151
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Feng SQ, Zhou XF, Rush RA, Ferguson IA. Graft of pre-injured sural nerve promotes regeneration of corticospinal tract and functional recovery in rats with chronic spinal cord injury. Brain Res 2008; 1209:40-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.02.075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2008] [Revised: 02/25/2008] [Accepted: 02/26/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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152
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Novikova LN, Pettersson J, Brohlin M, Wiberg M, Novikov LN. Biodegradable poly-β-hydroxybutyrate scaffold seeded with Schwann cells to promote spinal cord repair. Biomaterials 2008; 29:1198-206. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2007.11.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2007] [Accepted: 11/24/2007] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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153
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Willerth SM, Sakiyama-Elbert SE. Cell therapy for spinal cord regeneration. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2008; 60:263-76. [PMID: 18029050 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2007.08.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2007] [Accepted: 08/22/2007] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
This review presents a summary of the various types of cellular therapy used to treat spinal cord injury. The inhibitory environment and loss of axonal connections after spinal cord injury pose many obstacles to regenerating the lost tissue. Cellular therapy provides a means of restoring the cells lost to the injury and could potentially promote functional recovery after such injuries. A wide range of cell types have been investigated for such uses and the advantages and disadvantages of each cell type are discussed along with the research studying each cell type. Additionally, methods of delivering cells to the injury site are evaluated. Based on the current research, suggestions are given for future investigation of cellular therapies for spinal cord regeneration.
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154
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Becker CG, Becker T. Growth and pathfinding of regenerating axons in the optic projection of adult fish. J Neurosci Res 2008; 85:2793-9. [PMID: 17131420 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.21121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
In contrast to mammals, teleost fish are able to regrow severed long-range projection axons in the central nervous system (CNS), leading to recovery of function. The optic projection in teleost fish is used to study neuron-intrinsic and environmental molecular factors that determine successful axon regrowth and navigation through a complex CNS pathway back to original targets. Here we review evidence for regeneration-specific regulation and robust expression of growth- and pathfinding-associated genes in regenerating retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons of adult fish. The environment of the CNS in fish appears to contain few inhibitory molecules and at the same time a number of promoting molecules for axon regrowth. Finally, some environmental cues that are used as guidance cues for developing RGC axons are also present in continuously growing adult animals. These molecules may serve as guidance cues for the precise navigation of axons from newly generated RGCs in adult animals as well as of regenerating RGC axons after a lesion. The application of new molecular techniques especially to adult zebrafish, is likely to produce new insights into successful axonal regeneration in the CNS of fish and the absence thereof in mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherina G Becker
- Centre for Neuroscience Research, University of Edinburgh, Summerhall, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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155
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Abstract
Due to the varied and numerous changes in spinal cord tissue following injury, successful treatment for repair may involve strategies combining neuroprotection (pharmacological prevention of some of the damaging intracellular cascades that lead to secondary tissue loss), axonal regeneration promotion (cell transplantation, genetic engineering to increase growth factors, neutralization of inhibitory factors, reduction in scar formation), and rehabilitation. Our goal has been to find effective combination strategies to improve outcome after injury to the adult rat thoracic spinal cord. Combination interventions tested have been implantation of Schwann cells (SCs) plus neuroprotective agents and growth factors administered in various ways, olfactory ensheathing cell (OEC) implantation, chondroitinase addition, or elevation of cyclic AMP. The most efficacious strategy in our hands for the acute complete transection/SC bridge model, including improvement in locomotion [Basso, Beattie, Bresnahan Scale (BBB)], is the combination of SCs, OECs, and chondroitinase administration (BBB 2.1 vs 6.6, 3 times more myelinated axons in the SC bridge, increased serotonergic axons in the bridge and beyond, and significant correlation between the number of bridge myelinated axons and functional improvement). We found the most successful combination strategy for a subacute spinal cord contusion injury (12.5-mm, 10-g weight, MASCIS impactor) to be SCs and elevation of cyclic AMP (BBB 10.4 vs 15, significant increases in white matter sparing, in myelinated axons in the implant, and in responding reticular formation and red and raphe nuclei, and a significant correlation between the number of serotonergic fibers and improvement in locomotion). Thus, in two injury paradigms, these combination strategies as well as others studied in our laboratory have been found to be more effective than SCs alone and suggest ways in which clinical application may be developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Bartlett Bunge
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida 33101, USA.
