Substoichiometric levels of Cu2+ ions accelerate the kinetics of fiber formation and promote cell toxicity of amyloid-{beta} from Alzheimer disease

Histidine-rich branched peptides as Cu(II) and Zn(II) chelators with potential therapeutic application in Alzheimer's disease

Two histidine-rich branched peptides with one lysine as a branching unit have been designed and synthesized by solid-phase peptide synthesis. Their complex formation with Cu(II) and Zn(II) as well as their ability to attenuate the metal-ion induced amyloid aggregation has been characterized. Both peptides can keep Cu(II) and Zn(II) in complexed forms at pH 7.4 and can bind two equivalents of metal ions in solutions with excess metal. The stoichiometry, stability and structure of the complexes formed have been determined by pH potentiometry, UV-Vis spectrophotometry, circular dichroism, EPR and NMR spectroscopy and ESI-MS. Both mono- and bimetallic species have been detected over the whole pH range studied. The basic binding mode is either a tridentate {N(amino), N(amide), N(im)} or a histamine-type of coordination which is complemented by the binding of far imidazole or amino groups leading to macrochelate formation. The peptides were able to prevent Cu(II)-induced Aβ(1-40) aggregation but could not effectively compete for Zn(II) in vitro. Our results suggest that branched peptides containing potential metal-binding sites may be suitable metal chelators for reducing the risk of amyloid plaque formation in Alzheimer's disease.

Copper inducing Aβ42 rather than Aβ40 nanoscale oligomer formation is the key process for Aβ neurotoxicity

Copper is known to be a critical factor in Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis, as it is involved in amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide related toxicity. However, the relationship between neurotoxicity and Aβ peptide in the presence of copper remains unclear. The effect of copper has not been clearly differentiated between Aβ42 and Aβ40, and it is still debated whether copper-mediated neurotoxicity is due to reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation or other molecular mechanisms. Here, we describe that copper dramatically affects Aβ42 aggregation and enhances Aβ42 cytotoxicity while it shows no significant effects on Aβ40. These phenomena are mainly because that the strong interactions between copper and Aβ42 lead to great conformation changes, and stabilize Aβ42 aggregates at highly toxic nanoscale oligomer stage, whereas copper shows no similar impact on Aβ40. We also propose a possible molecular mechanism that copper enhances Aβ42 cytotoxicity via perturbing membrane structure. Moreover, we test the effect of an analogue of copper, nickel, on Aβ aggregation and cytotoxicity, finding that nickel also enhances cytotoxicity via Aβ42 nanoscale oligomer formation. These results clarify that the copper-induced Aβ42 nanoscale oligomer formation is the key process for Aβ neurotoxicity, and suggest that disrupting the interactions between copper and Aβ42 peptide to inhibit nanoscale oligomerization process, deserves more attention in AD drug development.

Copper-mediated growth of amyloid β fibrils in the presence of oxidized and negatively charged liposomes

Amyloid β protein (Aβ) from Alzheimer's disease formed fibrillar aggregates and their morphology depended on oxidized and negatively charged liposomes. The morphology of fibrillar aggregates was affected by Cu(2+), together with their growth kinetics. This is because Cu(2+) inhibited the nucleation step in the formation of amyloid Aβ fibrillar aggregates by forming Aβ/Cu complex inactive to the growth of fibrillar aggregates. In addition, this is probably because Cu(2+) affected the fibrillar aggregate formed on the surface of liposomes. These findings would give a better understanding of the formation mechanism of amyloid fibrils on biomembranes.

Role of amyloid-β–metal interactions in Alzheimer’s disease

There is an evolving field of metallobiology that has begun to describe a key role for bioavailable metals (particularly copper, zinc and iron) in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). In particular, there is an apparent failure in metal ion homeostasis, potentially caused by a pathological mislocalization of the metals in the brain, which appears to be an obligatory step in both the precipitation and potentiation of the disease. A number of both preclinical and clinical studies have also provided a strong burden of proof that normalizing metal ion homeostasis represents a valid therapeutic target, and may indeed represent the first disease-modifying strategy for AD. The role of metals in the pathophysiology of AD will be discussed in this article.

