Iran
| | - Mehrafarin Fesharaki
- Department of Cell Sciences Research Center Medical Science, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Azam Baharlouei
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Agriculture, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Zahra Arab-Bafrani
- Stem Cell Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Science, Gorgan, Iran
- Department of Medical Physics, School of Medicine, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran
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172
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Brun E, Sicard-Roselli C. Actual questions raised by nanoparticle radiosensitization. Radiat Phys Chem Oxf Engl 1993 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.radphyschem.2016.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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173
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Shi M, Paquette B, Thippayamontri T, Gendron L, Guérin B, Sanche L. Increased radiosensitivity of colorectal tumors with intra-tumoral injection of low dose of gold nanoparticles. Int J Nanomedicine 2016; 11:5323-5333. [PMID: 27789945 PMCID: PMC5068480 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s97541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The potential of gold nanoparticles (GNPs) as radiosensitizers for the treatment of malignant tumors has been limited by the large quantities of GNPs that must be administered and the requirement for low-energy X-ray irradiation to optimize radiosensitization. In this study, we enhance the radiosensitivity of HCT116 human colorectal cells with tiopronin-coated GNPs (Tio-GNPs) combined with a low-energy X-ray (26 keV effective energy) source, similar to the Papillon 50 clinical irradiator used for topical irradiation of rectal tumors. Sensitizer enhancement ratios of 1.48 and 1.69 were measured in vitro, when the HCT116 cells were incubated with 0.1 mg/mL and 0.25 mg/mL of Tio-GNPs, respectively. In nude mice bearing the HCT116 tumor, intra-tumoral (IT) injection of Tio-GNPs allowed a 94 times higher quantity of Tio-GNPs to accumulate than was possible by intravenous injection and facilitated a significant tumor response. The time following irradiation, for tumors growing to four times their initial tumor volume (4Td) was 54 days for the IT injection of 366.3 μg of Tio-GNPs plus 10 Gy, compared to 37 days with radiation alone (P=0.0018). Conversely, no significant improvement was obtained when GNPs were injected intravenously before tumor irradiation (P=0.6547). In conclusion, IT injection of Tio-GNPs combined with low-energy X-rays can significantly reduce the growth of colorectal tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minghan Shi
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiobiology, Center for Research in Radiotherapy
| | - Benoit Paquette
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiobiology, Center for Research in Radiotherapy
| | | | - Louis Gendron
- Department of Pharmacology-Physiology, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Brigitte Guérin
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiobiology, Center for Research in Radiotherapy
| | - Léon Sanche
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiobiology, Center for Research in Radiotherapy
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174
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Berbeco RI, Detappe A, Tsiamas P, Parsons D, Yewondwossen M, Robar J. Low Z target switching to increase tumor endothelial cell dose enhancement during gold nanoparticle-aided radiation therapy. Med Phys 2016; 43:436. [PMID: 26745936 DOI: 10.1118/1.4938410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Previous studies have introduced gold nanoparticles as vascular-disrupting agents during radiation therapy. Crucial to this concept is the low energy photon content of the therapy radiation beam. The authors introduce a new mode of delivery including a linear accelerator target that can toggle between low Z and high Z targets during beam delivery. In this study, the authors examine the potential increase in tumor blood vessel endothelial cell radiation dose enhancement with the low Z target. METHODS The authors use Monte Carlo methods to simulate delivery of three different clinical photon beams: (1) a 6 MV standard (Cu/W) beam, (2) a 6 MV flattening filter free (Cu/W), and (3) a 6 MV (carbon) beam. The photon energy spectra for each scenario are generated for depths in tissue-equivalent material: 2, 10, and 20 cm. The endothelial dose enhancement for each target and depth is calculated using a previously published analytic method. RESULTS It is found that the carbon target increases the proportion of low energy (<150 keV) photons at 10 cm depth to 28% from 8% for the 6 MV standard (Cu/W) beam. This nearly quadrupling of the low energy photon content incident on a gold nanoparticle results in 7.7 times the endothelial dose enhancement as a 6 MV standard (Cu/W) beam at this depth. Increased surface dose from the low Z target can be mitigated by well-spaced beam arrangements. CONCLUSIONS By using the fast-switching target, one can modulate the photon beam during delivery, producing a customized photon energy spectrum for each specific situation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ross I Berbeco
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Alexandre Detappe
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Panogiotis Tsiamas
- Department of Radiation Oncology, St. Jude Children's Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee 38105
| | - David Parsons
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Department of Physics and Atmospheric Science, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 1V7, Canada
| | - Mammo Yewondwossen
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Department of Physics and Atmospheric Science, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 1V7, Canada
| | - James Robar
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Department of Physics and Atmospheric Science, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 1V7, Canada
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175
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Key clinical beam parameters for nanoparticle-mediated radiation dose amplification. Sci Rep 2016; 6:34040. [PMID: 27658637 PMCID: PMC5034311 DOI: 10.1038/srep34040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2016] [Accepted: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
As nanoparticle solutions move towards human clinical trials in radiation therapy, the influence of key clinical beam parameters on therapeutic efficacy must be considered. In this study, we have investigated the clinical radiation therapy delivery variables that may significantly affect nanoparticle-mediated radiation dose amplification. We found a benefit for situations which increased the proportion of low energy photons in the incident beam. Most notably, “unflattened” photon beams from a clinical linear accelerator results in improved outcomes relative to conventional “flat” beams. This is measured by significant DNA damage, tumor growth suppression, and overall improvement in survival in a pancreatic tumor model. These results, obtained in a clinical setting, clearly demonstrate the influence and importance of radiation therapy parameters that will impact clinical radiation dose amplification with nanoparticles.