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156
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Sandrow HR, Shumsky JS, Amin A, Houle JD. Aspiration of a cervical spinal contusion injury in preparation for delayed peripheral nerve grafting does not impair forelimb behavior or axon regeneration. Exp Neurol 2007; 210:489-500. [PMID: 18295206 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2007.11.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2007] [Revised: 11/21/2007] [Accepted: 11/26/2007] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
A peripheral nerve graft model was used to examine axonal growth after a unilateral cervical (C) contusion injury in adult rats and to determine if manipulation of an injury site prior to transplantation affects spontaneous behavioral recovery. After a short delay (7 d) the epicenter of a C4 contusion was exposed and aspirated without harming the cavity walls followed by apposition with one end of a pre-degenerated tibial nerve to the rostral cavity wall. After a longer delay (28 d) the aspirated cavity was treated with GDNF to promote regeneration by chronically injured neurons. In both groups forelimb and hindlimb locomotor scores decreased significantly 2 d after lesion site manipulation, but by 7 d, the forelimb score was not different from the pre-manipulation score. There was no significant difference in grid walking or grip strength scores for the affected forelimb in either group 7 d after contusion vs. 7 d after manipulation. Over 1500 brain stem and propriospinal neurons grew axons into the graft with either delay. These results demonstrate that a contusion injury site can be manipulated prior to transplantation without causing long-lasting forelimb or hindlimb behavioral deficits and that peripheral nerve grafts support axonal growth after acute or chronic contusion injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harra R Sandrow
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Drexel University College of Medicine, 2900 Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA
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157
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Zhang X, Zeng Y, Zhang W, Wang J, Wu J, Li J. Co-Transplantation of Neural Stem Cells and NT-3-Overexpressing Schwann Cells in Transected Spinal Cord. J Neurotrauma 2007; 24:1863-77. [DOI: 10.1089/neu.2007.0334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Xuebao Zhang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Institute of Spinal Cord Injury, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuanshan Zeng
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Institute of Spinal Cord Injury, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Institute of Spinal Cord Injury, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Junmei Wang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Institute of Spinal Cord Injury, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jinlang Wu
- Department of Electron Microscope, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jun Li
- Department of Neurology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan
- John D. Dingell VA Medical Center, Detroit, Michigan
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158
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Franssen EHP, de Bree FM, Verhaagen J. Olfactory ensheathing glia: Their contribution to primary olfactory nervous system regeneration and their regenerative potential following transplantation into the injured spinal cord. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 56:236-58. [PMID: 17884174 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2007] [Revised: 07/25/2007] [Accepted: 07/30/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Olfactory ensheathing glia (OEG) are a specialized type of glia that guide primary olfactory axons from the neuroepithelium in the nasal cavity to the brain. The primary olfactory system is able to regenerate after a lesion and OEG contribute to this process by providing a growth-supportive environment for newly formed axons. In the spinal cord, axons are not able to restore connections after an injury. The effects of OEG transplants on the regeneration of the injured spinal cord have been studied for over a decade. To date, of all the studies using only OEG as a transplant, 41 showed positive effects, while 13 studies showed limited or no effects. There are several contradictory reports on the migratory and axon growth-supporting properties of transplanted OEG. Hence, the regenerative potential of OEG has become the subject of intense discussion. In this review, we first provide an overview of the molecular and cellular characteristics of OEG in their natural environment, the primary olfactory nervous system. Second, their potential to stimulate regeneration in the injured spinal cord is discussed. OEG influence scar formation by their ability to interact with astrocytes, they are able to remyelinate axons and promote angiogenesis. The ability of OEG to interact with scar tissue cells is an important difference with Schwann cells and may be a unique characteristic of OEG. Because of these effects after transplantation and because of their role in primary olfactory system regeneration, the OEG can be considered as a source of neuroregeneration-promoting molecules. To identify these molecules, more insight into the molecular biology of OEG is required. We believe that genome-wide gene expression studies of OEG in their native environment, in culture and after transplantation will ultimately reveal unique combinations of molecules involved in the regeneration-promoting potential of OEG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elske H P Franssen
- Netherlands Insitute for Neuroscience, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Meibergdreef 47, 1105 BA, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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159
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Guo J, Su H, Zeng Y, Liang YX, Wong WM, Ellis-Behnke RG, So KF, Wu W. Reknitting the injured spinal cord by self-assembling peptide nanofiber scaffold. NANOMEDICINE-NANOTECHNOLOGY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2007; 3:311-21. [PMID: 17964861 DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2007.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2007] [Revised: 09/16/2007] [Accepted: 09/20/2007] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
