151
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Howes P, Green M. Colloidal and optical stability of PEG-capped and phospholipid-encapsulated semiconducting polymer nanospheres in different aqueous media. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2010; 9:1159-66. [PMID: 20585697 DOI: 10.1039/c0pp00106f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Aqueous dispersions of fluorescent semiconducting polymer nanospheres (SPNs) have been synthesised by two methods; miniemulsion and micellar encapsulation. The colloidal and optical stability of SPNs synthesised by these two methods has been compared in order to assess the potential of these fluorescent nanoparticles for use in biological applications. The SPNs were dispersed in water, phosphate buffer solution (PBS) and bovine serum albumin (BSA). The optical stability was studied by absorption and emission spectroscopy, and the colloidal stability was studied by dynamic light scattering (DLS) over a one month period. The results indicate that the micelle-encapsulated SPNs exhibit favourable optical and colloidal stability, and seem promising for use in biological sciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Howes
- Department of Physics, King's College London, Strand, London WC2R 2LS, UK
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152
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Xiong R, Li Z, Mi L, Wang PN, Chen JY, Wang L, Yang WL. Study on the intracellular fate of Tat peptide-conjugated quantum dots by spectroscopic investigation. J Fluoresc 2010; 20:551-6. [PMID: 20084437 DOI: 10.1007/s10895-009-0579-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2009] [Accepted: 12/07/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The photoluminescence (PL) spectrum of water-soluble thiol-capped CdTe quantum dots (QDs) conjugated with Tat peptide in solution showed a remarkable redshift as compared to that of unconjugated QDs. After cellular uptake of the Tat-QDs conjugates, the micro-PL spectrum of Tat-QDs in lysosomes showed a spectral blueshift, which was most probably due to the fact that Tat peptide was digested by the enzymes, leaving the Tat-detached QDs in lysosomes. The reasons for the spectral changes have been discussed in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongling Xiong
- Department of Optical Science and Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
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153
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Howes P, Green M, Bowers A, Parker D, Varma G, Kallumadil M, Hughes M, Warley A, Brain A, Botnar R. Magnetic Conjugated Polymer Nanoparticles as Bimodal Imaging Agents. J Am Chem Soc 2010; 132:9833-42. [DOI: 10.1021/ja1031634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Philip Howes
- Department of Physics, King’s College London, Strand, London WC2R 2LS, U.K., School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Waterloo Campus, King’s College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, U.K., Division of Imaging Sciences, King’s College London, St. Thomas’ Hospital, London SE1 7EH, U.K., Centre for Ultrastructural Imaging, King’s College London, New Hunt’s House, Guy’s Campus, London SE1 1UL, U.K., and London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, 17-19
| | - Mark Green
- Department of Physics, King’s College London, Strand, London WC2R 2LS, U.K., School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Waterloo Campus, King’s College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, U.K., Division of Imaging Sciences, King’s College London, St. Thomas’ Hospital, London SE1 7EH, U.K., Centre for Ultrastructural Imaging, King’s College London, New Hunt’s House, Guy’s Campus, London SE1 1UL, U.K., and London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, 17-19
| | - Alex Bowers
- Department of Physics, King’s College London, Strand, London WC2R 2LS, U.K., School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Waterloo Campus, King’s College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, U.K., Division of Imaging Sciences, King’s College London, St. Thomas’ Hospital, London SE1 7EH, U.K., Centre for Ultrastructural Imaging, King’s College London, New Hunt’s House, Guy’s Campus, London SE1 1UL, U.K., and London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, 17-19
| | - David Parker
- Department of Physics, King’s College London, Strand, London WC2R 2LS, U.K., School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Waterloo Campus, King’s College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, U.K., Division of Imaging Sciences, King’s College London, St. Thomas’ Hospital, London SE1 7EH, U.K., Centre for Ultrastructural Imaging, King’s College London, New Hunt’s House, Guy’s Campus, London SE1 1UL, U.K., and London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, 17-19
| | - Gopal Varma
- Department of Physics, King’s College London, Strand, London WC2R 2LS, U.K., School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Waterloo Campus, King’s College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, U.K., Division of Imaging Sciences, King’s College London, St. Thomas’ Hospital, London SE1 7EH, U.K., Centre for Ultrastructural Imaging, King’s College London, New Hunt’s House, Guy’s Campus, London SE1 1UL, U.K., and London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, 17-19
| | - Mathew Kallumadil
- Department of Physics, King’s College London, Strand, London WC2R 2LS, U.K., School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Waterloo Campus, King’s College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, U.K., Division of Imaging Sciences, King’s College London, St. Thomas’ Hospital, London SE1 7EH, U.K., Centre for Ultrastructural Imaging, King’s College London, New Hunt’s House, Guy’s Campus, London SE1 1UL, U.K., and London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, 17-19
| | - Mary Hughes
- Department of Physics, King’s College London, Strand, London WC2R 2LS, U.K., School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Waterloo Campus, King’s College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, U.K., Division of Imaging Sciences, King’s College London, St. Thomas’ Hospital, London SE1 7EH, U.K., Centre for Ultrastructural Imaging, King’s College London, New Hunt’s House, Guy’s Campus, London SE1 1UL, U.K., and London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, 17-19
| | - Alice Warley
- Department of Physics, King’s College London, Strand, London WC2R 2LS, U.K., School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Waterloo Campus, King’s College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, U.K., Division of Imaging Sciences, King’s College London, St. Thomas’ Hospital, London SE1 7EH, U.K., Centre for Ultrastructural Imaging, King’s College London, New Hunt’s House, Guy’s Campus, London SE1 1UL, U.K., and London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, 17-19
| | - Anthony Brain
- Department of Physics, King’s College London, Strand, London WC2R 2LS, U.K., School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Waterloo Campus, King’s College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, U.K., Division of Imaging Sciences, King’s College London, St. Thomas’ Hospital, London SE1 7EH, U.K., Centre for Ultrastructural Imaging, King’s College London, New Hunt’s House, Guy’s Campus, London SE1 1UL, U.K., and London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, 17-19
| | - Rene Botnar
- Department of Physics, King’s College London, Strand, London WC2R 2LS, U.K., School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Waterloo Campus, King’s College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, U.K., Division of Imaging Sciences, King’s College London, St. Thomas’ Hospital, London SE1 7EH, U.K., Centre for Ultrastructural Imaging, King’s College London, New Hunt’s House, Guy’s Campus, London SE1 1UL, U.K., and London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, 17-19
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154
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Getting across the plasma membrane and beyond: intracellular uses of colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals. J Biomed Biotechnol 2010; 2007:68963. [PMID: 18273411 PMCID: PMC2217606 DOI: 10.1155/2007/68963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2007] [Accepted: 10/12/2007] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Semiconductor nanocrystals (NCs) are increasingly being used as photoluminescen markers in biological imaging. Their brightness, large Stokes shift, and high photostability compared to organic fluorophores permit the exploration of biological phenomena at the single-molecule scale with superior temporal resolution and spatial precision. NCs have predominantly been used as extracellular markers for tagging and tracking membrane proteins. Successful internalization and intracellular labelling with NCs have been demonstrated for both fixed immunolabelled and live cells. However, the precise localization and subcellular compartment labelled are less clear. Generally, live cell studies are limited by the requirement of fairly invasive protocols for loading NCs and the relatively large size of NCs compared to the cellular machinery, along with the subsequent sequestration of NCs in endosomal/lysosomal compartments. For long-period observation the potential cytotoxicity of cytoplasmically loaded NCs must be evaluated. This review focuses on the challenges of intracellular uses of NCs.
