Long-term risk of CKD in children surviving episodes of acute kidney injury in the intensive care unit: a prospective cohort study

Impact of acute kidney injury and nephrotoxic exposure on hospital length of stay

OBJECTIVE

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common occurrence among hospitalized children and leads to increased mortality and prolonged length of stay (LOS) in critically ill patients. Few studies have examined the impact of AKI on LOS for common pediatric conditions. We hypothesized that a diagnosis of AKI would be associated with a longer hospital LOS and increased exposure to nephrotoxic medications for all patients.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We performed a multicenter retrospective cross-sectional analysis of 34 children's hospitals in the Pediatric Health Information System (PHIS) database from 1/2009 through 12/2013. Patients were grouped based on primary discharge diagnosis, number of days spent in an intensive care unit, and assignment of a secondary diagnostic code for AKI. Median LOS was compared among different patient groupings. Exposure to commonly used nephrotoxic medications was collected for each admission.

RESULTS

A total of 588,884 admissions from 423,337 patients were included in the analysis. The median LOS among non-critically ill patients with and without AKI was 5 days [95% CI 3-10] versus 2 days [95% CI 1-4], respectively. Among critically ill patients, median LOS for those with and without AKI was 12 days [95% CI 7-20] versus 4 days [95% CI 2-7], respectively. Patients who developed AKI were more likely to have significant nephrotoxic exposure.

CONCLUSIONS

Development of AKI was associated with longer hospital length of stay and increased nephrotoxic medication exposure for all diagnostic categories. Non-critically ill children with AKI were hospitalized the same length or longer than critically ill children without AKI.

Dialysis modalities for the management of pediatric acute kidney injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is an increasingly frequent complication among hospitalized children. It is associated with high morbidity and mortality, especially in neonates and children requiring dialysis. The different renal replacement therapy (RRT) options for AKI have expanded from peritoneal dialysis (PD) and intermittent hemodialysis (HD) to continuous RRT (CRRT) and hybrid modalities. Recent advances in the provision of RRT in children allow a higher standard of care for increasingly ill and young patients. In the absence of evidence indicating better survival with any dialysis method, the most appropriate dialysis choice for children with AKI is based on the patient's characteristics, on dialytic modality performance, and on the institutional resources and local practice. In this review, the available dialysis modalities for pediatric AKI will be discussed, focusing on indications, advantages, and limitations of each of them.

Urinary NMR Profiling in Pediatric Acute Kidney Injury-A Pilot Study

Acute kidney injury (AKI) in critically ill children and adults is associated with significant short- and long-term morbidity and mortality. As serum creatinine- and urine output-based definitions of AKI have relevant limitations, there is a persistent need for better diagnostics of AKI. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy allows for analysis of metabolic profiles without extensive sample manipulations. In the study reported here, we examined the diagnostic accuracy of NMR urine metabolite patterns for the diagnosis of neonatal and pediatric AKI according to the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) definition. A cohort of 65 neonatal and pediatric patients (0–18 years) with established AKI of heterogeneous etiology was compared to both a group of apparently healthy children (n = 53) and a group of critically ill children without AKI (n = 31). Multivariate analysis identified a panel of four metabolites that allowed diagnosis of AKI with an area under the receiver operating characteristics curve (AUC-ROC) of 0.95 (95% confidence interval 0.86–1.00). Especially urinary citrate levels were significantly reduced whereas leucine and valine levels were elevated. Metabolomic differentiation of AKI causes appeared promising but these results need to be validated in larger studies. In conclusion, this study shows that NMR spectroscopy yields high diagnostic accuracy for AKI in pediatric patients.

Acute kidney injury in the pediatric intensive care unit at a tertiary care hospital of the Armed Forces: a cross-sectional observational study

Background

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is shown to be the commonest complication in critically ill children admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU). Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) classification and definition are now used universally. We undertook prospective observational study to study the etiology and maximum stage of AKI as defined by KDIGO and its complications and outcomes.

Methods

All children admitted to the PICU were included in the study. The diagnosis of sepsis and multiorgan dysfunction syndrome (MODS) was made according to the standard international guidelines. The patients were followed up till discharge/death. All children were screened for AKI at admission and subsequently using serum creatinine measured by modified Jaffe's method and urine output measurement.

Results

A total of 197 children were admitted to the PICU. 38 (19.28%) developed AKI, and 6 (15.78%) developed stage III AKI. Malignancies, serious neurological and renal disorders, and postsurgery complications accounted for most of the cases with AKI. Six were admitted with primary renal condition. Sepsis with or without MODS was seen in 12 patients with AKI and in 8 without AKI. Twenty-one children with AKI and 3 children without AKI were exposed to nephrotoxic drugs. Twenty-three children with AKI required inotropic support. The average length of stay (ALOS) of children with AKI in the PICU was 9.86 days, whereas ALOS of children without AKI was 6.23 days. Eighteen children with AKI (47.36%) and 36 (21.38%) with no AKI died.

Conclusions

AKI in children in the PICUs of referral hospitals in the armed forces have varied etiologies and presentations. These children require early identification and management with close monitoring to prevent long-term renal morbidity and mortality.

Management of Multi Organ Dysfunction in Neonatal Encephalopathy

Neonatal Encephalopathy (NE) describes neonates with disturbed neurological function in the first post-natal days of life. NE is an overall term that does not specify the etiology of the encephalopathy although it often involves hypoxia-ischaemia. In NE, although neurological dysfunction is part of the injury and is most predictive of long-term outcome, these infants may also have multiorgan injury and compromise, which further contribute to neurological impairment and long-term morbidities. Therapeutic hypothermia (TH) is the standard of care for moderate to severe NE. Infants with NE may have co-existing immune, respiratory, endocrine, renal, hepatic, and cardiac dysfunction that require individualized management and can be impacted by TH. Non-neurological organ dysfunction not only has a negative effect on long term outcome but may also influence the efficacy of treatments in the acute phase. Post resuscitative care involves stabilization and decisions regarding TH and management of multi-organ dysfunction. This management includes detailed neurological assessment, cardio-respiratory stabilization, glycaemic and fluid control, sepsis evaluation and antibiotics, seizure identification, and monitoring and responding to biochemical and coagulation derangements. The emergence of new biomarkers of specific organ injury may have predictive value and improve the definition of organ injury and prognosis. Further evidence-based research is needed to optimize management of NE, prevent further organ dysfunction and reduce neurodevelopmental impairment.