In traumatic spinal cord injury, loss of neurological function is due to the inability of damaged axons to regenerate across large, cystic cavities. It has recently been demonstrated that a self-assembled nanofiber scaffold (SAPNS) could repair the injured optical pathway and restore visual function. To demonstrate the possibility of using it to repair spinal cord injury, transplanted neural progenitor cells and Schwann cells were isolated from green fluorescent protein-transgenic rats, cultured within SAPNS, and then transplanted into the transected dorsal column of spinal cord of rats. Here we report the use of SAPNS to bridge the injured spinal cord of rats, demonstrating robust migration of host cells, growth of blood vessels, and axons into the scaffolds, indicating that SAPNS provides a true three-dimensional environment for the migration of living cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiasong Guo
- Department of Anatomy, The University of Hong Kong Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, China
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160
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Biernaskie J, Sparling JS, Liu J, Shannon CP, Plemel JR, Xie Y, Miller FD, Tetzlaff W. Skin-derived precursors generate myelinating Schwann cells that promote remyelination and functional recovery after contusion spinal cord injury. J Neurosci 2007; 27:9545-59. [PMID: 17804616 PMCID: PMC6672973 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1930-07.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 238] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Transplantation of exogenous cells is one approach to spinal cord repair that could potentially enhance the growth and myelination of endogenous axons. Here, we asked whether skin-derived precursors (SKPs), a neural crest-like precursor that can be isolated and expanded from mammalian skin, could be used to repair the injured rat spinal cord. To ask this question, we isolated and expanded genetically tagged murine SKPs and either transplanted them directly into the contused rat spinal cord or differentiated them into Schwann cells (SCs), and performed similar transplantations with the isolated, expanded SKP-derived SCs. Neuroanatomical analysis of these transplants 12 weeks after transplantation revealed that both cell types survived well within the injured spinal cord, reduced the size of the contusion cavity, myelinated endogenous host axons, and recruited endogenous SCs into the injured cord. However, SKP-derived SCs also provided a bridge across the lesion site, increased the size of the spared tissue rim, myelinated spared axons within the tissue rim, reduced reactive gliosis, and provided an environment that was highly conducive to axonal growth. Importantly, SKP-derived SCs provided enhanced locomotor recovery relative to both SKPs and forebrain subventricular zone neurospheres, and had no impact on mechanical or heat sensitivity thresholds. Thus, SKP-derived SCs provide an accessible, potentially autologous source of cells for transplantation into and treatment of the injured spinal cord.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeff Biernaskie
- Developmental and Stem Cell Biology Group, Hospital for Sick Children, and
| | - Joseph S. Sparling
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, and
- Departments of Zoology and
| | - Jie Liu
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, and
- Departments of Zoology and
| | - Casey P. Shannon
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, and
- Departments of Zoology and
| | - Jason R. Plemel
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, and
- Departments of Zoology and
| | - Yuanyun Xie
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, and
- Departments of Zoology and
| | - Freda D. Miller
- Developmental and Stem Cell Biology Group, Hospital for Sick Children, and
- Departments of Molecular and Medical Genetics and
- Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5G 1L7, and
| | - Wolfram Tetzlaff
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, and
- Departments of Zoology and
- Surgery, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4
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161
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Zujovic V, Bachelin C, Baron-Van Evercooren A. Remyelination of the central nervous system: a valuable contribution from the periphery. Neuroscientist 2007; 13:383-91. [PMID: 17644768 DOI: 10.1177/10738584070130041001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The loss of myelin, a major element involved in the saltatory conduction of the electrical impulse of the nervous system, is a major target of current research. Serious long-term disabilities are observed in patients with demyelinating disease of the central nervous system, such as multiple sclerosis. New therapeutic strategies aimed at overcoming myelin damage and axonal loss focus on the repair potential of myelin-forming cells. This review examines the use of peripheral myelin-forming cells, the Schwann cells, to promote myelin repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Violetta Zujovic
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, and AP-HP Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Fédération de Neurologie, Paris, France
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162
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Golden KL, Pearse DD, Blits B, Garg MS, Oudega M, Wood PM, Bunge MB. Transduced Schwann cells promote axon growth and myelination after spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol 2007; 207:203-17. [PMID: 17719577 PMCID: PMC3513343 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2007.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2007] [Accepted: 06/16/2007] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