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155
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Development of FRET-based assays in the far-red using CdTe quantum dots. J Biomed Biotechnol 2010; 2007:54169. [PMID: 18273410 PMCID: PMC2217589 DOI: 10.1155/2007/54169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2007] [Accepted: 10/11/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Colloidal quantum dots (QDs) are now commercially available in a biofunctionalized form, and Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) between bioconjugated dots and fluorophores within the visible range has been observed. We are particularly interested in the far-red region, as from a biological perspective there are benefits in pushing to ∼700 nm to minimize optical absorption (ABS) within tissue and to avoid cell autofluorescence. We report on FRET between streptavidin- (STV-) conjugated CdTe quantum dots, Qdot705-STV, with biotinylated DY731-Bio fluorophores in a donor-acceptor assay. We also highlight the changes in DY731-Bio absorptivity during the streptavidin-biotin binding process which can be attributed to the structural reorientation. For fluorescence beyond 700 nm, different alloy compositions are required for the QD core and these changes directly affect the fluorescence decay dynamics producing a marked biexponential decay with a long-lifetime component in excess of 100 nanoseconds. We compare the influence of the two QD relaxation routes upon FRET dynamics in the presence of DY731-Bio.
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156
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Delehanty JB, Bradburne CE, Boeneman K, Susumu K, Farrell D, Mei BC, Blanco-Canosa JB, Dawson G, Dawson PE, Mattoussi H, Medintz IL. Delivering quantum dot-peptide bioconjugates to the cellular cytosol: escaping from the endolysosomal system. Integr Biol (Camb) 2010; 2:265-77. [PMID: 20535418 DOI: 10.1039/c0ib00002g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
For luminescent quantum dots (QDs) to realize their full potential as intracellular labeling, imaging and sensing reagents, robust noninvasive methods for their delivery to the cellular cytosol must be developed. Our aim in this study was to explore a range of methods aimed at delivering QDs to the cytosol. We have previously shown that QDs functionalized with a polyarginine 'Tat' cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) could be specifically delivered to cells via endocytic uptake with no adverse effects on cellular proliferation. We began by assessing the long-term intracellular fate and stability of these QD-peptide conjugates. We found that the QDs remained sequestered within acidic endolysosomal vesicles for at least three days after initial uptake while the CPP appeared to remain stably associated with the QD throughout this time. We next explored techniques designed to either actively deliver QDs directly to the cytosol or to combine endocytosis with subsequent endosomal escape to the cytosol in several eukaryotic cell lines. Active delivery methods such as electroporation and nucleofection delivered only modest amounts of QDs to the cytosol as aggregates. Delivery of QDs using a variety of transfection polymers also resulted in primarily endosomal sequestration of QDs. However, in one case the commercial PULSin reagent did facilitate a modest cytosolic dispersal of QDs, but only after several days in culture and with significant polymer-induced cytotoxicity. Finally, we demonstrated that an amphiphilic peptide designed to mediate cell penetration and vesicle membrane interactions could mediate rapid QD uptake by endocytosis followed by a slower efficient endosomal release which peaked at 48 h after initial delivery. Importantly, this QD-peptide bioconjugate elicited minimal cytotoxicity in the cell lines tested.
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Affiliation(s)
- James B Delehanty
- Center for Bio/Molecular Science and Engineering, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC 20375, USA.
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157
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Ko HC, Yuan CT, Lin SH, Tang J. Blocked Electron Transfer and Suppressed Blinking of Single CdSe/ZnS Quantum Dots in Agarose Gel. J CHIN CHEM SOC-TAIP 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/jccs.201000075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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158
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Ioannou D, Griffin DK. Nanotechnology and molecular cytogenetics: the future has not yet arrived. NANO REVIEWS 2010; 1:NANO-1-5117. [PMID: 22110858 PMCID: PMC3215214 DOI: 10.3402/nano.v1i0.5117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2010] [Revised: 04/01/2010] [Accepted: 04/07/2010] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Quantum dots (QDs) are a novel class of inorganic fluorochromes composed of nanometer-scale crystals made of a semiconductor material. They are resistant to photo-bleaching, have narrow excitation and emission wavelengths that can be controlled by particle size and thus have the potential for multiplexing experiments. Given the remarkable optical properties that quantum dots possess, they have been proposed as an ideal material for use in molecular cytogenetics, specifically the technique of fluorescent in situ hybridisation (FISH). In this review, we provide an account of the current QD-FISH literature, and speculate as to why QDs are not yet optimised for FISH in their current form.