Phenotypes and Baseline Risk Factors of Acute Kidney Injury in Children After Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation

Background: Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a frequent and widely recognized complication of allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT). Despite relatively high prevalence, AKI after allo-HSCT and its risk factors in children remain obscure. The aim of this study was to describe the prevalence and course of AKI during the first 100 days after allo-HSCT in children and to investigate its associations with baseline characteristics. Methods: Retrospective single-center chart review of all patients under 18 who underwent allo-HSCT during 2011-2017 was performed. AKI was defined using the pediatric RIFLE criteria and only the patients with pRIFLE stage I (eGFR decrease by 50% or more) or higher were considered for the analysis. Recurrent AKI and acute kidney disease (AKD) were defined according to the Acute Disease Quality Initiative consensus. Demographic, clinical, and procedure-related characteristics were recorded at the day of HSCT. Results: Fifty-one patients (68.6% boys) with a median age of 9 years (range: 0.25-17) were included. During a median follow-up of 82 (IQR, 60-98) days, 27 (52.9%) patients experienced a total of 39 AKI episodes, translating into one AKI episode per 100 patient days. Multiple AKIs occurred in 11 (21.6%) patients and 18 (35.3%) progressed to AKD. Four patients died, all with ongoing or previous AKI. Patients with AKD were, on average, older (10 vs. 6 years; p = 0.03) and had higher baseline body mass index (BMI) [standard deviation score (SDS) 0.83 vs. 0.04, p = 0.05], whereas patients with recurrent AKI had higher baseline estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) (244.1 vs. 193.9 ml/min/1.73 m², p = 0.02). In the adjusted Cox models (HR; 95% CI), older age (1.10; 1.01-1.20) was associated with higher risk of overall AKI and higher eGFR (1.02; 1.01-1.04) was associated with higher risk of recurrent AKI, while older age (1.17; 1.04-1.31), higher eGFR (HR 1.01; 1.0-1.02), and higher BMI SDS (1.66; 1.01-2.72) were associated with higher risk of AKD. Conclusions: AKI is a frequent early complication of allo-HSCT in children, and approximately one fifth experience AKI recurrence and one third develop AKD. Older age, higher BMI, and higher eGFR at the day of transplant may have an effect on the risk of AKI development and its course.

Acute kidney injury in hospitalized children: consequences and outcomes

Over the past decade, the nephrology and critical care communities have adopted a consensus approach to diagnosing acute kidney injury (AKI) and, as a result, we have seen transformative changes in our understanding of pediatric AKI epidemiology. The data regarding outcomes among neonates and children who develop AKI have become far more robust and AKI has been clearly linked with an increased need for mechanical ventilation, longer inpatient stays, and higher mortality. Though AKI was historically thought to be self-limited, we now know that renal recovery is far from universal, particularly when AKI is severe; the absence of recovery from AKI also carries longitudinal prognostic implications. AKI survivors, especially those without full recovery, are at risk for chronic renal sequelae including proteinuria, hypertension, and chronic kidney disease. This review comprehensively describes AKI-related outcomes across the entire pediatric age spectrum, using the most rigorous studies to identify the independent effects of AKI events.

Acute kidney injury in Ugandan children with severe malaria is associated with long-term behavioral problems

Background

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a risk factor for neurocognitive impairment in severe malaria (SM), but the impact of AKI on long-term behavioral outcomes following SM is unknown.

Methods

We conducted a prospective study on behavioral outcomes of Ugandan children 1.5 to 12 years of age with two forms of severe malaria, cerebral malaria (CM, n = 226) or severe malarial anemia (SMA, n = 214), and healthy community children (CC, n = 173). AKI was defined as a 50% increase in creatinine from estimated baseline. Behavior and executive function were assessed at baseline and 6, 12, and 24 months later using the Child Behavior Checklist and Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, respectively. Age-adjusted z-scores were computed for each domain based on CC scores. The association between AKI and behavioral outcomes was evaluated across all time points using linear mixed effect models, adjusting for sociodemographic variables and disease severity.

Results

AKI was present in 33.2% of children with CM or SMA at baseline. Children ≥6 years of age with CM or SMA who had AKI on admission had worse scores in socio-emotional function in externalizing behaviors (Beta (95% CI), 0.52 (0.20, 0.85), p = 0.001), global executive function (0.48 (0.15, 0.82), p = 0.005) and behavioral regulation (0.66 (0.32, 1.01), p = 0.0002) than children without AKI. There were no behavioral differences associated with AKI in children <6 years of age.

Conclusions

AKI is associated with long-term behavioral problems in children ≥6 years of age with CM or SMA, irrespective of age at study enrollment.

The Effect of Preterm Birth on Renal Development and Renal Health Outcome

Preterm birth is associated with adverse renal health outcomes including hypertension, chronic kidney disease, and an increased rate of progression to end-stage renal failure. This review explores the antenatal, perinatal, and postnatal factors that affect the functional nephron mass of an individual and contribute to long-term kidney outcome. Health-care professionals have opportunities to increase their awareness of the risks to kidney health in this population. Optimizing maternal health around the time of conception and during pregnancy, providing kidney-focused supportive care in the NICU during postnatal nephrogenesis, and avoiding accelerating nephron loss throughout life may all contribute to improved long-term outcomes. There is a need for ongoing research into the long-term kidney outcomes of preterm survivors in mid-to-late adulthood as well as a need for further research into interventions that may improve ex utero nephrogenesis.

Nucleophosmin Phosphorylation as a Diagnostic and Therapeutic Target for Ischemic AKI

Background Ischemic AKI lacks a urinary marker for early diagnosis and an effective therapy. Differential nucleophosmin (NPM) phosphorylation is a potential early marker of ischemic renal cell injury and a therapeutic target.Methods Differential NPM phosphorylation was assessed by mass spectrometry in NPM harvested from murine and human primary renal epithelial cells, fresh kidney tissue, and urine before and after ischemic injury. The biologic behavior and toxicity of NPM was assessed using phospho-NPM mutant proteins that either mimic stress-induced or normal NPM phosphorylation. Peptides designed to interfere with NPM function were used to explore NPM as a therapeutic target.Results Within hours of stress, virtually identical phosphorylation changes were detected at distinct serine/threonine sites in NPM harvested from primary renal cells, tissue, and urine. A phosphomimic NPM protein that replicated phosphorylation under stress localized to the cytosol, formed monomers that interacted with Bax, a cell death protein, coaccumulated with Bax in isolated mitochondria, and significantly increased cell death after stress; wild-type NPM or a phosphomimic NPM with a normal phosphorylation configuration did not. Three renal targeted peptides designed to interfere with NPM at distinct functional sites significantly protected against cell death, and a single dose of one peptide administered several hours after ischemia that would be lethal in untreated mice significantly reduced AKI severity and improved survival.Conclusions These findings establish phosphorylated NPM as a potential early marker of ischemic AKI that links early diagnosis with effective therapeutic interventions.

A prospective multi-center quality improvement initiative (NINJA) indicates a reduction in nephrotoxic acute kidney injury in hospitalized children

Nephrotoxic medication (NTMx) exposure is a common cause of acute kidney injury (AKI) in hospitalized children. The Nephrotoxic Injury Negated by Just-in time Action (NINJA) program decreased NTMx associated AKI (NTMx-AKI) by 62% at one center. To further test the program, we incorporated NINJA across nine centers with the goal of reducing NTMx exposure and, consequently, AKI rates across these centers. NINJA screens all non-critically ill hospitalized patients for high NTMx exposure (over three medications on the same day or an intravenous aminoglycoside over three consecutive days), and then recommends obtaining a daily serum creatinine level in exposed patients for the duration of, and two days after, exposure ending. Additionally, substitution of equally efficacious but less nephrotoxic medications for exposed patients starting the day of exposure was recommended when possible. The main outcome was AKI as defined by the Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) serum creatinine criteria (increase of 50% or 0.3 mg/dl over baseline). The primary outcome measure was AKI episodes per 1000 patient-days. Improvement was defined by statistical process control methodology and confirmed by Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) modeling. Eight consecutive bi-weekly measure rates in the same direction from the established baseline qualified as special cause change for special process control. We observed a significant and sustained 23.8% decrease in NTMx-AKI rates by statistical process control analysis and by ARIMA modeling; similar to those of the pilot single center. Thus, we have successfully applied the NINJA program to multiple pediatric institutions yielding decreased AKI rates.