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176
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Review of Geant4-DNA applications for micro and nanoscale simulations. Phys Med 2016; 32:1187-1200. [PMID: 27659007 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmp.2016.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2016] [Revised: 08/01/2016] [Accepted: 09/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging radiotherapy treatments including targeted particle therapy, hadron therapy or radiosensitisation of cells by high-Z nanoparticles demand the theoretical determination of radiation track structure at the nanoscale. This is essential in order to evaluate radiation damage at the cellular and DNA level. Since 2007, Geant4 offers physics models to describe particle interactions in liquid water at the nanometre level through the Geant4-DNA Package. This package currently provides a complete set of models describing the event-by-event electromagnetic interactions of particles with liquid water, as well as developments for the modelling of water radiolysis. Since its release, Geant4-DNA has been adopted as an investigational tool in kV and MV external beam radiotherapy, hadron therapies using protons and heavy ions, targeted therapies and radiobiology studies. It has been benchmarked with respect to other track structure Monte Carlo codes and, where available, against reference experimental measurements. While Geant4-DNA physics models and radiolysis modelling functionalities have already been described in detail in the literature, this review paper summarises and discusses a selection of representative papers with the aim of providing an overview of a) geometrical descriptions of biological targets down to the DNA size, and b) the full spectrum of current micro- and nano-scale applications of Geant4-DNA.
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177
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Paro AD, Hossain M, Webster TJ, Su M. Monte Carlo and analytic simulations in nanoparticle-enhanced radiation therapy. Int J Nanomedicine 2016; 11:4735-4741. [PMID: 27695329 PMCID: PMC5033609 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s114025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Analytical and Monte Carlo simulations have been used to predict dose enhancement factors in nanoparticle-enhanced X-ray radiation therapy. Both simulations predict an increase in dose enhancement in the presence of nanoparticles, but the two methods predict different levels of enhancement over the studied energy, nanoparticle materials, and concentration regime for several reasons. The Monte Carlo simulation calculates energy deposited by electrons and photons, while the analytical one only calculates energy deposited by source photons and photoelectrons; the Monte Carlo simulation accounts for electron–hole recombination, while the analytical one does not; and the Monte Carlo simulation randomly samples photon or electron path and accounts for particle interactions, while the analytical simulation assumes a linear trajectory. This study demonstrates that the Monte Carlo simulation will be a better choice to evaluate dose enhancement with nanoparticles in radiation therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Autumn D Paro
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Mainul Hossain
- NanoScience Technology Center and School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida, USA
| | - Thomas J Webster
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA; Excellence for Advanced Materials Research, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia; Wenzhou Institute of Biomaterials and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Ming Su
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA; Wenzhou Institute of Biomaterials and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
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178
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Verry C, Dufort S, Barbier EL, Montigon O, Peoc'h M, Chartier P, Lux F, Balosso J, Tillement O, Sancey L, Le Duc G. MRI-guided clinical 6-MV radiosensitization of glioma using a unique gadolinium-based nanoparticles injection. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2016; 11:2405-17. [PMID: 27529506 DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2016-0203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM This study reports the use of gadolinium-based AGuIX nanoparticles (NPs) as a theranostic tool for both image-guided radiation therapy and radiosensitization of brain tumors. MATERIALS & METHODS Pharmacokinetics and regulatory toxicology investigations were performed on rodents. The AGuIX NPs' tumor accumulation was studied by MRI before 6-MV irradiation. RESULTS AGuIX NPs exhibited a great safety profile. A single intravenous administration enabled the tumor delineation by MRI with a T1 tumor contrast enhancement up to 24 h, and the tumor volume reduction when combined with a clinical 6-MV radiotherapy. CONCLUSION This study demonstrates the efficacy and the potential of AGuIX NPs for image-guided radiation therapy, promising properties that will be assessed in the upcoming Phase I clinical trial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camille Verry
- Department of Radiotherapy, Grenoble Alpes University Hospital, BP217, F38043 Grenoble, Cedex 9, France.,Grenoble Institute of Neurosciences, Grenoble Alpes University, F38000 Grenoble, France.,INSERM U1216, F38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Sandrine Dufort
- Nano-H SAS, F38070 Saint-Quentin-Fallavier, France.,Present affiliation: NH TherAguix, 43 boulevard du 11 novembre 1918, F69100 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Emmanuel Luc Barbier
- Grenoble Institute of Neurosciences, Grenoble Alpes University, F38000 Grenoble, France.,INSERM U1216, F38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Olivier Montigon
- Grenoble Institute of Neurosciences, Grenoble Alpes University, F38000 Grenoble, France.,INSERM U1216, F38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Michel Peoc'h
- Department of Pathology, Saint-Etienne University Hospital, F42055 Saint-Etienne, Cedex 2, France
| | - Philippe Chartier
- Department of Radiotherapy, Grenoble Alpes University Hospital, BP217, F38043 Grenoble, Cedex 9, France
| | - François Lux
- Institute Light & Mater, UMR5306, Lyon1 University-CNRS, Lyon University, F69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Jacques Balosso
- Department of Radiotherapy, Grenoble Alpes University Hospital, BP217, F38043 Grenoble, Cedex 9, France
| | - Olivier Tillement
- Institute Light & Mater, UMR5306, Lyon1 University-CNRS, Lyon University, F69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Lucie Sancey
- Institute Light & Mater, UMR5306, Lyon1 University-CNRS, Lyon University, F69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Géraldine Le Duc
- Biomedical Beamline, European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, CS40220, F38043 Grenoble, Cedex 9, France.,Present affiliation: NH TherAguix, 43 boulevard du 11 novembre 1918, F69100 Villeurbanne, France
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179