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159
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Park JJ, Weiger MC, Lacerda SHDP, Pristinski D, Becker ML, Douglas JF, Raghavan D, Karim A. Characterization of non-equilibrium nanoparticle adsorption on a model biological substrate. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2010; 26:4822-4830. [PMID: 20099807 DOI: 10.1021/la903581w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The kinetics of nanoparticle (NP) adsorption on a model biological interface (collagen) is measured in microfluidic channels using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) imaging over a range of CdSe/ZnS quantum dot concentrations to investigate the underlying binding process. Spherical CdSe/ZnS core-shell NP, derivatized with 3-mercaptopropionic acid (3-MPA), were considered to be model NPs because of their widespread use in biological applications and their relatively monodisperse size. The kinetic adsorption data suggests that the binding between the NP and the collagen substrate is irreversible at room temperature (pH approximately 7.4), and this type of adsorption process was further characterized in the context of a surface absorption model. Specifically, diffusion-limited adsorption was found to predominate the adsorption process at lower concentrations (<0.4 micromol/L), and NP adsorption was reaction-limited at higher concentration (>0.4 micromol/L). A limited pH study of our system indicates that NPs desorb from collagen under acidic conditions (pH 5.5); no significant desorption was observed under neutral and basic pH conditions. These observations are consistent with electrostatic interactions being the dominant force governing NP desorption from collagen substrates. Our present methodology for characterizing the seemingly irreversible NP adsorption complements our earlier study where NP adsorption onto weakly adsorbing surfaces (self-assembled monolayers) was characterized by Langmuir NP adsorption measurements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung Jin Park
- Polymers Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, USA
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160
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Bera D, Qian L, Tseng TK, Holloway PH. Quantum Dots and Their Multimodal Applications: A Review. MATERIALS 2010. [PMCID: PMC5445848 DOI: 10.3390/ma3042260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 419] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Semiconducting quantum dots, whose particle sizes are in the nanometer range, have very unusual properties. The quantum dots have band gaps that depend in a complicated fashion upon a number of factors, described in the article. Processing-structure-properties-performance relationships are reviewed for compound semiconducting quantum dots. Various methods for synthesizing these quantum dots are discussed, as well as their resulting properties. Quantum states and confinement of their excitons may shift their optical absorption and emission energies. Such effects are important for tuning their luminescence stimulated by photons (photoluminescence) or electric field (electroluminescence). In this article, decoupling of quantum effects on excitation and emission are described, along with the use of quantum dots as sensitizers in phosphors. In addition, we reviewed the multimodal applications of quantum dots, including in electroluminescence device, solar cell and biological imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debasis Bera
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: (D.B.); (P.H.H.); Tel.: 352-846-3331; Fax: 352-392-4911 202
| | | | | | - Paul H. Holloway
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: (D.B.); (P.H.H.); Tel.: 352-846-3331; Fax: 352-392-4911 202
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161
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Biju V, Mundayoor S, Omkumar RV, Anas A, Ishikawa M. Bioconjugated quantum dots for cancer research: Present status, prospects and remaining issues. Biotechnol Adv 2010; 28:199-213. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2009.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2009] [Revised: 11/19/2009] [Accepted: 11/21/2009] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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162
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Mansur HS. Quantum dots and nanocomposites. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2010; 2:113-29. [DOI: 10.1002/wnan.78] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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163
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Resch-Genger U, Grabolle M, Nitschke R, Nann T. Nanocrystals and Nanoparticles Versus Molecular Fluorescent Labels as Reporters for Bioanalysis and the Life Sciences: A Critical Comparison. ADVANCED FLUORESCENCE REPORTERS IN CHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGY II 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-04701-5_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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164
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Wang X, Qu F, Chen Z, Liang T, Qu A. Labeling and imaging of GLUT4 in live L6 cells with quantum dots. Biochem Cell Biol 2009; 87:687-94. [PMID: 19767831 DOI: 10.1139/o09-041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
GLUT4 is sequestered in intracellular storage compartments in a basal state and is rapidly translocated to the cell surface in response to insulin stimulation. Regulation of GLUT4 distribution is key for maintaining whole-body glucose homeostasis. To investigate the complicated intracellular movement of GLUT4 vesicles and their interactions with organelles in detail, new probes suitable for long-term tracking of cellular events are required. In this study, we introduce for the first time quantum dots (QDs) as a superior probe into the research of the mechanisms of GLUT4 translocation. QDs are light-emitting semiconductor nanoparticles with unique optical and spectroscopic properties, such as broad absorption, narrow and tunable emission, resistance to photobleaching, strong luminescence, and long luminescent lifetimes. Owing to their remarkable photophysical properties and relatively small size, QDs are emerging as an alternative to conventional dyes for fluorescence-based applications. We have developed a procedure for labeling and imaging GLUT4 in live cells with streptavidin-conjugated quantum dot (QD-SA) and demonstrated that QDs contained in cytoplasm have no obvious negative influence on L6 cells. This study provides a sensitive, nontoxic, long-term imaging platform for observing the dynamics and regulated characteristics of GLUT4 transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxuan Wang
- D11-304, Institute of Biophysics and Biochemistry, School of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, People's Republic of China
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165
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Development of a fluorescent in situ method for visualization of enteric viruses. Appl Environ Microbiol 2009; 75:7822-7. [PMID: 19854924 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01986-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Studying the interactions between enteric pathogens and their environment is important to improving our understanding of their persistence and transmission. However, this remains challenging in large part because of difficulties associated with tracking pathogens in their natural environment(s). In this study, we report a fluorescent labeling strategy which was applied to murine norovirus (MNV-1), a human norovirus surrogate, and hepatitis A virus (HAV). Specifically, streptavidin-labeled Quantum dots (Q-Dots) were bound to biotinylated capsids of MNV-1 and HAV (bio-MNV-1 and bio-HAV); the process was confirmed by using a sandwich-type approach in which streptavidin-bound plates were reacted with biotinylated virus followed by a secondary binding to Q-Dots with an emission range of 635 to 675 nm (Q-Dots 655). The assay demonstrated a relative fluorescence of 528 +/- 48.1 and 112 +/- 8.6 for bio-MNV-1 and control MNV-1, respectively. The biotinylation process did not impact virus infectivity, nor did it interfere with the interactions between the virus and host cells or model produce items. Using fluorescent microscopy, it was possible to visualize both bio-HAV and bio-MNV-1 attached to the surfaces of permissive mammalian cells and green onion tissue. The method provides a powerful tool for the labeling and detection of enteric viruses (and their surrogates) which can be used to track virus behavior in situ.
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166
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Kim JU, Kim YK, Yang H. Reverse micelle-derived Cu-doped Zn(1-x)Cd(x)S quantum dots and their core/shell structure. J Colloid Interface Sci 2009; 341:59-63. [PMID: 19833349 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2009.09.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2009] [Revised: 09/18/2009] [Accepted: 09/19/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Reverse micelle chemistry-derived Cu-doped Zn(1-x)Cd(x)S quantum dots (QDs) with the composition (x) of 0, 0.5, 1 are reported. The Cu emission was found to be dependent on the host composition of QDs. While a dim green/orange emission was observed from ZnS:Cu QDs, a relatively strong red emission could be obtained from CdS:Cu and Zn(0.5)Cd(0.5)S:Cu QDs. Luminescent properties of undoped QDs versus Cu-doped ones and quantum yields of alloyed ZnCdS versus CdS QDs are compared and discussed. To enhance Cu-related red emission of CdS:Cu and Zn(0.5)Cd(0.5)S:Cu core QDs, core/shell structured QDs with a wider band gap of ZnS shell are also demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jong-Uk Kim
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Hongik University, Seoul 121-791, South Korea
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167
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Breus VV, Heyes CD, Tron K, Nienhaus GU. Zwitterionic biocompatible quantum dots for wide pH stability and weak nonspecific binding to cells. ACS NANO 2009; 3:2573-80. [PMID: 19719085 DOI: 10.1021/nn900600w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Applications of water-soluble quantum dots (QDs) in the life sciences are limited by their poor colloidal stability in physiological media and nonspecific interaction with biomatter, particularly cell membranes. We have studied colloidal stability and nonspecific interactions with living cells for zwitterionic d-penicillamine-coated QDs (DPA-QDs) and the traditionally used carboxylated 11-mercaptoundecanoic acid-coated QDs (MUA-QDs) and found clear advantages of DPA-QDs. In single molecule fluorescence experiments, DPA-QDs showed no aggregation over the physiologically relevant pH range of 5-9, whereas MUA-QDs showed significant aggregation below pH 9. Upon exposure to living Mono Mac 6 cells, DPA-QDs, which possess overall charge-neutral surfaces, exhibited weak interactions with the cell membrane and were easily removed by flushing with buffer. By contrast, the highly charged MUA-QDs strongly associated with the cells and could not be removed even by extensive rinsing with buffer solution. DPA-QDs exhibit a high chemical stability even in strongly oxidizing conditions, in contrast to cysteine-coated QDs reported earlier. This beneficial property may arise from reduced interactions between DPA ligands due to steric effects of the methyl groups on their beta-carbon atoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir V Breus
- Institute of Biophysics, University of Ulm, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany.