Peak Creatinine, Cardiopulmonary Bypass, and Mortality After Stage 1 Single-Ventricle Reconstruction

BACKGROUND

Serum creatinine is the most commonly used marker to diagnose acute kidney injury. Studies exploring creatinine patterns in the single-ventricle population are scarce. We studied serum creatinine up to 5 postoperative days after the stage 1 operation and assessed its relationship with outcomes.

METHODS

Neonates who underwent a first-stage single-ventricle operation (Norwood or a Damus-Kaye-Stansel) between 2005 and 2017 were retrospectively analyzed. Peak percentage creatinine change (PPCC) was defined as the difference between the baseline (preoperative) and the peak postoperative level (within 5 postoperative days), expressed as a percentage of the baseline level.

RESULTS

Among 187 neonates included, the median PPCC was 38.7% (interquartile range, 14.1%-73.1%), and in-hospital mortality was 17% (31 of 187). A controlled analysis showed that for every 10-minute increase in cardiopulmonary bypass duration (CPB), the PPCC increased by 1.8% (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.7%-2.9%; P = .002). Risk of in-hospital death increased log-linearly with PPCC. The adjusted odds ratios for death in the hospital associated with a 50%, 100%, and 200%, increase in peak percentage creatinine change were 1.85 (95% CI, 1.23-2.78), 3.41 (95% CI, 1.15-7.72), and 11.66 (95% CI, 2.28-59.63), respectively. In-hospital death was also associated with CPB duration (adjusted odds ratio, 1.13 per 10-minute increase; 95% CI, 1.05-1.22; P = .001).

CONCLUSIONS

Increase in CPB duration has a strong linear association with increase in PPCC after stage 1 single-ventricle reconstruction. Increase in PPCC and CPB duration has a strong linear association with hospital mortality. It is important to identify therapies that minimize complications associated with prolonged CPB duration in high-risk populations.

Clinical consequences of developmental programming of low nephron number

Nephron number in humans varies up to 13-fold, likely reflecting the impact of multiple factors on kidney development, including inherited body size and ethnicity, as well as maternal health and nutrition, fetal exposure to gestational diabetes or preeclampsia and other environmental factors, which may potentially be modifiable. Such conditions predispose to low or high offspring birth weight, growth restriction or preterm birth, which have all been associated with increased risks of higher blood pressures and/or kidney dysfunction in later life. Low birth weight, preterm birth, and intrauterine growth restriction are associated with reduced nephron numbers. Humans with hypertension and chronic kidney disease tend to have fewer nephrons than their counterparts with normal blood pressures or kidney function. A developmentally programmed reduction in nephron number therefore enhances an individual's susceptibility to hypertension and kidney disease in later life. A low nephron number at birth may not lead to kidney dysfunction alone except when severe, but in the face of superimposed acute or chronic kidney injury, a kidney endowed with fewer nephrons may be less able to adapt, and overt kidney disease may develop. Given that millions of babies are born either too small, too big or too soon each year, the population impact of altered renal programming is likely to be significant. Many gestational exposures are modifiable, therefore urgent attention is required to implement public health measures to optimize maternal, fetal, and child health, to prevent or mitigate the consequences of developmental programming, to improve the health future generations.

The Effect of Levosimendan Versus Milrinone on the Occurrence Rate of Acute Kidney Injury Following Congenital Heart Surgery in Infants: A Randomized Clinical Trial

OBJECTIVES

It has been shown that, in contrast to other inotropic agents, levosimendan improves glomerular filtration rate after adult cardiac surgery. The aim of this study was to investigate the efficacy of levosimendan, compared with milrinone, in preventing acute kidney dysfunction in infants after open-heart surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass.

DESIGN

Two-center, double-blinded, prospective, randomized clinical trial.

SETTING

The study was performed in two tertiary pediatric centers, one in Sweden (Gothenburg) and one in Finland (Helsinki).

PATIENTS

Infants between 1 and 12 months old, diagnosed with Tetralogy of Fallot, complete atrioventricular septal defect or nonrestrictive ventricular septal defect, undergoing total corrective cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass.

INTERVENTIONS

Seventy-two infants were randomized to receive a perioperative infusion of levosimendan (0.1 µg/kg/min) or milrinone (0.4 µg/kg/min). The infusion was initiated at the start of cardiopulmonary bypass and continued for 26 hours.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

The primary outcome variable was the absolute value of serum creatinine data on postoperative day 1. Secondary outcomes included the following: 1) acute kidney injury according to the serum creatinine criteria of the Kidney Diseases: Improving Global Outcomes; 2) acute kidney injury with serum creatinine corrected for fluid balance; 3) plasma neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin; 4) cystatin C; 5) urea; 6) lactate; 7) hemodynamic variables; 8) use of diuretics in the PICU; 9) need of dialysis; 10) length of ventilator therapy; and 11) length of PICU stays. There was no significant difference in postoperative serum creatinine between the treatment groups over time (p = 0.65). The occurrence rate of acute kidney injury within 48 hours was 46.9% in the levosimendan group and 39.5% in the milrinone group (p = 0.70). There were no significant differences in other secondary outcome variables between the groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Levosimendan compared with milrinone did not reduce the occurrence rate of acute kidney injury in infants after total corrective heart surgery for atrioventricular septal defect, ventricular septal defect, or Tetralogy of Fallot.

Use of height-independent baseline creatinine imputation method with renal angina index

BACKGROUND

The Renal Angina Index (RAI) is a validated screening tool used at 12 h of pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) admission to predict severe acute kidney injury (AKI) on day 3 of PICU stay. A measured or height-imputed baseline serum creatinine (SCr) is required for AKI diagnosis and RAI calculation, yet these are often lacking. We assessed an age-based, height-independent baseline SCr calculation and compared the RAI values employing this method to their historical counterpart.

METHODS

An electronic algorithm was implemented to generate RAI score for patients admitted to our PICU. We reviewed 157 consecutive patient records from May 2017, until we cumulated 100 with a valid RAI calculation. We compared RAI scores using the age-based SCr imputation method of Pottel to the historical RAI. Our primary outcome was a difference in the rate of RAI fulfillment (≥ 8) reclassification between methods.

RESULTS

Of the first 100 patients, 27 had measured baseline SCr and 73 used height imputation. Only two patients had RAI reclassified with the Pottel method (one in each direction). Being small for age or older were associated with ≥ 25% overestimation of the baseline SCr in 20 patients with the Pottel method compared with height imputation. 15/157 patients had a falsely positive RAI due to lack of measured baseline SCr and height.