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Cho J, Wang M, Gonzalez-Lepera C, Mawlawi O, Cho SH. Development of bimetallic (Zn@Au) nanoparticles as potential PET-imageable radiosensitizers. Med Phys 2016; 43:4775. [PMID: 27487895 PMCID: PMC4967079 DOI: 10.1118/1.4958961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2016] [Revised: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 07/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) are being investigated actively for various applications in cancer diagnosis and therapy. As an effort to improve the imaging of GNPs in vivo, the authors developed bimetallic hybrid Zn@Au NPs with zinc cores and gold shells, aiming to render them in vivo visibility through positron emission tomography (PET) after the proton activation of the zinc core as well as capability to induce radiosensitization through the secondary electrons produced from the gold shell when irradiated by various radiation sources. METHODS Nearly spherical zinc NPs (∼5-nm diameter) were synthesized and then coated with a ∼4.25-nm gold layer to make Zn@Au NPs (∼13.5-nm total diameter). 28.6 mg of these Zn@Au NPs was deposited (∼100 μm thick) on a thin cellulose target and placed in an aluminum target holder and subsequently irradiated with 14.15-MeV protons from a GE PETtrace cyclotron with 5-μA current for 5 min. After irradiation, the cellulose matrix with the NPs was placed in a dose calibrator to assess the induced radioactivity. The same procedure was repeated with 8-MeV protons. Gamma ray spectroscopy using an high-purity germanium detector was conducted on a very small fraction (<1 mg) of the irradiated NPs for each proton energy. In addition to experimental measurements, Monte Carlo simulations were also performed with radioactive Zn@Au NPs and solid GNPs of the same size irradiated with 160-MeV protons and 250-kVp x-rays. RESULTS The authors measured 168 μCi of activity 32 min after the end of bombardment for the 14.15-MeV proton energy sample using the (66)Ga setting on a dose calibrator; activity decreased to 2 μCi over a 24-h period. For the 8-MeV proton energy sample, PET imaging was additionally performed for 5 min after a 12-h delay. A 12-h gamma ray spectrum showed strong peaks at 511 keV (2.05 × 10(6) counts) with several other peaks of smaller magnitude for each proton energy sample. PET imaging showed strong PET signals from mostly decaying (66)Ga. The Monte Carlo results showed that radioactive Zn@Au NPs and solid GNPs provided similar characteristics in terms of their secondary electron spectra when irradiated. CONCLUSIONS The Zn@Au NPs developed in this investigation have the potential to be used as PET-imageable radiosensitizers for radiotherapy applications as well as PET tracers for molecular imaging applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jongmin Cho
- Department of Radiation Physics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Min Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005
| | - Carlos Gonzalez-Lepera
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Osama Mawlawi
- Department of Imaging Physics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Sang Hyun Cho
- Departments of Radiation Physics and Imaging Physics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030
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180
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Štefančíková L, Lacombe S, Salado D, Porcel E, Pagáčová E, Tillement O, Lux F, Depeš D, Kozubek S, Falk M. Effect of gadolinium-based nanoparticles on nuclear DNA damage and repair in glioblastoma tumor cells. J Nanobiotechnology 2016; 14:63. [PMID: 27464501 PMCID: PMC4964094 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-016-0215-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Tumor targeting of radiotherapy represents a great challenge. The addition of multimodal nanoparticles, such as 3 nm gadolinium-based nanoparticles (GdBNs), has been proposed as a promising strategy to amplify the effects of radiation in tumors and improve diagnostics using the same agents. This singular property named theranostic is a unique advantage of GdBNs. It has been established that the amplification of radiation effects by GdBNs appears due to fast electronic processes. However, the influence of these nanoparticles on cells is not yet understood. In particular, it remains dubious how nanoparticles activated by ionizing radiation interact with cells and their constituents. A crucial question remains open of whether damage to the nucleus is necessary for the radiosensitization exerted by GdBNs (and other nanoparticles). Methods We studied the effect of GdBNs on the induction and repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) in the nuclear DNA of U87 tumor cells irradiated with γ-rays. For this purpose, we used currently the most sensitive method of DSBs detection based on high-resolution confocal fluorescence microscopy coupled with immunodetection of two independent DSBs markers. Results We show that, in the conditions where GdBNs amplify radiation effects, they remain localized in the cytoplasm, i.e. do not penetrate into the nucleus. In addition, the presence of GdBNs in the cytoplasm neither increases induction of DSBs by γ-rays in the nuclear DNA nor affects their consequent repair. Conclusions Our results suggest that the radiosensitization mediated by GdBNs is a cytoplasmic event that is independent of the nuclear DNA breakage, a phenomenon commonly accepted as the explanation of biological radiation effects. Considering our earlier recognized colocalization of GdBNs with the lysosomes and endosomes, we revolutionary hypothesize here about these organelles as potential targets for (some) nanoparticles. If confirmed, this finding of cytoplasmically determined radiosensitization opens new perspectives of using nano-radioenhancers to improve radiotherapy without escalating the risk of pathologies related to genetic damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lenka Štefančíková
- Department of Cell Biology and Radiobiology, Institute of Biophysics of ASCR, Brno, Czech Republic. .,Institute des Sciences Moléculaires d'Orsay (ISMO), Université Paris Sud 11, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Bât 351, 91405, Orsay Cedex, France.
| | - Sandrine Lacombe
- Institute des Sciences Moléculaires d'Orsay (ISMO), Université Paris Sud 11, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Bât 351, 91405, Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Daniela Salado
- Institute des Sciences Moléculaires d'Orsay (ISMO), Université Paris Sud 11, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Bât 351, 91405, Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Erika Porcel
- Institute des Sciences Moléculaires d'Orsay (ISMO), Université Paris Sud 11, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Bât 351, 91405, Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Eva Pagáčová
- Department of Cell Biology and Radiobiology, Institute of Biophysics of ASCR, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Olivier Tillement
- Institut Lumière Matière, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, 69622, Villeurbanne Cedex, France
| | - François Lux
- Institut Lumière Matière, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, 69622, Villeurbanne Cedex, France
| | - Daniel Depeš
- Department of Cell Biology and Radiobiology, Institute of Biophysics of ASCR, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Stanislav Kozubek
- Department of Cell Biology and Radiobiology, Institute of Biophysics of ASCR, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Falk
- Department of Cell Biology and Radiobiology, Institute of Biophysics of ASCR, Brno, Czech Republic.