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168
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In vitro and in vivo documentation of quantum dots labeled Trypanosoma cruzi–Rhodnius prolixus interaction using confocal microscopy. Parasitol Res 2009; 106:85-93. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-009-1631-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2008] [Accepted: 09/04/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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169
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Lee SF, Osborne MA. Brightening, Blinking, Bluing and Bleaching in the Life of a Quantum Dot: Friend or Foe? Chemphyschem 2009; 10:2174-91. [DOI: 10.1002/cphc.200900200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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170
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Schumacher WC, Phipps AJ, Dutta PK. Detection of Bacillus anthracis spores: comparison of quantum dot and organic dye labeling agents. ADV POWDER TECHNOL 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apt.2009.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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171
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Kamruzzaman Selim KM, Xing ZC, Guo H, Kang IK. Immobilization of lactobionic acid on the surface of cadmium sulfide nanoparticles and their interaction with hepatocytes. JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE. MATERIALS IN MEDICINE 2009; 20:1945-1953. [PMID: 19365615 DOI: 10.1007/s10856-009-3741-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2008] [Accepted: 03/23/2009] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
In the current study, beta-galactose-carrying lactobionic acid (LA) was conjugated on the surface of mercaptoacetic acid-coated cadmium sulfide nanoparticles (CSNPs) to ensure specific recognition of liver cells (hepatocytes) and to enhance biocompatibility. Maltotrionic acid-coated CSNPs (MCSNPs) were also prepared for use as a control. The results showed that LA-immobilized CSNPs (LCSNPs) were selectively and rapidly internalized into hepatocytes and emitted more intense fluorescence images as well as demonstrated increased biocompatible behavior in vitro than those of CSNPs and MCSNPs. Furthermore, the uptake amount of LCSNPs into hepatocytes was higher than that of CSNPs and MCSNPs. All these results indicate that LCSNPs may find ever-growing applications in biological labels and detection or contrast agents in life science and medical diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- K M Kamruzzaman Selim
- Department of Polymer Science, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 702-701, South Korea
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172
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Frigoli M, Ouadahi K, Larpent C. A Cascade FRET-Mediated Ratiometric Sensor for Cu2+Ions Based on Dual Fluorescent Ligand-Coated Polymer Nanoparticles. Chemistry 2009; 15:8319-30. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.200900475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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173
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Ioannou D, Tempest HG, Skinner BM, Thornhill AR, Ellis M, Griffin DK. Quantum dots as new-generation fluorochromes for FISH: an appraisal. Chromosome Res 2009; 17:519-30. [PMID: 19644760 DOI: 10.1007/s10577-009-9051-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2009] [Revised: 03/23/2009] [Accepted: 05/20/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
In the field of nanotechnology, quantum dots (QDs) are a novel class of inorganic fluorochromes composed of nanometre-scale crystals made of a semiconductor material. Given the remarkable optical properties that they possess, they have been proposed as an ideal material for use in fluorescent in-situ hybridization (FISH). That is, they are resistant to photobleaching and they excite at a wide range of wavelengths but emit light in a very narrow band that can be controlled by particle size and thus have the potential for multiplexing experiments. The principal aim of this study was to compare the potential of QDs against traditional organic fluorochromes in both indirect (i.e. QD-conjugated streptavidin) and direct (i.e. synthesis of QD-labelled FISH probes) detection methods. In general, the indirect experiments met with a degree of success, with FISH applications demonstrated for chromosome painting, BAC mapping and use of oligonucleotide probes on human and avian chromosomes/nuclei. Many of the reported properties of QDs (e.g. brightness, 'blinking' and resistance to photobleaching) were observed. On the other hand, signals were more frequently observed where the chromatin was less condensed (e.g. around the periphery of the chromosome or in the interphase nucleus) and significant bleed-through to other filters was apparent (despite the reported narrow emission spectra). Most importantly, experimental success was intermittent (sometimes even in identical, parallel experiments) making attempts to improve reliability difficult. Experimentation with direct labelling showed evidence of the generation of QD-DNA constructs but no successful FISH experiments. We conclude that QDs are not, in their current form, suitable materials for FISH because of the lack of reproducibility of the experiments; we speculate why this might be the case and look forward to the possibility of nanotechnology forming the basis of future molecular cytogenetic applications.