We sought to directly compare growth and myelination of local and supraspinal axons by implanting into the injured spinal cord Schwann cells (SCs) transduced ex vivo with adenoviral (AdV) or lentiviral (LV) vectors encoding a bifunctional neurotrophin molecule (D15A). D15A mimics actions of both neurotrophin-3 and brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Transduced SCs were injected into the injury center 1 week after a moderate thoracic (T8) adult rat spinal cord contusion. D15A expression and bioactivity in vitro; D15A levels in vivo; and graft volume, SC number, implant axon number and cortico-, reticulo-, raphe-, coerulo-spinal and sensory axon growth were determined for both types of vectors employed to transduce SCs. ELISAs revealed that D15A-secreting SC implants contained significantly higher levels of neurotrophin than non-transduced SC and AdV/GFP and LV/GFP SC controls early after implantation. At 6 weeks post-implantation, D15A-secreting SC grafts exhibited 5-fold increases in graft volume, SC number and myelinated axon counts and a 3-fold increase in myelinated to unmyelinated (ensheathed) axon ratios. The total number of axons within grafts of LV/GFP/D15A SCs was estimated to be over 70,000. Also 5-HT, DbetaH, and CGRP axon length was increased up to 5-fold within D15A grafts. In sum, despite qualitative differences using the two vectors, increased neurotrophin secretion by the implanted D15A SCs led to the presence of a significantly increased number of axons in the contusion site. These results demonstrate the therapeutic potential for utilizing neurotrophin-transduced SCs to repair the injured spinal cord.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin L. Golden
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis and the Neuroscience Program, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Damien D. Pearse
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis and the Neuroscience Program, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Dept. of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | | | | | - Martin Oudega
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis and the Neuroscience Program, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Dept. of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Patrick M. Wood
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis and the Neuroscience Program, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Dept. of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Mary Bartlett Bunge
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis and the Neuroscience Program, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Dept. of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Dept. of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Corresponding author: , Tel. (305) 243-4596, Fax (305) 243-3923, Lois Pope LIFE Center, P.O Box 016960, Mail locator R-48, Miami, FL 33101
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163
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Zhang Y, Zhang X, Yeh J, Richardson P, Bo X. Engineered expression of polysialic acid enhances Purkinje cell axonal regeneration in L1/GAP-43 double transgenic mice. Eur J Neurosci 2007; 25:351-61. [PMID: 17284175 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05311.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Purkinje axons in adult mammals are generally unable to regenerate after axotomy. Our recent work has shown that over-expression of growth related genes, GAP-43 and L1, in Purkinje cells increased their axonal outgrowth into a predegenerated peripheral nerve graft, but not into a fresh graft [Zhang et al., (2005) Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA, 102, 14883-14888]. In the current study we investigated whether engineered expression of growth permissive molecule polysialic acid (PSA) in the glial scar or on transplanted Schwann cells could overcome the inhibitory environment and promote Purkinje axonal regeneration. A stab wound was introduced in the cerebellum of the L1/GAP-43 transgenic mice and a lentiviral vector (LV) carrying the polysialyltransferase (PST) cDNA (LV/PST) was injected into the lesion site to transduce the cells in the glial scar. Regenerating Purkinje axons were examined by calbindin immunostaining. There was increased Purkinje axonal sprouting in the area expressing high-level PSA. However, Purkinje axons were unable to grow into the lesion cavity. In the second set of experiments when LV/PST transduced Schwann cells were transplanted into the lesion site, the number of Purkinje axons growing into the transplant was nine times more than that growing into Schwann cell transplant expressing GFP two months post operation. Our result suggests that transplanted Schwann cells engineered to express PSA support axonal regeneration better than naïve Schwann cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Zhang
- Neuroscience Centre, Institute of Cell and Molecular Science, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary, University of London, 4 Newark Road, Whitechapel, London E1 2AT, UK.
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164
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Baptiste DC, Fehlings MG. Update on the treatment of spinal cord injury. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2007; 161:217-33. [PMID: 17618980 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(06)61015-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Acute spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating neurological disorder that can affect any individual at a given instance. Current treatment options for SCI include the use of high dose methylprednisolone sodium succinate, a corticosteroid, surgical interventions to stabilize and decompress the spinal cord, intensive multisystem medical management, and rehabilitative care. While utility of these therapeutic options provides modest benefits, there is a critical need to identify novel approaches to treat or repair the injured spinal cord in hope to, at the very least, improve upon the patient's quality of life. Thankfully, several discoveries at the preclinical level are now transitioning into the clinical arena. These include the Surgical Treatment for Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study (STASCIS) Trial to evaluate the role and timing of surgical decompression for acute SCI, neuroprotection with the semisynthetic second generation tetracycline derivative, minocycline; aiding axonal conduction with the potassium channel blockers, neuroregenerative/neuroprotective approaches with the Rho antagonist, Cethrin; the use of anti-NOGO monoclonal antibodies to augment plasticity and regeneration; as well as cell-mediated repair with stem cells, bone marrow stromal cells, and olfactory ensheathing cells. This review overviews the pathobiology of SCI and current treatment choices before focusing the rest of the discussion on the variety of promising neuroprotective and cell-based approaches that have recently moved, or are very close, to clinical testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darryl C Baptiste
- Division of Cell and Molecular Biology, Toronto Western Research Institute and Krembil Neuroscience Centre, Toronto Western Hospital, University of Toronto, ON, Canada
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