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181
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McNamara AL, Kam WWY, Scales N, McMahon SJ, Bennett JW, Byrne HL, Schuemann J, Paganetti H, Banati R, Kuncic Z. Dose enhancement effects to the nucleus and mitochondria from gold nanoparticles in the cytosol. Phys Med Biol 2016; 61:5993-6010. [PMID: 27435339 DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/61/16/5993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) have shown potential as dose enhancers for radiation therapy. Since damage to the genome affects the viability of a cell, it is generally assumed that GNPs have to localise within the cell nucleus. In practice, however, GNPs tend to localise in the cytoplasm yet still appear to have a dose enhancing effect on the cell. Whether this effect can be attributed to stress-induced biological mechanisms or to physical damage to extra-nuclear cellular targets is still unclear. There is however growing evidence to suggest that the cellular response to radiation can also be influenced by indirect processes induced when the nucleus is not directly targeted by radiation. The mitochondrion in particular may be an effective extra-nuclear radiation target given its many important functional roles in the cell. To more accurately predict the physical effect of radiation within different cell organelles, we measured the full chemical composition of a whole human lymphocytic JURKAT cell as well as two separate organelles; the cell nucleus and the mitochondrion. The experimental measurements found that all three biological materials had similar ionisation energies ∼70 eV, substantially lower than that of liquid water ∼78 eV. Monte Carlo simulations for 10-50 keV incident photons showed higher energy deposition and ionisation numbers in the cell and organelle materials compared to liquid water. Adding a 1% mass fraction of gold to each material increased the energy deposition by a factor of ∼1.8 when averaged over all incident photon energies. Simulations of a realistic compartmentalised cell show that the presence of gold in the cytosol increases the energy deposition in the mitochondrial volume more than within the nuclear volume. We find this is due to sub-micron delocalisation of energy by photoelectrons, making the mitochondria a potentially viable indirect radiation target for GNPs that localise to the cytosol.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L McNamara
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 30 Fruit St, Boston, MA 02114, USA. School of Physics, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
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182
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Subiel A, Ashmore R, Schettino G. Standards and Methodologies for Characterizing Radiobiological Impact of High-Z Nanoparticles. Theranostics 2016; 6:1651-71. [PMID: 27446499 PMCID: PMC4955064 DOI: 10.7150/thno.15019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2016] [Accepted: 05/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Research on the application of high-Z nanoparticles (NPs) in cancer treatment and diagnosis has recently been the subject of growing interest, with much promise being shown with regards to a potential transition into clinical practice. In spite of numerous publications related to the development and application of nanoparticles for use with ionizing radiation, the literature is lacking coherent and systematic experimental approaches to fully evaluate the radiobiological effectiveness of NPs, validate mechanistic models and allow direct comparison of the studies undertaken by various research groups. The lack of standards and established methodology is commonly recognised as a major obstacle for the transition of innovative research ideas into clinical practice. This review provides a comprehensive overview of radiobiological techniques and quantification methods used in in vitro studies on high-Z nanoparticles and aims to provide recommendations for future standardization for NP-mediated radiation research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Subiel
- ✉ Corresponding author: +44 (0)20 8943 8548; ; National Physical Laboratory, Hampton Road, Teddington, Middlesex, TW11 0LW, UK
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183
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Multiscale approach predictions for biological outcomes in ion-beam cancer therapy. Sci Rep 2016; 6:27654. [PMID: 27297618 PMCID: PMC4906349 DOI: 10.1038/srep27654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2015] [Accepted: 04/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Ion-beam therapy provides advances in cancer treatment, offering the possibility of excellent dose localization and thus maximising cell-killing within the tumour. The full potential of such therapy can only be realised if the fundamental mechanisms leading to lethal cell damage under ion irradiation are well understood. The key question is whether it is possible to quantitatively predict macroscopic biological effects caused by ion radiation on the basis of physical and chemical effects related to the ion-medium interactions on a nanometre scale. We demonstrate that the phenomenon-based MultiScale Approach to the assessment of radiation damage with ions gives a positive answer to this question. We apply this approach to numerous experiments where survival curves were obtained for different cell lines and conditions. Contrary to other, in essence empirical methods for evaluation of macroscopic effects of ionising radiation, the MultiScale Approach predicts the biodamage based on the physical effects related to ionisation of the medium, transport of secondary particles, chemical interactions, thermo-mechanical pathways of biodamage, and heuristic biological criteria for cell survival. We anticipate this method to give great impetus to the practical improvement of ion-beam cancer therapy and the development of more efficient treatment protocols.
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184
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Laurent G, Bernhard C, Dufort S, Jiménez Sánchez G, Bazzi R, Boschetti F, Moreau M, Vu TH, Collin B, Oudot A, Herath N, Requardt H, Laurent S, Vander Elst L, Muller R, Dutreix M, Meyer M, Brunotte F, Perriat P, Lux F, Tillement O, Le Duc G, Denat F, Roux S. Minor changes in the macrocyclic ligands but major consequences on the efficiency of gold nanoparticles designed for radiosensitization. NANOSCALE 2016; 8:12054-12065. [PMID: 27244570 DOI: 10.1039/c6nr01228k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Many studies have been devoted to adapting the design of gold nanoparticles to efficiently exploit their promising capability to enhance the effects of radiotherapy. In particular, the addition of magnetic resonance imaging modality constitutes an attractive strategy for enhancing the selectivity of radiotherapy since it allows the determination of the most suited delay between the injection of nanoparticles and irradiation. This requires the functionalization of the gold core by an organic shell composed of thiolated gadolinium chelates. The risk of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis induced by the release of gadolinium ions should encourage the use of macrocyclic chelators which form highly stable and inert complexes with gadolinium ions. In this context, three types of gold nanoparticles (Au@DTDOTA, Au@TADOTA and Au@TADOTAGA) combining MRI, nuclear imaging and radiosensitization have been developed with different macrocyclic ligands anchored onto the gold cores. Despite similarities in size and organic shell composition, the distribution of gadolinium chelate-coated gold nanoparticles (Au@TADOTA-Gd and Au@TADOTAGA-Gd) in the tumor zone is clearly different. As a result, the intravenous injection of Au@TADOTAGA-Gd prior to the irradiation of 9L gliosarcoma bearing rats leads to the highest increase in lifespan whereas the radiophysical effects of Au@TADOTAGA-Gd and Au@TADOTA-Gd are very similar.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Laurent
- Institut UTINAM, UMR 6213 CNRS-UBFC, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 25030 Besançon Cedex, France.
| | - C Bernhard
- Institut de Chimie Moléculaire de l'Université de Bourgogne (ICMUB), UMR 6302 CNRS-UBFC, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 21078 Dijon Cedex, France
| | - S Dufort
- Nano-H S.A.S, 2 Place de l'Europe, 38070 Saint Quentin-Fallavier, France
| | - G Jiménez Sánchez
- Institut UTINAM, UMR 6213 CNRS-UBFC, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 25030 Besançon Cedex, France.
| | - R Bazzi
- Institut UTINAM, UMR 6213 CNRS-UBFC, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 25030 Besançon Cedex, France.