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174
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Senevirathna W, Kiro R, Rosen R, Popov I, Belkin S, Wells M. CdSe quantum dots induce superoxide stress in engineered biosensor bacteria. Nanotoxicology 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/17435390802546089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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175
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Grabolle M, Spieles M, Lesnyak V, Gaponik N, Eychmüller A, Resch-Genger U. Determination of the Fluorescence Quantum Yield of Quantum Dots: Suitable Procedures and Achievable Uncertainties. Anal Chem 2009. [DOI: 10.1021/ac900308v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 490] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Markus Grabolle
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Richard-Willstaetter-Strasse 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany, and Physical Chemistry, TU Dresden, Bergstrasse 66b, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - Monika Spieles
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Richard-Willstaetter-Strasse 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany, and Physical Chemistry, TU Dresden, Bergstrasse 66b, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - Vladimir Lesnyak
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Richard-Willstaetter-Strasse 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany, and Physical Chemistry, TU Dresden, Bergstrasse 66b, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - Nikolai Gaponik
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Richard-Willstaetter-Strasse 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany, and Physical Chemistry, TU Dresden, Bergstrasse 66b, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - Alexander Eychmüller
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Richard-Willstaetter-Strasse 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany, and Physical Chemistry, TU Dresden, Bergstrasse 66b, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - Ute Resch-Genger
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Richard-Willstaetter-Strasse 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany, and Physical Chemistry, TU Dresden, Bergstrasse 66b, 01062 Dresden, Germany
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176
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Wang T, Chen JY, Zhen S, Wang PN, Wang CC, Yang WL, Peng Q. Thiol-capped CdTe quantum dots with two-photon excitation for imaging high autofluorescence background living cells. J Fluoresc 2009; 19:615-21. [PMID: 19104920 DOI: 10.1007/s10895-008-0452-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2008] [Accepted: 12/03/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
To effectively image living cells with quantum dots (QDs), particularly for those cells containing high content of native fluorophores, the two-photon excitation (TPE) with a femto-second 800 nm laser was employed and compared with the single-photon excitations (SPE) of 405 nm and 488 nm in BY-2 Tobacco (BY-2-T) and human hepatocellular carcinoma (QGY) cells, respectively. The 405 nm SPE produced the bright photoluminescence (PL) signals of cellular QDs but also induced a strong autofluorescence(AF) from the native fluorophores like flavins in cells. The AF occupied about 30% and 13% of the total signals detected in QD imaging channel in the BY-2-T and QGY cells, respectively. With the excitation of 488 nm SPE, the PL signals were lower than those excited with the 405 nm SPE, although the AF signals were also reduced. The 800 nm TPE generated the best PL images of intracellular QDs with the highest signal ratio of PL to AF, because the two-photon absorption cross section of QDs is much higher than that of the native fluorophores. By means of the TPE, the reliable cellular imaging with QDs, even for the cells having the high AF background, can be achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Wang
- Surface Physics Laboratory (National key laboratory) and Department of Physics, Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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177
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Green M, Howes P, Berry C, Argyros O, Thanou M. Simple conjugated polymer nanoparticles as biological labels. Proc Math Phys Eng Sci 2009. [DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2009.0181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of nanoparticles in biology, especially in cellular imaging, is extremely promising and offers numerous advantages over existing organic dye systems. There are, however, constraints that need to be addressed before the use of such materials in mainstream clinical applications can be realized. One of the main concerns is the use of metal-containing particles that are potentially toxic or interfere with other diagnostic processes. Here, we present the use of simple conjugated polymer nanoparticles as alternative photostable cellular optical imaging agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Green
- Department of Physics, King’s College London, The Strand, London WC2R 2LS, UK
| | - Philip Howes
- Department of Physics, King’s College London, The Strand, London WC2R 2LS, UK
| | - Catherine Berry
- Centre for Cell Engineering, University of Glasgow, Joseph Black Building, IBLS, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Orestis Argyros
- Department of Pharmacy, King’s College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK
- Genetic Therapies Centre, Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, Flowers Building, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Maya Thanou
- Department of Pharmacy, King’s College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK
- Genetic Therapies Centre, Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, Flowers Building, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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178
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Selim KMK, Kang IK, Guo H. Albumin-conjugated cadmium sulfide nanoparticles and their interaction with KB cells. Macromol Res 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/bf03218881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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179
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Hennig S, van de Linde S, Heilemann M, Sauer M. Quantum dot triexciton imaging with three-dimensional subdiffraction resolution. NANO LETTERS 2009; 9:2466-70. [PMID: 19453186 DOI: 10.1021/nl9012387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
We describe a simple method that improves optical resolution in fluorescence microscopy approximately 1.7-fold in all three dimensions and can be implemented on any basic confocal scanning microscope. This approach is based on three-photon absorption of commercially available quantum dots generating a triple exciton (triexciton) and subsequent blue-shifted fluorescence emission following recombination of the triexciton. As a pure physical approach, the resolution enhancement is independent from the nanoenvironment and demonstrated to work in living cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Hennig
- Applied Laser Physics and Laser Spectroscopy and Bielefeld Institute for Biophysics and Nanoscience, Bielefeld University, Universitatsstrasse 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
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180
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181
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Zhang Y, Mi L, Xiong R, Wang PN, Chen JY, Yang W, Wang C, Peng Q. Subcellular Localization of Thiol-Capped CdTe Quantum Dots in Living Cells. NANOSCALE RESEARCH LETTERS 2009; 4:606-12. [PMID: 20596411 PMCID: PMC2893999 DOI: 10.1007/s11671-009-9307-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2008] [Accepted: 10/17/2008] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Internalization and dynamic subcellular distribution of thiol-capped CdTe quantum dots (QDs) in living cells were studied by means of laser scanning confocal microscopy. These unfunctionalized QDs were well internalized into human hepatocellular carcinoma and rat basophilic leukemia cells in vitro. Co-localizations of QDs with lysosomes and Golgi complexes were observed, indicating that in addition to the well-known endosome-lysosome endocytosis pathway, the Golgi complex is also a main destination of the endocytosed QDs. The movement of the endocytosed QDs toward the Golgi complex in the perinuclear region of the cell was demonstrated. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s11671-009-9307-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Zhang
- Department of Optical Science and Engineering, Key Lab for Advanced Photonic Materials and Devices, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Lan Mi
- Department of Optical Science and Engineering, Key Lab for Advanced Photonic Materials and Devices, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Rongling Xiong
- Department of Optical Science and Engineering, Key Lab for Advanced Photonic Materials and Devices, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Pei-Nan Wang
- Department of Optical Science and Engineering, Key Lab for Advanced Photonic Materials and Devices, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Ji-Yao Chen
- Surface Physics Laboratory (National Key Lab) and Department of Physics, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Wuli Yang
- Department of Macromolecular Science and Key Lab of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Changchun Wang
- Department of Macromolecular Science and Key Lab of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Qian Peng
- Department of Pathology, The National Hospital-Norwegian Radium Hospital, University of Oslo, Montebello, Oslo, Norway
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182
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Howes P, Thorogate R, Green M, Jickells S, Daniel B. Synthesis, characterisation and intracellular imaging of PEG capped BEHP-PPV nanospheres. Chem Commun (Camb) 2009:2490-2. [PMID: 19532866 DOI: 10.1039/b903405f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Aqueous dispersions of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) capped poly[2-(2',5'-bis(2''-ethylhexyloxy)phenyl)-1,4-phenylene vinylene] (BEHP-PPV) nanospheres with an average particle diameter of 13 nm have been synthesised by a miniemulsion route and used in simple intracellular imaging experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Howes
- Department of Physics, King's College London, The Strand, UK
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183
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Troia A, Giovannozzi A, Amato G. Preparation of tunable silicon q-dots through ultrasound. ULTRASONICS SONOCHEMISTRY 2009; 16:448-451. [PMID: 19201244 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2008.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2008] [Revised: 12/23/2008] [Accepted: 12/23/2008] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Silicon quantum dots (QDs) have been prepared through ultrasound treatments of light-emitting porous silicon layers (PSL) electrochemically etched from a p(+) type crystalline silicon (c-Si). The sonication treatments allowed separating the porous fraction from the bulk of c-Si as well as to mechanically reduce their dimensions. The ultrasounds processes have been carried out in two different organic solvents (toluene and tetrahydrofuran), and allowed obtaining silicon QDs emitting light in the blue-green part of the visible spectrum (estimated QDs diameter around 5 nm). Moreover, by adding the proper chemicals in the solvents, such as alkenes, or simply paraffin oil, we have stabilized the QDs achieving surface modification and observed an effect on size reduction. Photoluminescence spectra of the QDs, TEM images and a preliminary micro-FTIR investigation of functionalised QDs will be presented in this paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Troia
- Thermodynamics Division, National Institute of Metrological Research, Strada delle Cacce, 91, 10135 Turin, Italy.