CONCLUSION

The age-based method to estimate baseline SCr offers a viable height-independent alternative for RAI calculation. While less precise than a height-based approach, this lack of precision rarely leads to reclassification of patient RAI status.

Global epidemiology and outcomes of acute kidney injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a commonly encountered syndrome associated with various aetiologies and pathophysiological processes leading to decreased kidney function. In addition to retention of waste products, impaired electrolyte homeostasis and altered drug concentrations, AKI induces a generalized inflammatory response that affects distant organs. Full recovery of kidney function is uncommon, which leaves these patients at risk of long-term morbidity and death. Estimates of AKI prevalence range from <1% to 66%. These variations can be explained by not only population differences but also inconsistent use of standardized AKI classification criteria. The aetiology and incidence of AKI also differ between high-income and low-to-middle-income countries. High-income countries show a lower incidence of AKI than do low-to-middle-income countries, where contaminated water and endemic diseases such as malaria contribute to a high burden of AKI. Outcomes of AKI are similar to or more severe than those of patients in high-income countries. In all resource settings, suboptimal early recognition and care of patients with AKI impede their recovery and lead to high mortality, which highlights unmet needs for improved detection and diagnosis of AKI and for efforts to improve care for these patients.

Maternal and environmental risk factors for neonatal AKI and its long-term consequences

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common and life-threatening complication in critically ill neonates. Gestational risk factors for AKI include premature birth, intrauterine growth restriction and low birthweight, which are associated with poor nephron development and are often the consequence of pre-gestational and gestational factors, such as poor nutritional status. Our understanding of how to best optimize renal development and prevent AKI is in its infancy; however, the identification of pre-gestational and gestational factors that increase the risk of adverse neonatal outcomes and the implementation of interventions, such as improving nutritional status early in pregnancy, have the potential to optimize fetal growth and reduce the risk of preterm birth, thereby improving kidney health. The overall risk of AKI among critically ill and premature neonates is exacerbated postnatally as these infants are often exposed to dehydration, septic shock and potentially nephrotoxic medications. Strategies to improve outcomes - for example, through careful evaluation of nephrotoxic drugs - may reduce the incidence of AKI and its consequences among this population. Management strategies and updated technology that will support neonates with AKI are greatly needed. Extremely premature infants and those who survive an episode of AKI should be screened for chronic kidney disease until early adulthood. Here, we provide an overview of our current understanding of neonatal AKI, focusing on its relationship to preterm birth and growth restriction. We describe factors that prevent optimal nephrogenesis during pregnancy and provide a framework for future explorations designed to maximize outcomes in this vulnerable population.

Higher Flow on Cardiopulmonary Bypass in Pediatrics Is Associated With a Lower Incidence of Acute Kidney Injury

Adequate perfusion is of paramount concern during cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) and different methodologies are employed to optimize oxygen delivery. Temperature, hematocrit, and cardiac index (CI) are all modulated during CPB to ensure appropriate support. This study examines 2 different perfusion strategies and their impact on various outcome measures including acute kidney injury (AKI), urine output on CPB, ICU length of stay, time to extubation, and mortality. Predicated upon surgeon preference, the study institution employs 2 different perfusion strategies (PS) during congenital cardiac surgery requiring CPB. One method utilizes a targeted 2.4 L/min/m² CI and nadir hematocrit of 28% (PS1), the other a 3.0 L/min/m² CI with a nadir hematocrit of 25% (PS2). This study retrospectively examines CPB cases during which the 2 perfusion strategies were applied to determine potential differences in packed red blood cell administration, urine output during CPB, AKI post-CPB as defined by the KDIGO criteria, and operative survival as defined by the Society of Thoracic Surgeons. Significant differences were found in urine output while on CPB (P < 0.01) and all combined stages of postoperative AKI (P = 0.01) with the PS2 group faring better in both measures. No significant difference was found between the 2 groups for packed red blood cell administration, mortality, time to extubation, or ICU length of stay. Avoiding a nadir hematocrit less than 25% has been well established but maintaining anything greater than that may not be necessary to achieve adequate oxygen delivery on CPB. Our results indicate that higher CI and oxygen delivery on CPB are associated with a lower rate of AKI and this may be achieved with increased flow rather than increasing the hematocrit thus avoiding unnecessary transfusion.

Renal injury and recovery in pediatric patients after ventricular assist device implantation and cardiac transplant

BACKGROUND

The use of ventricular assist devices (VADs) in children with heart failure may be of particular benefit to those with accompanying renal failure, as improved renal function is seen in some, but not all recipients. We hypothesized that persistent renal dysfunction at 7 days and/or 1 month after VAD implantation would predict chronic kidney disease (CKD) 1 year after heart transplantation (HT).

METHODS

Linkage analysis of all VAD patients enrolled in both the PEDIMACS and PHTS registries between 2012 and 2016. Persistent acute kidney injury (P-AKI), defined as a serum creatinine ≥1.5× baseline, was assessed at post-implant day 7. Estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was determined at implant, 30 days thereafter, and 12 months post-HT. Pre-implant eGFR, eGFR normalization (to ≥90 mL/min/1.73 m² ), and P-AKI were used to predict post-HT CKD (eGFR <90 mL/min/1.73 m² ).

RESULTS

The mean implant eGFR was 85.4 ± 46.5 mL/min/1.73 m² . P-AKI was present in 19/188 (10%). Mean eGFR at 1 month post-VAD implant was 131.1 ± 62.1 mL/min/1.73 m² , significantly increased above baseline (P < 0.001). At 1 year post-HT (n = 133), 60 (45%) had CKD. Lower pre-implant eGFR was associated with post-HT CKD (OR 0.99, CI: 0.97-0.99, P = 0.005); P-AKI was not (OR 0.96, CI: 0.3-3.0, P = 0.9). Failure to normalize renal function 30 days after implant was highly associated with CKD at 1 year post-transplant (OR 12.5, CI 2.8-55, P = 0.003).

CONCLUSIONS

Renal function improves after VAD implantation. Lower pre-implant eGFR and failure to normalize renal function during the support period are risk factors for CKD development after HT.

Risk Factors for Recurrent Acute Kidney Injury in Children Who Undergo Multiple Cardiac Surgeries: A Retrospective Analysis

OBJECTIVES

Determine the risk factors for repeated episodes of acute kidney injury in children who undergo multiple cardiac surgical procedures.

DESIGN

Single-center retrospective chart review.

SETTING

Cardiac ICU at a quaternary pediatric care center.

PATIENTS

Birth to 18 years who underwent at least two cardiac surgical procedures with cardiopulmonary bypass.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

One-hundred eighty patients underwent two cardiac surgical procedures and 89 underwent three. Acute kidney injury was defined by the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes serum creatinine criteria. Acute kidney injury frequency was 26% (n = 46) after surgery 1, 20% (n = 36) after surgery 2, and 24% (n = 21) after surgery 3, with most acute kidney injury occurring on postoperative days 1 and 2. The proportion of patients with severe acute kidney injury increased from surgery 1 to surgery 3. Patients with acute kidney injury had a significantly longer duration of ventilation and length of stay after each surgery. The odds of acute kidney injury after surgery 3 was 2.40 times greater if acute kidney injury was present after surgery 1 or 2 (95% CI, 1.26-4.56; p = 0.008) after adjusting for confounders. The time between surgeries was not significantly associated with acute kidney injury (p = 0.85).