| | | | - M Moreau
- Institut de Chimie Moléculaire de l'Université de Bourgogne (ICMUB), UMR 6302 CNRS-UBFC, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 21078 Dijon Cedex, France
| | - T H Vu
- Institut de Chimie Moléculaire de l'Université de Bourgogne (ICMUB), UMR 6302 CNRS-UBFC, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 21078 Dijon Cedex, France
| | - B Collin
- Institut de Chimie Moléculaire de l'Université de Bourgogne (ICMUB), UMR 6302 CNRS-UBFC, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 21078 Dijon Cedex, France and Plateforme d'imagerie préclinique, Centre Georges-François Leclerc, 21079 Dijon Cedex, France
| | - A Oudot
- Plateforme d'imagerie préclinique, Centre Georges-François Leclerc, 21079 Dijon Cedex, France
| | - N Herath
- Recombinaison, réparation et cancer: de la molécule au patient, Institut Curie, UMR CNRS 3347 - Inserm U1021, 91405 Orsay, France
| | - H Requardt
- ID17 Biomedical Beamline, European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - S Laurent
- NMR Laboratory, Université de Mons, 7000 Mons, Belgium
| | - L Vander Elst
- NMR Laboratory, Université de Mons, 7000 Mons, Belgium
| | - R Muller
- NMR Laboratory, Université de Mons, 7000 Mons, Belgium
| | - M Dutreix
- Recombinaison, réparation et cancer: de la molécule au patient, Institut Curie, UMR CNRS 3347 - Inserm U1021, 91405 Orsay, France
| | - M Meyer
- Institut de Chimie Moléculaire de l'Université de Bourgogne (ICMUB), UMR 6302 CNRS-UBFC, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 21078 Dijon Cedex, France
| | - F Brunotte
- Plateforme d'imagerie préclinique, Centre Georges-François Leclerc, 21079 Dijon Cedex, France
| | - P Perriat
- Matériaux Ingénierie et Science, UMR 5510 CNRS-INSA, INSA de Lyon, 69621 Villeurbanne Cedex, France
| | - F Lux
- Institut Lumière Matière, UMR 5306 CNRS-UCBL, Université de Lyon, 69622 Villeurbanne Cedex, France
| | - O Tillement
- Institut Lumière Matière, UMR 5306 CNRS-UCBL, Université de Lyon, 69622 Villeurbanne Cedex, France
| | - G Le Duc
- ID17 Biomedical Beamline, European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - F Denat
- Institut de Chimie Moléculaire de l'Université de Bourgogne (ICMUB), UMR 6302 CNRS-UBFC, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 21078 Dijon Cedex, France
| | - S Roux
- Institut UTINAM, UMR 6213 CNRS-UBFC, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 25030 Besançon Cedex, France.
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185
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Schlathölter T, Eustache P, Porcel E, Salado D, Stefancikova L, Tillement O, Lux F, Mowat P, Biegun AK, van Goethem MJ, Remita H, Lacombe S. Improving proton therapy by metal-containing nanoparticles: nanoscale insights. Int J Nanomedicine 2016; 11:1549-56. [PMID: 27143877 PMCID: PMC4841428 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s99410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of nanoparticles to enhance the effect of radiation-based cancer treatments is a growing field of study and recently, even nanoparticle-induced improvement of proton therapy performance has been investigated. Aiming at a clinical implementation of this approach, it is essential to characterize the mechanisms underlying the synergistic effects of nanoparticles combined with proton irradiation. In this study, we investigated the effect of platinum- and gadolinium-based nanoparticles on the nanoscale damage induced by a proton beam of therapeutically relevant energy (150 MeV) using plasmid DNA molecular probe. Two conditions of irradiation (0.44 and 3.6 keV/μm) were considered to mimic the beam properties at the entrance and at the end of the proton track. We demonstrate that the two metal-containing nanoparticles amplify, in particular, the induction of nanosize damages (>2 nm) which are most lethal for cells. More importantly, this effect is even more pronounced at the end of the proton track. This work gives a new insight into the underlying mechanisms on the nanoscale and indicates that the addition of metal-based nanoparticles is a promising strategy not only to increase the cell killing action of fast protons, but also to improve tumor targeting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Schlathölter
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Pierre Eustache
- Institut des Sciences Moléculaires d'Orsay (ISMO), Univ. Paris Sud, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Erika Porcel
- Institut des Sciences Moléculaires d'Orsay (ISMO), Univ. Paris Sud, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Daniela Salado
- Institut des Sciences Moléculaires d'Orsay (ISMO), Univ. Paris Sud, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Lenka Stefancikova
- Institut des Sciences Moléculaires d'Orsay (ISMO), Univ. Paris Sud, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Orsay Cedex, France
| | | | - Francois Lux
- Institut Lumière Matière, Villeurbanne Cedex, France
| | - Pierre Mowat
- Institut Lumière Matière, Villeurbanne Cedex, France
| | - Aleksandra K Biegun
- Kernfysisch Versneller Instituut - Center for Advanced Radiation Technology (KVI-CART), University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Marc-Jan van Goethem
- Kernfysisch Versneller Instituut - Center for Advanced Radiation Technology (KVI-CART), University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Hynd Remita
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique, Universite Paris-Sud, Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Sandrine Lacombe
- Institut des Sciences Moléculaires d'Orsay (ISMO), Univ. Paris Sud, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Orsay Cedex, France
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186
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Shrestha S, Cooper LN, Andreev OA, Reshetnyak YK, Antosh MP. Gold Nanoparticles for Radiation Enhancement in Vivo. JACOBS JOURNAL OF RADIATION ONCOLOGY 2016; 3:026. [PMID: 28725881 PMCID: PMC5513501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Enhancing the effect of radiation on tumors would be a significant improvement in radiation therapy. With radiation enhancement, less radiation could be used to achieve the same goals, lessening damage to healthy tissue and lessening side effects. Gold nanoparticles are a promising method for achieving this enhancement, particularly when the gold nanoparticles are targeted to cancer. This literature review discusses the properties of gold nanoparticles as well as existing in vivo radiation enhancement results using both targeted and non-targeted gold nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samana Shrestha
- Physics Department, University of Rhode Island, 2 Lippitt Rd, Kingston, RI, 02881
| | - Leon N Cooper
- Institute for Brain and Neural Systems, Brown University, 184 Hope St, Providence, RI, 02906
- Department of Physics, Brown University, 184 Hope St, Providence, RI, 02906
| | - Oleg A. Andreev
- Physics Department, University of Rhode Island, 2 Lippitt Rd, Kingston, RI, 02881
| | - Yana K. Reshetnyak
- Physics Department, University of Rhode Island, 2 Lippitt Rd, Kingston, RI, 02881
| | - Michael P. Antosh
- Physics Department, University of Rhode Island, 2 Lippitt Rd, Kingston, RI, 02881
- Institute for Brain and Neural Systems, Brown University, 184 Hope St, Providence, RI, 02906
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187
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Retif P, Bastogne T, Barberi-Heyob M. Robustness Analysis of a Geant4-GATE Simulator for Nanoradiosensitizers Characterization. IEEE Trans Nanobioscience 2016; 15:209-17. [DOI: 10.1109/tnb.2016.2527720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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188
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Cho J, Gonzalez-Lepera C, Manohar N, Kerr M, Krishnan S, Cho SH. Quantitative investigation of physical factors contributing to gold nanoparticle-mediated proton dose enhancement. Phys Med Biol 2016; 61:2562-81. [DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/61/6/2562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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189