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184
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Singh N, Mulrooney RC, Kaur N, Callan JF. Fluorescent recognition of potassium and calcium ions using functionalised CdSe / ZnS quantum dots. J Fluoresc 2009; 19:777-82. [PMID: 19330431 DOI: 10.1007/s10895-009-0474-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2008] [Accepted: 02/23/2009] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Schiff base receptor 1a has been synthesised and attached to the surface of preformed CdSe/ZnS Quantum Dots (QDs) to form QD-conjugate 2a. While 1a was determined to be selective for Mg2+, 2a demonstrated selectivity for both K+ and Ca2+ when tested against a range of physiologically and environmentally relevant cations by changes in the fluorescence spectra. Thus, the nanoparticle surface functions as a scaffold for the organisation of receptors enabling semi-selective binding. The fluorescence response was shown to be linear between 15-50 microM for K+ and 2-35 microM for Ca2+. It was also demonstrated that 2a could measure both K+ and / or Ca2+ in solutions containing both ions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Narinder Singh
- School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, The Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen AB10 1FR, UK
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185
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Pandey A, Roy MK, Pandey A, Zanella M, Sperling RA, Parak WJ, Samaddar AB, Verma HC. Chloroform- and water-soluble sol-gel derived Eu+++/Y2O3 (red) and Tb+++/Y2O3 (green) nanophosphors: synthesis, characterization, and surface modification. IEEE Trans Nanobioscience 2009; 8:43-50. [PMID: 19304496 DOI: 10.1109/tnb.2009.2017316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Eu+++ and Tb+++ ions have been incorporated into nanodimensional yttrium oxide host matrices via a sol-gel process using Y5O(OPr(i))13 as precursor (OPr(i) = isopropoxy). The as-synthesized white powders have been annealed at different temperatures. Photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction (XRD) have been used as tools for documenting the characteristics of these powders. For Eu+++-doped powders, a comparison of the Eu+++, 5D0-->7F1, and 5D0-->7F2 peak intensities in the emission spectra reveals that the dopant ions are occupying unsymmetrical sites in the host yttrium oxide in all the samples. For Tb+++-doped powders, the characteristic terbium 5D3-->7Fn and 5D-->7Fn (n = 2-6) transitions were visible only in the samples that had been annealed above 500 degrees C. Samples of the doped particle powders were suspended in chloroform by fragmenting the powder with and without sonification under the presence of trioctylphosphine oxide, or a mixture of oleic acid and dioctyl ether. The resulting clear colorless (for Eu+++) and light green translucent (for Tb+++) solutions of the suspended particles showed red and green luminescence upon UV excitation, respectively. In addition, suspension in water has been achieved by fragmenting the powder in the presence of dichloroacetic acid. Transmission electron micrograph investigation of the soluble particles shows single dispersed particles along with agglomerates. The changes in the luminescence due to fragmentation of the particle powder and due the influence of the surfactant of the suspended colloidal particles are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashutosh Pandey
- Department of Chemistry, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology (MNNIT), Allahabad 211004, India.
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186
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Petkov V, Ren Y, Saratovsky I, Pastén P, Gurr SJ, Hayward MA, Poeppelmeier KR, Gaillard JF. Atomic-scale structure of biogenic materials by total X-ray diffraction: a study of bacterial and fungal MnOx. ACS NANO 2009; 3:441-445. [PMID: 19236083 DOI: 10.1021/nn800653a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Biogenic materials are produced by microorganisms and are typically found in a nanophase state. As such, they are difficult to characterize structurally. In this report, we demonstrate how high-energy X-ray diffraction and atomic pair distribution function analysis can be used to determine the atomic-scale structures of MnO(x) produced by bacteria and fungi. These structures are well-defined, periodic, and species-specific, built of Mn-O(6) octahedra forming birnessite-type layers and todorokite-type tunnels, respectively. The inherent structural diversity of biogenic material may offer opportunities for practical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Petkov
- Department of Physics, 203 Dow Science, Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, Michigan 48859, USA.
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187
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Deka S, Quarta A, Lupo MG, Falqui A, Boninelli S, Giannini C, Morello G, De Giorgi M, Lanzani G, Spinella C, Cingolani R, Pellegrino T, Manna L. CdSe/CdS/ZnS Double Shell Nanorods with High Photoluminescence Efficiency and Their Exploitation As Biolabeling Probes. J Am Chem Soc 2009; 131:2948-58. [DOI: 10.1021/ja808369e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 227] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sasanka Deka
- National Nanotechnology Laboratory of CNR-INFM, Unità di Ricerca IIT, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, Scuola Superiore ISUFI, University of Salento, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, ULTRAS CNR-INFM, Dipartmento di Fisica, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30 - 16163 Genova, Italy, CNR-Istituto di Cristallografia (IC), via Amendola 122/O, I-70126, Bari, Italy,
| | - Alessandra Quarta
- National Nanotechnology Laboratory of CNR-INFM, Unità di Ricerca IIT, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, Scuola Superiore ISUFI, University of Salento, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, ULTRAS CNR-INFM, Dipartmento di Fisica, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30 - 16163 Genova, Italy, CNR-Istituto di Cristallografia (IC), via Amendola 122/O, I-70126, Bari, Italy,
| | - Maria Grazia Lupo
- National Nanotechnology Laboratory of CNR-INFM, Unità di Ricerca IIT, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, Scuola Superiore ISUFI, University of Salento, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, ULTRAS CNR-INFM, Dipartmento di Fisica, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30 - 16163 Genova, Italy, CNR-Istituto di Cristallografia (IC), via Amendola 122/O, I-70126, Bari, Italy,
| | - Andrea Falqui
- National Nanotechnology Laboratory of CNR-INFM, Unità di Ricerca IIT, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, Scuola Superiore ISUFI, University of Salento, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, ULTRAS CNR-INFM, Dipartmento di Fisica, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30 - 16163 Genova, Italy, CNR-Istituto di Cristallografia (IC), via Amendola 122/O, I-70126, Bari, Italy,
| | - Simona Boninelli