Role of metal ions in aggregation of intrinsically disordered proteins in neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases constitute a set of pathological conditions originating from the slow, irreversible, and systematic cell loss within the various regions of the brain and/or the spinal cord. Depending on the affected region, the outcomes of the neurodegeneration are very broad and diverse, ranging from the problems with movements to dementia. Some neurodegenerative diseases are associated with protein misfolding and aggregation. Many proteins that misfold in human neurodegenerative diseases are intrinsically disordered; i.e., they lack a stable tertiary and/or secondary structure under physiological conditions in vitro. These intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) functionally complement ordered proteins, being typically involved in regulation and signaling. There is accumulating evidence that altered metal homeostasis may be related to the progression of neurodegenerative diseases. This review examines the effects of metal ion binding on the aggregation pathways of IDPs found in neurodegenerative diseases.

Cu(II) mediates kinetically distinct, non-amyloidogenic aggregation of amyloid-beta peptides

Cu(II) ions are implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer disease by influencing the aggregation of the amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide. Elucidating the underlying Cu(II)-induced Aβ aggregation is paramount for understanding the role of Cu(II) in the pathology of Alzheimer disease. The aim of this study was to characterize the qualitative and quantitative influence of Cu(II) on the extracellular aggregation mechanism and aggregate morphology of Aβ(1-40) using spectroscopic, microelectrophoretic, mass spectrometric, and ultrastructural techniques. We found that the Cu(II):Aβ ratio in solution has a major influence on (i) the aggregation kinetics/mechanism of Aβ, because three different kinetic scenarios were observed depending on the Cu(II):Aβ ratio, (ii) the metal:peptide stoichiometry in the aggregates, which increased to 1.4 at supra-equimolar Cu(II):Aβ ratio; and (iii) the morphology of the aggregates, which shifted from fibrillar to non-fibrillar at increasing Cu(II):Aβ ratios. We observed dynamic morphological changes of the aggregates, and that the formation of spherical aggregates appeared to be a common morphological end point independent on the Cu(II) concentration. Experiments with Aβ(1-42) were compatible with the conclusions for Aβ(1-40) even though the low solubility of Aβ(1-42) precluded examination under the same conditions as for the Aβ(1-40). Experiments with Aβ(1-16) and Aβ(1-28) showed that other parts than the Cu(II)-binding His residues were important for Cu(II)-induced Aβ aggregation. Based on this study we propose three mechanistic models for the Cu(II)-induced aggregation of Aβ(1-40) depending on the Cu(II):Aβ ratio, and identify key reaction steps that may be feasible targets for preventing Cu(II)-associated aggregation or toxicity in Alzheimer disease.

Alzheimer's Aβ peptides with disease-associated N-terminal modifications: influence of isomerisation, truncation and mutation on Cu2+ coordination

BACKGROUND

The amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide is the primary component of the extracellular senile plaques characteristic of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The metals hypothesis implicates redox-active copper ions in the pathogenesis of AD and the Cu(2+) coordination of various Aβ peptides has been widely studied. A number of disease-associated modifications involving the first 3 residues are known, including isomerisation, mutation, truncation and cyclisation, but are yet to be characterised in detail. In particular, Aβ in plaques contain a significant amount of truncated pyroglutamate species, which appear to correlate with disease progression.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

We previously characterised three Cu(2+)/Aβ1-16 coordination modes in the physiological pH range that involve the first two residues. Based upon our finding that the carbonyl of Ala2 is a Cu(2+) ligand, here we speculate on a hypothetical Cu(2+)-mediated intramolecular cleavage mechanism as a source of truncations beginning at residue 3. Using EPR spectroscopy and site-specific isotopic labelling, we have also examined four Aβ peptides with biologically relevant N-terminal modifications, Aβ1[isoAsp]-16, Aβ1-16(A2V), Aβ3-16 and Aβ3[pE]-16. The recessive A2V mutation preserved the first coordination sphere of Cu(2+)/Aβ, but altered the outer coordination sphere. Isomerisation of Asp1 produced a single dominant species involving a stable 5-membered Cu(2+) chelate at the amino terminus. The Aβ3-16 and Aβ3[pE]-16 peptides both exhibited an equilibrium between two Cu(2+) coordination modes between pH 6-9 with nominally the same first coordination sphere, but with a dramatically different pH dependence arising from differences in H-bonding interactions at the N-terminus.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

N-terminal modifications significantly influence the Cu(2+) coordination of Aβ, which may be critical for alterations in aggregation propensity, redox-activity, resistance to degradation and the generation of the Aβ3-× (× = 40/42) precursor of disease-associated Aβ3[pE]-x species.