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Spaas C, Dok R, Deschaume O, De Roo B, Vervaele M, Seo JW, Bartic C, Hoet P, Van den Heuvel F, Nuyts S, Locquet JP. Dependence of Gold Nanoparticle Radiosensitization on Functionalizing Layer Thickness. Radiat Res 2016; 185:384-92. [PMID: 26950059 DOI: 10.1667/rr14207.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Gold nanoparticles functionalized with polyethylene glycol of different chain lengths are used to determine the influence of the capping layer thickness on the radiosensitizing effect of the particles. The size variations in organic coating, built up with polyethylene glycol polymers of molecular weight 1-20 kDa, allow an evaluation of the decrease in dose enhancement percentages caused by the gold nanoparticles at different radial distances from their surface. With localized eradication of malignant cells as a primary focus, radiosensitization is most effective after internalization in the nucleus. For this reason, we performed controlled radiation experiments, with doses up to 20 Gy and particle diameters in a range of 5-30 nm, and studied the relaxation pattern of supercoiled DNA. Subsequent gel electrophoresis of the suspensions was performed to evaluate the molecular damage and consecutively quantify the gold nanoparticle sensitization. In conclusion, on average up to 58.4% of the radiosensitizing efficiency was lost when the radial dimensions of the functionalizing layer were increased from 4.1 to 15.3 nm. These results serve as an experimental supplement for biophysical simulations and demonstrate the influence of an important parameter in the development of nanomaterials for targeted therapies in cancer radiotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Peter Hoet
- d Public Health and Primary Care, Environment and Health, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium; and
| | - Frank Van den Heuvel
- b Oncology.,e CRUK/MRC Institute for Radiation Oncology and Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7DQ, United Kingdom
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190
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Dou Y, Guo Y, Li X, Li X, Wang S, Wang L, Lv G, Zhang X, Wang H, Gong X, Chang J. Size-Tuning Ionization To Optimize Gold Nanoparticles for Simultaneous Enhanced CT Imaging and Radiotherapy. ACS NANO 2016; 10:2536-48. [PMID: 26815933 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.5b07473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Computed tomography (CT) contrast and radiosensitization usually increase with particle sizes of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), but there is a huge challenge to improve both by adjusting sizes under the requirements of in vivo application. Here, we report that AuNPs have great size-dependent enhancements on CT imaging as well as radiotherapy (RT) in the size range of 3-50 nm. It is demonstrated that AuNPs with a size of ∼13 nm could simultaneously possess superior CT contrast ability and significant radioactive disruption. The Monte Carlo method is further used to evaluate this phenomenon and indicates that the inhomogeneity of gold atom distributions caused by sizes may influence secondary ionization in whole X-ray interactions. In vivo studies further indicate that this optimally sized AuNP improves real-time CT imaging and radiotherapeutic inhibition of tumors in living mice by effective accumulation at tumors with prolonged in vivo circulation times compared to clinically used small-molecule agents. These results suggest that ∼13 nm AuNPs may serve as multifunctional adjuvants for clinical X-ray theranostic application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Dou
- School of Material Science and Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin Engineering Center of Micro-Nano Biomaterials and Detection-Treatment Technology, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering , Tianjin 300072, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanyan Guo
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Department of Radiology, The Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University , Tianjin 300211, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaodong Li
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Department of Radiology, The Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University , Tianjin 300211, People's Republic of China
| | - Xue Li
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Department of Radiology, The Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University , Tianjin 300211, People's Republic of China
| | - Sheng Wang
- School of Material Science and Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin Engineering Center of Micro-Nano Biomaterials and Detection-Treatment Technology, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering , Tianjin 300072, People's Republic of China
| | - Lin Wang
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Department of Radiology, The Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University , Tianjin 300211, People's Republic of China
| | - Guoxian Lv
- School of Material Science and Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin Engineering Center of Micro-Nano Biomaterials and Detection-Treatment Technology, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering , Tianjin 300072, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuening Zhang
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Department of Radiology, The Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University , Tianjin 300211, People's Republic of China
| | - Hanjie Wang
- School of Material Science and Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin Engineering Center of Micro-Nano Biomaterials and Detection-Treatment Technology, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering , Tianjin 300072, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoqun Gong
- School of Material Science and Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin Engineering Center of Micro-Nano Biomaterials and Detection-Treatment Technology, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering , Tianjin 300072, People's Republic of China
| | - Jin Chang
- School of Material Science and Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin Engineering Center of Micro-Nano Biomaterials and Detection-Treatment Technology, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering , Tianjin 300072, People's Republic of China
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191
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Koger B, Kirkby C. A method for converting dose-to-medium to dose-to-tissue in Monte Carlo studies of gold nanoparticle-enhanced radiotherapy. Phys Med Biol 2016; 61:2014-24. [PMID: 26895030 DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/61/5/2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) have shown potential in recent years as a means of therapeutic dose enhancement in radiation therapy. However, a major challenge in moving towards clinical implementation is the exact characterisation of the dose enhancement they provide. Monte Carlo studies attempt to explore this property, but they often face computational limitations when examining macroscopic scenarios. In this study, a method of converting dose from macroscopic simulations, where the medium is defined as a mixture containing both gold and tissue components, to a mean dose-to-tissue on a microscopic scale was established. Monte Carlo simulations were run for both explicitly-modeled GNPs in tissue and a homogeneous mixture of tissue and gold. A dose ratio was obtained for the conversion of dose scored in a mixture medium to dose-to-tissue in each case. Dose ratios varied from 0.69 to 1.04 for photon sources and 0.97 to 1.03 for electron sources. The dose ratio is highly dependent on the source energy as well as GNP diameter and concentration, though this effect is less pronounced for electron sources. By appropriately weighting the monoenergetic dose ratios obtained, the dose ratio for any arbitrary spectrum can be determined. This allows complex scenarios to be modeled accurately without explicitly simulating each individual GNP.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Koger
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 1N4, Canada
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192