CONCLUSIONS

In a heterogeneous population of pediatric patients with congenital heart disease undergoing multiple cardiopulmonary bypass surgeries, odds of acute kidney injury after a third surgery was increased by the presence of acute kidney injury after prior procedures. Time between surgery did not play a role in increasing odds of acute kidney injury. Further studies in a larger multicenter investigation are necessary to confirm these findings.

Stem Cell Therapies in Kidney Diseases: Progress and Challenges

The prevalence of renal diseases is emerging as a public health problem. Despite major progress in supportive therapy, mortality rates among patients remain high. In an attempt to find innovative treatments to stimulate kidney regeneration, stem cell-based technology has been proposed as a potentially promising strategy. Here, we summarise the renoprotective potential of pluripotent and adult stem cell therapy in experimental models of acute and chronic kidney injury and we explore the different mechanisms at the basis of stem cell-induced kidney regeneration. Specifically, cell engraftment, incorporation into renal structures, or paracrine activities of embryonic or induced pluripotent stem cells as well as mesenchymal stem cells and renal precursors are analysed. We also discuss the relevance of stem cell secretome-derived bioproducts, including soluble factors and extracellular vesicles, and the option of using them as cell-free therapy to induce reparative processes. The translation of the experimental results into clinical trials is also addressed, highlighting the safety and feasibility of stem cell treatments in patients with kidney injury.

Ischaemia reperfusion injury: mechanisms of progression to chronic graft dysfunction

The increasing use of extended criteria organs to meet the demand for kidney transplantation raises an important question of how the severity of early ischaemic injury influences long-term outcomes. Significant acute ischaemic kidney injury is associated with delayed graft function, increased immune-associated events and, ultimately, earlier deterioration of graft function. A comprehensive understanding of immediate molecular events that ensue post-ischaemia and their potential long-term consequences are key to the discovery of novel therapeutic targets. Acute ischaemic injury primarily affects tubular structure and function. Depending on the severity and persistence of the insult, this may resolve completely, leading to restoration of normal function, or be sustained, resulting in persistent renal impairment and progressive functional loss. Long-term effects of acute renal ischaemia are mediated by several mechanisms including hypoxia, HIF-1 activation, endothelial dysfunction leading to vascular rarefaction, sustained pro-inflammatory stimuli involving innate and adaptive immune responses, failure of tubular cells to recover and epigenetic changes. This review describes the biological relevance and interaction of these mechanisms based on currently available evidence.

Acute kidney injury is associated with impaired cognition and chronic kidney disease in a prospective cohort of children with severe malaria

BACKGROUND

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a recognized complication of pediatric severe malaria, but its long-term consequences are unknown.

METHODS

Ugandan children with cerebral malaria (CM, n = 260) and severe malaria anemia (SMA, n = 219) or community children (CC, n = 173) between 1.5 and 12 years of age were enrolled in a prospective cohort study. Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) criteria were used to retrospectively define AKI and chronic kidney disease (CKD). Cognitive testing was conducted using the Mullen Scales of Early Learning in children < 5 and Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC) second edition in children ≥ 5 years of age.

RESULTS

The prevalence of AKI was 35.1%, ranging from 25.1% in SMA to 43.5% in CM. In-hospital mortality was 11.9% in AKI compared to 4.2% in children without AKI (p = 0.001), and post-discharge mortality was 4.7% in AKI compared to 1.3% in children without AKI (p = 0.030) corresponding to an all-cause adjusted hazard ratio of 2.30 (95% CI 1.21, 4.35). AKI was a risk factor for short- and long-term neurocognitive impairment. At 1 week post-discharge, the frequency of neurocognitive impairment was 37.3% in AKI compared to 13.5% in children without AKI (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 2.31 [95% CI 1.32, 4.04]); at 1-year follow-up, it was 13.3% in AKI compared to 3.4% in children without AKI (aOR 2.48 [95% CI 1.01, 6.10]), and at 2-year follow-up, it was 13.0% in AKI compared to 3.4% in children without AKI (aOR 3.03 [95% CI 1.22, 7.58]). AKI was a risk factor for CKD at 1-year follow-up: 7.6% of children with severe malaria-associated AKI had CKD at follow-up compared to 2.8% of children without AKI (p = 0.038) corresponding to an OR of 2.81 (95% CI 1.02, 7.73). The presenting etiology of AKI was consistent with prerenal azotemia, and lactate dehydrogenase as a marker of intravascular hemolysis was an independent risk factor for AKI in CM and SMA (p < 0.0001). In CM, AKI was associated with the presence and severity of retinopathy (p < 0.05) and increased cerebrospinal fluid albumin suggestive of blood-brain barrier disruption.

CONCLUSIONS

AKI is a risk factor for long-term neurocognitive impairment and CKD in pediatric severe malaria.

Sickle cell disease: Clinical presentation and management of a global health challenge

Sickle cell disease is an autosomal recessive, multisystem disorder, characterised by chronic haemolytic anaemia, painful episodes of vaso-occlusion, progressive organ failure and a reduced life expectancy. Sickle cell disease is the most common monogenetic disease, with millions affected worldwide. In well-resourced countries, comprehensive care programs have increased life expectancy of sickle cell disease patients, with almost all infants surviving into adulthood. Therapeutic options for sickle cell disease patients are however, still scarce. Predictors of sickle cell disease severity and a better understanding of pathophysiology and (epi)genetic modifiers are warranted and could lead to more precise management and treatment. This review provides an extensive summary of the pathophysiology and management of sickle cell disease and encompasses the characteristics, complications and current and future treatment options of the disease.

Pirfenidone prevents acute kidney injury in the rat

Background

Pirfenidone is an orally active drug used for the treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis to slow loss of lung function; it acts mainly through an antifibrotic effect but also possesses antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. We assessed the effect of prophylactic administration of pirfenidone on acute kidney injury due to bilateral renal ischemia.

Methods

Eighteen rats were included and divided in: 1) sham-operated rats (S), 2) rats underwent bilateral renal ischemia for 20 min (I/R), and 3) rats treated with pirfenidone 700 mg/kg/day 24 h before surgery and subjected to bilateral renal ischemia for 20 min (I/R + PFN). All the rats were euthanized and studied 24 h after renal reperfusion.

Results

As was expected, the I/R group exhibited a significant reduction in creatinine clearance, urinary output and renal blood flow, as well as extensive tubular injury. These alterations were associated with a significant decrease in urinary excretion of nitrites and nitrates (UNO₂/NO₃V). In the I/R + PFN group, recovery of renal function and UNO₂/NO₃V was observed, together with lesser histological signs of tubular injury compared to the I/R group.

Conclusions

This study shows that prophylactic administration of pirfenidone prevented acute kidney injury due to bilateral ischemia in the rat. Recovery of NO production appears to be one of the mechanism of pirfenidone renoprotective effect. Our findings suggest that pirfenidone is a promising drug to reduce renal injury induced by I/R.