- National Nanotechnology Laboratory of CNR-INFM, Unità di Ricerca IIT, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, Scuola Superiore ISUFI, University of Salento, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, ULTRAS CNR-INFM, Dipartmento di Fisica, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30 - 16163 Genova, Italy, CNR-Istituto di Cristallografia (IC), via Amendola 122/O, I-70126, Bari, Italy,
| | - Cinzia Giannini
- National Nanotechnology Laboratory of CNR-INFM, Unità di Ricerca IIT, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, Scuola Superiore ISUFI, University of Salento, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, ULTRAS CNR-INFM, Dipartmento di Fisica, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30 - 16163 Genova, Italy, CNR-Istituto di Cristallografia (IC), via Amendola 122/O, I-70126, Bari, Italy,
| | - Giovanni Morello
- National Nanotechnology Laboratory of CNR-INFM, Unità di Ricerca IIT, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, Scuola Superiore ISUFI, University of Salento, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, ULTRAS CNR-INFM, Dipartmento di Fisica, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30 - 16163 Genova, Italy, CNR-Istituto di Cristallografia (IC), via Amendola 122/O, I-70126, Bari, Italy,
| | - Milena De Giorgi
- National Nanotechnology Laboratory of CNR-INFM, Unità di Ricerca IIT, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, Scuola Superiore ISUFI, University of Salento, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, ULTRAS CNR-INFM, Dipartmento di Fisica, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30 - 16163 Genova, Italy, CNR-Istituto di Cristallografia (IC), via Amendola 122/O, I-70126, Bari, Italy,
| | - Guglielmo Lanzani
- National Nanotechnology Laboratory of CNR-INFM, Unità di Ricerca IIT, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, Scuola Superiore ISUFI, University of Salento, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, ULTRAS CNR-INFM, Dipartmento di Fisica, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30 - 16163 Genova, Italy, CNR-Istituto di Cristallografia (IC), via Amendola 122/O, I-70126, Bari, Italy,
| | - Corrado Spinella
- National Nanotechnology Laboratory of CNR-INFM, Unità di Ricerca IIT, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, Scuola Superiore ISUFI, University of Salento, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, ULTRAS CNR-INFM, Dipartmento di Fisica, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30 - 16163 Genova, Italy, CNR-Istituto di Cristallografia (IC), via Amendola 122/O, I-70126, Bari, Italy,
| | - Roberto Cingolani
- National Nanotechnology Laboratory of CNR-INFM, Unità di Ricerca IIT, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, Scuola Superiore ISUFI, University of Salento, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, ULTRAS CNR-INFM, Dipartmento di Fisica, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30 - 16163 Genova, Italy, CNR-Istituto di Cristallografia (IC), via Amendola 122/O, I-70126, Bari, Italy,
| | - Teresa Pellegrino
- National Nanotechnology Laboratory of CNR-INFM, Unità di Ricerca IIT, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, Scuola Superiore ISUFI, University of Salento, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, ULTRAS CNR-INFM, Dipartmento di Fisica, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30 - 16163 Genova, Italy, CNR-Istituto di Cristallografia (IC), via Amendola 122/O, I-70126, Bari, Italy,
| | - Liberato Manna
- National Nanotechnology Laboratory of CNR-INFM, Unità di Ricerca IIT, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, Scuola Superiore ISUFI, University of Salento, Distretto Tecnologico ISUFI, via per Arnesano km 5, I-73100 Lecce, Italy, ULTRAS CNR-INFM, Dipartmento di Fisica, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30 - 16163 Genova, Italy, CNR-Istituto di Cristallografia (IC), via Amendola 122/O, I-70126, Bari, Italy,
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188
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Abstract
Suitable labels are at the core of Luminescence and fluorescence imaging and sensing. One of the most exciting, yet also controversial, advances in label technology is the emerging development of quantum dots (QDs)--inorganic nanocrystals with unique optical and chemical properties but complicated surface chemistry--as in vitro and in vivo fluorophores. Here we compare and evaluate the differences in physicochemical properties of common fluorescent labels, focusing on traditional organic dyes and QDs. Our aim is to provide a better understanding of the advantages and limitations of both classes of chromophores, to facilitate label choice and to address future challenges in the rational design and manipulation of QD labels.
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189
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Holtmann F, Eversloh M, Denz C. Label-free analysis of microfluidic mixing processes by dynamic phase contrast microscopy. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1088/1464-4258/11/3/034014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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190
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Mulrooney RC, Singh N, Kaur N, Callan JF. An “off–on” sensor for fluoride using luminescent CdSe/ZnS quantum dots. Chem Commun (Camb) 2009:686-8. [DOI: 10.1039/b817569a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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191
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Medintz IL, Mattoussi H. Quantum dot-based resonance energy transfer and its growing application in biology. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2009; 11:17-45. [DOI: 10.1039/b813919a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 485] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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192
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Applying Nanotechnology to Human Health: Revolution in Biomedical Sciences. JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2009. [DOI: 10.1155/2009/184702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent research on biosystems at the nanoscale has created one of the most dynamic science and technology domains at the confluence of physical sciences, molecular engineering, biology, biotechnology, and medicine. This domain includes better understanding of living and thinking systems, revolutionary biotechnology processes, synthesis of new drugs and their targeted delivery, regenerative medicine, neuromorphic engineering, and developing a sustainable environment. Nanobiosystems research is a priority in many countries and its relevance within nanotechnology is expected to increase in the future. The realisation that the nanoscale has certain properties needed to solve important medical challenges and cater to unmet medical needs is driving nanomedical research. The present review explores the significance of nanoscience and latest nanotechnologies for human health. Addressing the associated opportunities, the review also suggests how to manage far-reaching developments in these areas.