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Yang Y, Zhang L, Cai J, Li X, Cheng D, Su H, Zhang J, Liu S, Shi H, Zhang Y, Zhang C. Tumor Angiogenesis Targeted Radiosensitization Therapy Using Gold Nanoprobes Guided by MRI/SPECT Imaging. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2016; 8:1718-1732. [PMID: 26731347 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.5b09274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have recently garnered great interest as potential radiosensitizers in tumor therapy. However, major challenges facing their application in this regard are further enhancement of tumor accumulation of the particles in addition to enhanced permeability retention (EPR) effect and an understanding of the optimal particle size and time for applying radiotherapy after the particle administration. In this study, we fabricated novel cyclic c(RGDyC)-peptide-conjugated, Gd- and 99 mTc-labeled AuNPs (RGD@AuNPs-Gd99 mTc) probes with different sizes (29, 51, and 80 nm) and evaluated their potential as radiosensitization therapy both in vitro and in vivo. We found that these probes have a high specificity for αvβ3 integrin positive cells, which resulted in their high cellular uptake and thereby enhanced radiosensitization. Imaging in vivo with MRI and SPECT/CT directly showed that the RGD@AuNPs-Gd99 mTc probes specifically target tumors and exhibit greater accumulation within tumors than the RAD@AuNPs-Gd99 mTc probes. Interestingly, we found that the 80 nm RGD@AuNPs-Gd99 mTc probes exhibit the greatest effects in vitro; however, the 29 nm RGD@AuNPs-Gd99 mTc probes were clearly most efficient in vivo. As a result, radiotherapy of tumors with the 29 nm probe was the most potent. Our study demonstrates that RGD@AuNPs-Gd99 mTc probes are highly useful radiosensitizers capable of guiding and enhancing radiation therapy of tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Cancer Institute, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Lu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Cancer Institute, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Jiali Cai
- Changzheng Hospital, Secondary Military Medical University , Shanghai 200003, China
| | - Xiao Li
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Zhongshan Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University , Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Dengfeng Cheng
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Zhongshan Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University , Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Huilan Su
- State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Jianping Zhang
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Shanghai Cancer Center, Fudan University , Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Shiyuan Liu
- Changzheng Hospital, Secondary Military Medical University , Shanghai 200003, China
| | - Hongcheng Shi
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Zhongshan Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University , Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yingjian Zhang
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Shanghai Cancer Center, Fudan University , Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Chunfu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Cancer Institute, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai 200030, China
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Rui Jin Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai 200025, China
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193
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McQuaid HN, Muir MF, Taggart LE, McMahon SJ, Coulter JA, Hyland WB, Jain S, Butterworth KT, Schettino G, Prise KM, Hirst DG, Botchway SW, Currell FJ. Imaging and radiation effects of gold nanoparticles in tumour cells. Sci Rep 2016; 6:19442. [PMID: 26787230 PMCID: PMC4726169 DOI: 10.1038/srep19442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2015] [Accepted: 11/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Gold nanoparticle radiosensitization represents a novel technique in enhancement of ionising radiation dose and its effect on biological systems. Variation between theoretical predictions and experimental measurement is significant enough that the mechanism leading to an increase in cell killing and DNA damage is still not clear. We present the first experimental results that take into account both the measured biodistribution of gold nanoparticles at the cellular level and the range of the product electrons responsible for energy deposition. Combining synchrotron-generated monoenergetic X-rays, intracellular gold particle imaging and DNA damage assays, has enabled a DNA damage model to be generated that includes the production of intermediate electrons. We can therefore show for the first time good agreement between the prediction of biological outcomes from both the Local Effect Model and a DNA damage model with experimentally observed cell killing and DNA damage induction via the combination of X-rays and GNPs. However, the requirement of two distinct models as indicated by this mechanistic study, one for short-term DNA damage and another for cell survival, indicates that, at least for nanoparticle enhancement, it is not safe to equate the lethal lesions invoked in the local effect model with DNA damage events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harold N. McQuaid
- Centre for Plasma Physics, School of Mathematics and Physics, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, BT7 1NN, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Mark F. Muir
- Camlin Technologies Ltd. Lisburn, BT28 2EX, N.Ireland, UK
| | - Laura E. Taggart
- Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, BT9 7BL, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Stephen J. McMahon
- Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, BT9 7BL, Northern Ireland, UK
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston MA, USA
| | - Jonathan A. Coulter
- School of Pharmacy, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, BT9 7BL, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Wendy B. Hyland
- Northern Ireland Cancer Centre, Belfast Health and Social Care Trust, Belfast, BT9 7AB, UK
| | - Suneil Jain
- Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, BT9 7BL, Northern Ireland, UK
- Northern Ireland Cancer Centre, Belfast Health and Social Care Trust, Belfast, BT9 7AB, UK
| | - Karl T. Butterworth
- Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, BT9 7BL, Northern Ireland, UK
| | | | - Kevin M. Prise
- Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, BT9 7BL, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - David G. Hirst
- School of Pharmacy, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, BT9 7BL, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Stanley W. Botchway
- Central Laser Facility, Research Complex at Harwell, Science and Technology Facilities Council, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Oxfordshire, OX11 0QX, UK
| | - Fred J. Currell
- Centre for Plasma Physics, School of Mathematics and Physics, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, BT7 1NN, Northern Ireland, UK
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194
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McMahon SJ, Paganetti H, Prise KM. Optimising element choice for nanoparticle radiosensitisers. NANOSCALE 2016; 8:581-9. [PMID: 26645621 DOI: 10.1039/c5nr07089a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
There is considerable interest in the use of heavy atom nanoparticles as theranostic contrast agents due to their high radiation cross-section compared to soft tissue. However, published studies have primarily focused on applications of gold nanoparticles. This study applies Monte Carlo radiation transport modelling using Geant4 to evaluate the macro- and micro-scale radiation dose enhancement following X-ray irradiation with both imaging and therapeutic energies on nanoparticles consisting of stable elements heavier than silicon. An approach based on the Local Effect Model was also used to assess potential biological impacts. While macroscopic dose enhancement is well predicted by simple absorption cross-sections, nanoscale dose deposition has a much more complex dependency on atomic number, with local maxima around germanium (Z = 32) and gadolinium (Z = 64), driven by variations in secondary Auger electron spectra, which translate into significant variations in biological effectiveness. These differences may provide a valuable tool for predicting and elucidating fundamental mechanisms of these agents as they move towards clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J McMahon
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Massachusetts General Hospital & Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA and Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK.
| | - Harald Paganetti
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Massachusetts General Hospital & Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Kevin M Prise
- Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK.