Preterm birth and risk of chronic kidney disease from childhood into mid-adulthood: national cohort study

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relation between preterm birth (gestational age <37 weeks) and risk of CKD from childhood into mid-adulthood.

DESIGN

National cohort study.

SETTING

Sweden.

PARTICIPANTS

4 186 615 singleton live births in Sweden during 1973-2014.

EXPOSURES

Gestational age at birth, identified from nationwide birth records in the Swedish birth registry.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

CKD, identified from nationwide inpatient and outpatient diagnoses through 2015 (maximum age 43 years). Cox regression was used to examine gestational age at birth and risk of CKD while adjusting for potential confounders, and co-sibling analyses assessed the influence of unmeasured shared familial (genetic or environmental) factors.

RESULTS

4305 (0.1%) participants had a diagnosis of CKD during 87.0 million person years of follow-up. Preterm birth and extremely preterm birth (<28 weeks) were associated with nearly twofold and threefold risks of CKD, respectively, from birth into mid-adulthood (adjusted hazard ratio 1.94, 95% confidence interval 1.74 to 2.16; P<0.001; 3.01, 1.67 to 5.45; P<0.001). An increased risk was observed even among those born at early term (37-38 weeks) (1.30, 1.20 to 1.40; P<0.001). The association between preterm birth and CKD was strongest at ages 0-9 years (5.09, 4.11 to 6.31; P<0.001), then weakened but remained increased at ages 10-19 years (1.97, 1.57 to 2.49; P<0.001) and 20-43 years (1.34, 1.15 to 1.57; P<0.001). These associations affected both males and females and did not seem to be related to shared genetic or environmental factors in families.

CONCLUSIONS

Preterm and early term birth are strong risk factors for the development of CKD from childhood into mid-adulthood. People born prematurely need long term follow-up for monitoring and preventive actions to preserve renal function across the life course.

Non-invasive differentiation of non-rejection kidney injury from acute rejection in pediatric renal transplant recipients

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a major concern in pediatric kidney transplant recipients, where non-alloimmune causes must be distinguished from rejection. We sought to identify a urinary metabolite signature associated with non-rejection kidney injury (NRKI) in pediatric kidney transplant recipients. Urine samples (n = 396) from 60 pediatric transplant participants were obtained at time of kidney biopsy and quantitatively assayed for 133 metabolites by mass spectrometry. Metabolite profiles were analyzed via projection on latent structures discriminant analysis. Mixed-effects regression identified laboratory and clinical predictors of NRKI and distinguished NRKI from T cell-mediated rejection (CMR), antibody-mediated rejection (AMR), and mixed CMR/AMR. Urine samples (n = 199) without rejection were split into NRKI (n = 26; ΔSCr ≥25%), pre-NRKI (n = 35; ΔSCr ≥10% and <25%), and no NRKI (n = 138; ΔSCr <10%) groups. The NRKI discriminant score (dscore) distinguished between NRKI and no NRKI (AUC = 0.86; 95% CI = 0.79-0.94), confirmed by leave-one-out cross-validation (AUC = 0.79; 95% CI = 0.68-0.89). The NRKI dscore also distinguished between NRKI and pre-NRKI (AUC = 0.82; 95% CI = 0.71-0.93). In a linear mixed-effects regression model to account for repeated measures, the NRKI dscore was independent of concurrent rejection, but there was a non-statistical trend for higher dscores with rejection severity. A second exploratory classifier developed to distinguish NRKI from clinical rejection had similar test characteristics (AUC = 0.81, 95% CI = 0.70-0.92, confirmed by LOOCV). This study demonstrates the potential of a urine metabolite classifier to detect NRKI in pediatric kidney transplant patients and non-invasively discriminate NRKI from rejection.

Major Adverse Kidney Events in Pediatric Sepsis

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Major adverse kidney events, a composite of death, new kidney replacement therapy, or persistent kidney dysfunction, is a potential patient-centered outcome for clinical trials in sepsis-associated kidney injury. We sought to determine the incidence of major adverse kidney events within 30 days and validate this end point in pediatric sepsis.

DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS

We conducted a retrospective observational study using the Pediatric Health Information Systems Plus database of patients >6 months to <18 years old with a diagnosis of severe sepsis/septic shock; orders for bacterial blood culture, antibiotics, and at least one fluid bolus on hospital day 0/1; and known hospital disposition between January 2007 and December 2011. The primary outcome was incidence of major adverse kidney events within 30 days. Major adverse kidney events within 30 days were validated against all-cause mortality at hospital discharge, hospital length of stay, total hospital costs, hospital readmission within 30 days and 1 year, and lowest eGFR between 3 months and 1 year after discharge. We reported incidence of major adverse kidney events within 30 days with 95% confidence intervals using robust SEM and used multivariable logistic regression to test the association of major adverse kidney events within 30 days with hospital costs and mortality.

RESULTS

Of 1685 admissions, incidence of major adverse kidney events within 30 days was 9.6% (95% confidence interval, 8.1% to 11.0%), including 4.5% (95% confidence interval, 3.5% to 5.4%) death, 1.7% (95% confidence interval, 1.1% to 2.3%) kidney replacement therapy, and 5.8% (95% confidence interval, 4.7% to 6.9%) persistent kidney dysfunction. Patients with versus without major adverse kidney events within 30 days had higher all-cause mortality at hospital discharge (28% versus 1%; P<0.001), higher total hospital costs ($61,188; interquartile range, $21,272-140,356 versus $28,107; interquartile range, $13,056-72,697; P<0.001), and higher proportion with eGFR<60 ml/min per 1.73 m² between 3 months and 1 year after discharge (19% versus 4%; P=0.001). Major adverse kidney events within 30 days was not associated with length of stay or readmissions.

CONCLUSIONS

In children with sepsis, major adverse kidney events within 30 days are common, feasible to measure, and a promising end point for future clinical trials.

Incidence, risk factors, and clinical outcomes of acute kidney injury associated with acute pyelonephritis in patients attending a tertiary care referral center

Acute kidney injury (AKI) associated with acute pyelonephritis (APN) rarely has been reported. The aim of this study was to evaluate the incidence and risk factors of AKI associated with APN. We retrospectively reviewed the medical records of 403 patients over 18-year old age hospitalized for APN management from October 2009 to September 2014 in tertiary care referral center. Demographic data, clinical symptoms and signs, and laboratory findings were gathered from the medical records and analyzed. The mean age of patients was 57 years and APN commonly occurred in female (87.6%). AKI occurred in 253 patients (62.8%). As per the RIFLE classification, renal injury was graded as ‘Risk’ (62.1%), ‘Injury’ (26.5%), and ‘Failure’ (11.4%). AKI patients were more likely a male gender and had complicated APN. The AKI group had a significantly higher tendency to present with shock. The prevalence of underlying chronic kidney disease (CKD) was significantly higher in the AKI group. There was no difference in mortality between the AKI and non-AKI groups. Multivariate analysis revealed that age over 65 (OR 1.93, 95% CI 1.18–3.13, p= .008), complicated (OR 2.13, 95% CI 1.35–3.34, p= .001) and bilateral APN (OR 1.71, 95% CI 1.01–2.88, p= .045), and initial shock (OR 2.44, 95% CI 1.05–5.71, p= .039) were independent risk factors for the occurrence of AKI in patients with APN. Physicians should attempt to prevent, detect, and manage AKI associated with APN in patients with above conditions.