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193
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Montoro Bustos AR, Encinar JR, Fernández-Argüelles MT, Costa-Fernández JM, Sanz-Medel A. Elemental mass spectrometry: a powerful tool for an accurate characterisation at elemental level of quantum dots. Chem Commun (Camb) 2009:3107-9. [DOI: 10.1039/b901493d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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194
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Wiecinski PN, Metz KM, Mangham AN, Jacobson KH, Hamers RJ, Pedersen JA. Gastrointestinal biodurability of engineered nanoparticles: Development of an in vitro assay. Nanotoxicology 2009; 3:202-214. [PMID: 25197315 PMCID: PMC4156289 DOI: 10.1080/17435390902859556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The toxicity of engineered nanoparticles is expected to depend in part on their stability in biological systems. To assess the biodurability of engineered nanomaterials in the human digestive system, we adapted an in vitro assay previously used to evaluate the bioaccessibility of metals in contaminated soils. The compositions of the simulated gastric and intestinal fluids, temperature and residence times were designed to closely mimic conditions in the stomach and duodenum of the small intestine. We demonstrated the utility of the assay using CdSecore/ZnSshell quantum dots functionalized with polyethylene glycol (PEG) thiol of two different molecular masses (PEG350 and PEG5000). Under gastric conditions, removal of the PEG ligand diminished the stability of PEG350-quantum dot suspensions, while PEG5000-quantum dots were severely degraded. Inclusion of the glycoprotein mucin, but not the digestive protein pepsin, in simulated gastric fluids provided both PEG350- and PEG5000-coated quantum dots partial protection from transformations induced by gastric conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paige N Wiecinski
- Molecular and Environmental Toxicology Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Kevin M Metz
- Environmental Chemistry and Technology Program, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Andrew N Mangham
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Kurt H Jacobson
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Robert J Hamers
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Joel A Pedersen
- Molecular and Environmental Toxicology Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA ; Environmental Chemistry and Technology Program, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA ; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA ; Department of Soil Science, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
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195
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Abbel R, van der Weegen R, Meijer EW, Schenning APHJ. Multicolour self-assembled particles of fluorene-based bolaamphiphiles. Chem Commun (Camb) 2009:1697-9. [DOI: 10.1039/b822943k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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196
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Nair A, Shen J, Thevenot P, Zou L, Cai T, Hu Z, Tang L. Enhanced intratumoral uptake of quantum dots concealed within hydrogel nanoparticles. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2008; 19:485102. [PMID: 21836292 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/19/48/485102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Effective nanomedical devices for tumor imaging and drug delivery are not yet available. In an attempt to construct a more functional device for tumor imaging, we have embedded quantum dots (which have poor circulatory behavior) within hydrogel nanoparticles made of poly-N-isopropylacrylamide. We found that the hydrogel encapsulated quantum dots are more readily taken up by cultured tumor cells. Furthermore, in a melanoma model, hydrogel encapsulated quantum dots also preferentially accumulate in the tumor tissue compared with normal tissue and have ∼16-fold greater intratumoral uptake compared to non-derivatized quantum dots. Our results suggest that these derivatized quantum dots, which have greatly improved tumor localization, may enhance cancer monitoring and chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashwin Nair
- Joint Program in Bioengineering, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas and The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019, USA
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197
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Guilhabert B, Elfström D, Kuehne AJC, Massoubre D, Zhang HX, Jin SR, Mackintosh AR, Gu E, Pethrick RA, Dawson MD. Integration by self-aligned writing of nanocrystal/epoxy composites on InGaN micro-pixelated light-emitting diodes. OPTICS EXPRESS 2008; 16:18933-41. [PMID: 19581984 DOI: 10.1364/oe.16.018933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
We report on the integration of monodisperse semiconductor nanocrystal (NC) color converters onto gallium nitride ultraviolet micro-pixelated light-emitting diodes ('micro-LEDs'). Integration is achieved in a 'self-aligned' process by forming a nanocomposite of the respective NCs in a photocurable epoxy polymer. Blue, green, yellow and red NC/epoxy blend microstructures have been successfully integrated onto micro-pixelated LEDs by this technique and utilised for color conversion, resulting in a five color emission single chip. Optical output power density of up to about 166 mW/cm2 is measured; spectral emission at 609 nm gives an estimated optical-to-optical conversion as high as 18.2% at 30 mA driving current.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Guilhabert
- Institute of Photonics, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK.
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198
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Zhang Y, Mi L, Chen JY, Wang PN. The environmental influence on the photoluminescence behavior of thiol-capped CdTe quantum dots in living cells. Biomed Mater 2008. [DOI: 10.1088/1748-6041/4/1/012001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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199
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Conroy J, Byrne SJ, Gun'ko YK, Rakovich YP, Donegan JF, Davies A, Kelleher D, Volkov Y. CdTe nanoparticles display tropism to core histones and histone-rich cell organelles. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2008; 4:2006-2015. [PMID: 18949793 DOI: 10.1002/smll.200800088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The disclosure of the mechanisms of nanoparticle interaction with specific intracellular targets represents one of the key tasks in nanobiology. Unmodified luminescent semiconductor nanoparticles, or quantum dots (QDs), are capable of a strikingly rapid accumulation in the nuclei and nucleoli of living human cells, driven by processes of yet unknown nature. Here, it is hypothesized that such a strong tropism of QDs could be mediated by charge-related properties of the macromolecules presented in the nuclear compartments. As the complex microenvironment encountered by the QDs in the nuclei and nucleoli of live cells is primarily presented by proteins and other biopolymers, such as DNA and RNA, the model of human phagocytic cell line THP1, nuclear lysates, purified protein, and nucleic acid solutions is utilized to investigate the interactions of the QDs with these most abundant classes of intranuclear macromolecules. Using a combination of advanced technological approaches, including live cell confocal microscopy, fluorescent lifetime imaging (FLIM), spectroscopic methods, and zeta potential measurements, it is demonstrated that unmodified CdTe QDs preferentially bind to the positively charged core histone proteins as opposed to the DNA or RNA, resulting in a dramatic shift off the absorption band, and a red shift and decrease in the pholuminescence (PL) intensity of the QDs. FLIM imaging of the QDs demonstrates an increased formation of QD/protein aggregates in the presence of core histones, with a resulting significant reduction in the PL lifetime. FLIM technology for the first time reveals that the localization of negatively charged QDs to their ultimate nuclear and nucleolar destinations dramatically affects the QDs' photoluminescence lifetimes, and offers thereby a sensitive readout for physical interactions between QDs and their intracellular macromolecular targets. These findings strongly suggest that charge-mediated QD/histone interactions could provide the basis for QD nuclear localization downstream of intracellular transport mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Conroy
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland.
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200
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Al-Jamal WT, Al-Jamal KT, Bomans PH, Frederik PM, Kostarelos K. Functionalized-quantum-dot-liposome hybrids as multimodal nanoparticles for cancer. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2008; 4:1406-15. [PMID: 18711753 DOI: 10.1002/smll.200701043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Functionalized-quantum-dot-liposome (f-QD-L) hybrid nanoparticles are engineered by encapsulating poly(ethylene glycol)-coated QD in the internal aqueous phase of different lipid bilayer vesicles. f-QD-L maintain the QD fluorescence characteristics as confirmed by fluorescence spectroscopy, agarose gel electrophoresis, and confocal laser scanning microscopy. Cationic f-QD-L hybrids lead to dramatic improvements in cellular binding and internalization in tumor-cell monolayer cultures. Deeper penetration into three-dimensional multicellular spheroids is obtained for f-QD-L by modifying the lipid bilayer characteristics of the hybrid system. f-QD-L are injected intratumorally into solid tumor models leading to extensive fluorescent staining of tumor cells compared to injections of the f-QD alone. f-QD-L hybrid nanoparticles constitute a versatile tool for very efficient labeling of cells ex vivo and in vivo, particularly when long-term imaging and tracking of cells is sought. Moreover, f-QD-L offer many opportunities for the development of combinatory therapeutic and imaging (theranostic) modalities by incorporating both drug molecules and QD within the different compartments of a single vesicle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wafa' T Al-Jamal
- Nanomedicine Laboratory, Centre for Drug Delivery Research, The School of Pharmacy, University of London 29-39 Brunswick Square, UK
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