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195
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Arab-Bafrani Z, Saberi A, Tahmasebi Birgani MJ, Shahbazi-Gahrouei D, Abbasian M, Fesharaki M. Gold Nanoparticle and Mean Inactivation Dose of Human Intestinal Colon Cancer HT-29 Cells. Jundishapur J Nat Pharm Prod 2015. [DOI: 10.17795/jjnpp-29153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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196
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Zygmanski P, Sajo E. Nanoscale radiation transport and clinical beam modeling for gold nanoparticle dose enhanced radiotherapy (GNPT) using X-rays. Br J Radiol 2015; 89:20150200. [PMID: 26642305 PMCID: PMC4986475 DOI: 10.1259/bjr.20150200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2015] [Revised: 11/17/2015] [Accepted: 12/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
We review radiation transport and clinical beam modelling for gold nanoparticle dose-enhanced radiotherapy using X-rays. We focus on the nanoscale radiation transport and its relation to macroscopic dosimetry for monoenergetic and clinical beams. Among other aspects, we discuss Monte Carlo and deterministic methods and their applications to predicting dose enhancement using various metrics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Zygmanski
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Erno Sajo
- Department of Physics and Applied Physics, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Medical Physics Program, Lowell, MA, USA
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197
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Track structure modeling in liquid water: A review of the Geant4-DNA very low energy extension of the Geant4 Monte Carlo simulation toolkit. Phys Med 2015; 31:861-874. [PMID: 26653251 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmp.2015.10.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 294] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2015] [Revised: 09/28/2015] [Accepted: 10/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the fundamental mechanisms involved in the induction of biological damage by ionizing radiation remains a major challenge of today's radiobiology research. The Monte Carlo simulation of physical, physicochemical and chemical processes involved may provide a powerful tool for the simulation of early damage induction. The Geant4-DNA extension of the general purpose Monte Carlo Geant4 simulation toolkit aims to provide the scientific community with an open source access platform for the mechanistic simulation of such early damage. This paper presents the most recent review of the Geant4-DNA extension, as available to Geant4 users since June 2015 (release 10.2 Beta). In particular, the review includes the description of new physical models for the description of electron elastic and inelastic interactions in liquid water, as well as new examples dedicated to the simulation of physicochemical and chemical stages of water radiolysis. Several implementations of geometrical models of biological targets are presented as well, and the list of Geant4-DNA examples is described.
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198
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Brivio D, Zygmanski P, Arnoldussen M, Hanlon J, Chell E, Sajo E, Makrigiorgos GM, Ngwa W. Kilovoltage radiosurgery with gold nanoparticles for neovascular age-related macular degeneration (AMD): a Monte Carlo evaluation. Phys Med Biol 2015; 60:9203-13. [PMID: 26576672 DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/60/24/9203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
This work uses Monte Carlo radiation transport simulation to assess the potential benefits of gold nanoparticles (AuNP) in the treatment of neovascular age-related macular degeneration with stereotactic radiosurgery. Clinically, a 100 kVp x-ray beam of 4 mm diameter is aimed at the macula to deliver an ablative dose in a single fraction. In the transport model, AuNP accumulated at the bottom of the macula are targeted with a source representative of the clinical beam in order to provide enhanced dose to the diseased macular endothelial cells. It is observed that, because of the AuNP, the dose to the endothelial cells can be significantly enhanced, allowing for greater sparing of optic nerve, retina and other neighboring healthy tissue. For 20 nm diameter AuNP concentration of 32 mg g(-1), which has been shown to be achievable in vivo, a dose enhancement ratio (DER) of 1.97 was found to be possible, which could potentially be increased through appropriate optimization of beam quality and/or AuNP targeting. A significant enhancement in dose is seen in the vicinity of the AuNP layer within 30 μm, peaked at the AuNP-tissue interface. Different angular tilting of the 4 mm beam results in a similar enhancement. The DER inside and in the penumbra of the 4 mm irradiation-field are almost the same while the actual delivered dose is more than one order of magnitude lower outside the field leading to normal tissue sparing. The prescribed dose to macular endothelial cells can be delivered using almost half of the radiation allowing reduction of dose to the neighboring organs such as retina/optic nerve by 49% when compared to a treatment without AuNP.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Brivio
- Brigham and Woman's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA. Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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199
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Casta R, Champeaux JP, Sence M, Moretto-Capelle P, Cafarelli P. Comparison between gold nanoparticle and gold plane electron emissions: a way to identify secondary electron emission. Phys Med Biol 2015; 60:9095-105. [PMID: 26561787 DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/60/23/9095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
To understand the nanoparticle radiosensitising effect observed in the radiotherapy context, it is necessary to study the nanoparticle electron emission under x-ray irradiation, which is one of the causes of the radiosensitisation. In this paper, we compare the electron energy spectrum of gold samples irradiated by 1253.6 eV x-ray photons for energies down to 2 eV for nanoparticles and for a plane surface. This comparison highlights important differences due to nanoparticle properties especially at low energy, allowing the identification of strong nanoparticle secondary electron emission. This strong nanoparticle emission could play a very important role in radiosensitisation mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Casta
- LCAR: UMR 5589, IRSAMC, Université Paul Sabatier, 118 route de Narbonne 31062 Toulouse Cedex 9, France
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200
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Schettino G. Enhancement of radiation effectiveness by high Z nanoparticles. Phys Med 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmp.2015.10.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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