Practical administration of intravenous contrast media in children: screening, prophylaxis, administration and treatment of adverse reactions

Administration of intravenous contrast media to children is a routine practice at many clinical imaging centers, that can involve special considerations. In this paper, we provide practical information to facilitate optimal performance and oversight of this task. We provide targeted screening questions that can help to identify high-risk pediatric patients for both iodine-based and gadolinium-based intravenous contrast media administration. These include children at risk for allergic-like reactions, thyroid dysfunction, contrast-induced nephropathy, and nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. We make recommendations for addressing "yes" responses to screening questions using risk stratification schema that are specific to children. We also present criteria for selecting children for premedication prior to intravenous contrast administration, and suggest pediatric regimens. Additionally, we discuss practical nuances of intravenous contrast media administration to children and provide a quick-reference table of appropriate treatments with pediatric dosages for adverse contrast reactions.

The role of podocyte damage in the etiology of ischemia-reperfusion acute kidney injury and post-injury fibrosis

Background

To establish a model of chronic renal fibrosis following acute kidney injury (AKI) in BALB/c mice and to observe the effect of AKI on podocyte injury and chronic fibrosis of the kidney. Additional aims included using the model to explore the role of podocyte injury in AKI and post-injury fibrosis.

Methods

Fifty BALB/C mice were randomly divided into control group (Ctr), sham group (sham), AKI 20 group (renal ischemia, 20 min reperfusion), AKI 30 group (renal ischemia, 30 min reperfusion) and AKI 40 group (renal ischemia, 40 min reperfusion). Mice serum and 24-h urine were collected on the 8th, 9th, 10th, 14th, and 28th days for urinary protein, serum creatinine (Scr) and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) analysis. HE staining, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Masson staining, Q-PCR, Western Blot and immunohistochemistry were applied.

Results

Serum Scr and BUN levels across all AKI groups at the 9th day were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than controls, with higher reperfusion groups maintaining that increase up to 28 days (P < 0.05). Compared with Ctr group, the urinary protein of the AKI 40 group significantly rose on the 9th day (P < 0.05), normalizing immediately on the 10th day (P < 0.05). In contrast, the AKI 30 group rose significantly on the 14th day (P < 0.05) maintaining elevated levels for two weeks (P < 0.05). HE staining demonstrated ischemia-dependent renal tissue damage was aggravated in the mild to aggravated AKI groups. Mesangial proliferation, glomerulosclerosis, and tubulointerstitial pathology were also significantly increased in these groups (P < 0.05). Masson staining further showed that glomerular, renal tubular, and interstitial collagen were increased by ischemia in a time-dependent manner. Transmission EM additionally that podocytes of the mild to severe AKI groups displayed extensive fusion, exfoliation and GBM exposure. Synaptopodin, Nephrin, and CD2AP mRNA and protein expression demonstrated ischemic time-dependent decreases, while the TRPC6 was increased. There was a significant difference in the levels of Synaptopodin, Nephrin, CD2AP, and TRPC6 between the mild and severe AKI groups (P < 0.05).

Conclusions

1) During the AKI process mice podocyte injury, proteinuria and the subsequent progression into chronic renal fibrosis is observed.2) Podocyte injury may be one of the causes of ischemia-reperfusion acute kidney injury and post-injury fibrosis.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12882-019-1298-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Widening the lens to childhood: relevance and lifetime risk of kidney failure

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Lifetime risk of outcomes is emerging as a highly relevant health indicator, even in the context of low absolute risk of disease progression in short time frames. Evidence to support this concept for kidney failure is increasing, with growing emphasis on the long-term impact of risk factors occurring early in life.

RECENT FINDINGS

Proteinuria and stage of chronic kidney disease (CKD) are now established predictors of CKD progression in children, and youth with type 2 diabetes are emerging as a group at significant risk. Recent population-based studies have also examined the lifetime risk of end-stage renal disease in individuals with any childhood CKD. A recent study found that even in the absence of biomarkers of renal injury, childhood CKD can increase the lifetime risk of end-stage renal disease four-fold, and up to 10-fold in adults less than 40 years of age.

SUMMARY

Children with CKD are at high lifetime risk of kidney failure and require follow-up. Identifying children at highest lifetime risk through the use of biomarkers and risk equations, and determining the optimal duration and intensity of follow-up requires further research.

Big Data and Pediatric Acute Kidney Injury: The Promise of Electronic Health Record Systems

Over the last decade, our understanding of acute kidney injury (AKI) has evolved considerably. The development of a consensus definition standardized the approach to identifying and investigating AKI in children. As a result, pediatric AKI epidemiology has been refined and the consequences of renal injury are better established. Similarly, "big data" methodologies experienced a dramatic evolution and maturation, leading the critical care community to explore potential AKI/big data synergies. One such concept with tremendous potential is electronic health record (EHR) enabled informatics. Much of the promise surrounding these approaches is due to the unique position of the EHR which sits at the intersection of data accumulation and care delivery. EHR data is generated simply via the provision of routine clinical care and should be considered "big" from the standpoint of volume, variety, and velocity as a myriad of diverse elements accumulate rapidly in real time, spontaneously generating an immense dataset. This massive dataset interfaces directly with providers which creates tremendous opportunity. AKI can be diagnosed more accurately, AKI-related care can be optimized, and subsequent outcomes can be improved. Although applying big data concepts to the EHR has proven more challenging than originally thought, we have seen much success and continue to explore its potential. In this review article, we will discuss the EHR in the context of big data concepts, describe approaches applied to date, examine the challenges surrounding optimal application, and explore future directions.

Acute kidney injury in childhood-onset nephrotic syndrome: Incidence and risk factors in hospitalized patients

Background

Nephrotic syndrome (NS) is the most common glomerulopathy in children. Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common complication of NS, caused by severe intravascular volume depletion, acute tubular necrosis, interstitial nephritis, or progression of NS. However, the incidence and risk factors of childhood-onset NS in Korea are unclear. Therefore, we studied the incidence, causes, and risk factors of AKI in hospitalized Korean patients with childhood-onset NS.

Methods

We conducted a retrospective review of patients with childhood-onset NS who were admitted to our center from January 2015 to July 2017. Patients with decreased renal function or hereditary/secondary NS, as well as those admitted for management of other conditions unrelated to NS, were excluded.

Results

During the study period, 65 patients with idiopathic, childhood-onset NS were hospitalized 90 times for management of NS or its complications. Of these 90 cases, 29 met the Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes criteria for AKI (32.2%). They developed AKI in association with infection (n = 12), NS aggravation (n = 11), dehydration (n = 3), and intravenous methylprednisolone administration (n = 3). Age ≥ 9 years at admission and combined use of cyclosporine and renin-angiotensin system inhibitors were risk factors for AKI.

Conclusion

AKI occurred in one-third of the total hospitalizations related to childhood-onset NS, owing to infection, aggravation of NS, dehydration, and possibly high-dose methylprednisolone treatment. Age at admission and use of nephrotoxic agents were associated with AKI. As the AKI incidence is high, AKI should be considered during management of high-risk patients.

Acute Kidney Injury among Hospitalized Children in China

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

High-quality epidemiologic data on AKI in children are particularly lacking in developing countries. This study aimed to assess the epidemiology and clinical correlates of AKI among hospitalized children in China.

DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS

We performed a multicenter study, in a cohort of hospitalized children aged 1 month to 18 years, from 25 general and children's hospitals in China during 2013-2015. We obtained patient-level data from the electronic hospitalization information system and laboratory databases of all children who had at least two serum creatinine tests within any 7-day window during their first 30 days of hospitalization. We identified AKI events according to the creatinine criteria of Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes. The in-hospital outcomes of AKI, including mortality, kidney recovery, and length of stay, were assessed. We estimated the corresponding hazard ratios using a Cox proportional hazard model, with adjustment for age, sex, comorbidities, and clinical procedures.

RESULTS

A total of 19,908 (20%) patients with AKI were identified among 101,836 pediatric inpatients, of which 7220 (7%) were community acquired and 12,688 (13%) were hospital acquired. Up to 96% of these AKI events were not diagnosed on the discharge records. The cumulative incidence of AKI in infants (28%) was twice that in adolescents (12%). The profiles of risk factors differed between community-acquired and hospital-acquired AKI and varied with age. Diarrhea and sepsis were the top risk factors for community-acquired AKI, each contributing 6% of the risk. Congenital heart disease/cardiac surgery was the major risk factor for hospital-acquired AKI, contributing to 19% of cases. Exposure to nephrotoxic drugs, mostly nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and proton pump inhibitors, was common in hospitalized children and was associated with a higher risk of AKI. Death occurred in 842 out of 19,908 patients (4%) with AKI versus 450 out of 81,478 children (0.5%) without AKI. The risk of in-hospital death was higher among children with severe AKI, shock, and respiratory failure. Pediatric AKI was associated with longer hospital stay and higher daily cost, even after adjustment for covariates.

CONCLUSIONS

Pediatric AKI is common and is substantially underdiagnosed in China.

Acute Kidney Injury Epidemiology in pediatrics

We performed a search in the MEDLINE database using the MeSH term: "Acute Kidney Injury", selecting the subtopic "Epidemiology", and applying age and year of publication filters. We also searched for the terms: "acute renal failure" and "epidemiology" "acute tubular necrosis" and "epidemiology" in the title and summary fields with the same filters. In a second search, we searched in the LILACS database, with the terms: "acute renal injury", or "acute renal failure" or "acute kidney injury" and the age filter. All abstracts were evaluated by the authors and the articles considered most relevant, were examined in their entirety. Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) -related mortality ranged from 3-63% in the studies included in this review. AKI etiology has marked regional differences, with sepsis being the main cause in developed countries. In developing countries, primary renal diseases and hypovolemia are still a common cause of AKI.

Fluid Management With Peritoneal Dialysis After Pediatric Cardiac Surgery

Children who undergo cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass are a unique population at high risk for postoperative acute kidney injury (AKI) and fluid overload. Fluid management is important in the postoperative care of these children as fluid overload is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Peritoneal dialysis catheters are an important tool in the armamentarium of a cardiac intensivist and are used for passive drainage for fluid removal or dialysis for electrolyte and uremia control in AKI. Prophylactic placement of a peritoneal catheter is a safe method of fluid removal that is associated with few major complications. Early initiation of peritoneal dialysis has been associated with improved clinical markers and outcomes such as early achievement of a negative fluid balance, lower vasoactive medication needs, shorter duration of mechanical ventilation, and decreased mortality. In this review, we discuss the safety and potential benefits of peritoneal catheters for dialysis or passive drainage in children following cardiopulmonary bypass.

Acute Kidney Injury in Children with Kidney Transplantation

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

AKI is associated with progression of CKD. Little is known about AKI after kidney transplantation in pediatric recipients. We aim to describe the epidemiology, risk factors, consequences, and outcomes of AKI in this population.

DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS

We performed a retrospective longitudinal analysis of pediatric kidney transplant recipients followed at The Hospital for Sick Children (Toronto, Canada) from 2001 to 2012. AKI was defined as an increase in serum creatinine ≥1.5 times baseline, and a rise of serum creatinine ≥1.25 but <1.5 times baseline defined subacute AKI.

RESULTS

Of 179 children, 122 were eligible for analysis. At baseline (3 months post-transplant), median age of the children was 13 years old (interquartile range, 9-16 years old), and 53% had CKD stage 2. Congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract accounted for 46% of children. Over the study period (12 years), the incidence of AKI was 37% (n=45 children), and 65% (79 children) experienced subacute AKI. Twenty-seven percent (33 children) did not develop AKI or subacute AKI. The main causes of AKI were infections other than urinary tract infections, rejection, and urinary tract infections. In a multivariable Poisson regression analysis, independent risk factors for AKI included younger age, girls, grafts from deceased donors, and lower baseline eGFR. AKI was significantly associated with lower long-term GFR and graft loss independent of rejection episodes. Moreover, subacute AKI was associated with progression of CKD.

CONCLUSIONS

AKI and subacute AKI were common after pediatric kidney transplantation, and they were associated with graft loss, lower eGFR, and more rapid progression of CKD.

Acute kidney injury and continuous renal replacement therapy in children; what pediatricians need to know

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is characterized by abrupt deterioration of renal function, and its diagnosis relies on creatinine measurements and urine output. AKI is associated with higher morbidity and mortality, and is a risk factor for development of chronic kidney disease. There is no proven medication for AKI. Therefore, prevention and early detection are important. Physicians should be aware of the risk factors for AKI and should monitor renal function in high-risk patients. Management of AKI includes optimization of volume status and renal perfusion, avoidance of nephrotoxic agents, and sufficient nutritional support. Continuous renal replacement therapy is widely available for critically ill children, and this review provides basic information regarding this therapy. Long-term follow-up of patients with AKI for renal function, blood pressure, and proteinuria is recommended.

Pediatric acute kidney injury and the subsequent risk for chronic kidney disease: is there cause for alarm?

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is characterized clinically as an abrupt decline in renal function marked by reduced excretion of waste products, disordered electrolytes, and disrupted fluid homeostasis. The recent development of a standardized AKI definition has transformed our understanding of AKI epidemiology and outcomes. We now know that in the short term, children with AKI experience greater morbidity and mortality; additionally, observational studies have established that chronic renal sequelae are far more common after AKI events than previously realized. Many of these studies suggest that patients who develop AKI are at greater risk for the subsequent development of chronic kidney disease (CKD). The goal of this review is to critically evaluate the data regarding the association between AKI and CKD in children. Additionally, we describe best practice approaches for future studies, including the use of consensus AKI criteria, the application of rigorous definitions for CKD and renal sequelae, and the inclusion of non-AKI comparator groups. Finally, based upon existing data, we suggest an archetypal approach to follow-up care for the AKI survivors who may be at greater CKD risk, including children with more severe AKI, those who endure repeated AKI episodes, patients who do not experience full recovery, and those with pre-existing CKD.