The transition from stiff to compliant materials in squid beaks

Effect of Acetyl Group on Mechanical Properties of Chitin/Chitosan Nanocrystal: A Molecular Dynamics Study

Chitin fiber is the load-bearing component in natural chitin-based materials. In these materials, chitin is always partially deacetylated to different levels, leading to diverse material properties. In order to understand how the acetyl group enhances the fracture resistance capability of chitin fiber, we constructed atomistic models of chitin with varied acetylation degree and analyzed the hydrogen bonding pattern, fracture, and stress-strain behavior of these models. We notice that the acetyl group can contribute to the formation of hydrogen bonds that can stabilize the crystalline structure. In addition, it is found that the specimen with a higher acetylation degree presents a greater resistance against fracture. This study describes the role of the functional group, acetyl groups, in crystalline chitin. Such information could provide preliminary understanding of nanomaterials when similar functional groups are encountered.

Squid beak inspired water processable chitosan composites with tunable mechanical properties

By modulating the degree of cross-linking, this lightweight composite can be tuned with a range of mechanical properties.

Regulatory parameters of self-healing alginate hydrogel networks prepared via mussel-inspired dynamic chemistry

Key parameters that influence the self-healing and water retention properties of hydrogels made of alginate–dopamine conjugates have been revealed.

Structural Design Elements in Biological Materials: Application to Bioinspiration

Eight structural elements in biological materials are identified as the most common amongst a variety of animal taxa. These are proposed as a new paradigm in the field of biological materials science as they can serve as a toolbox for rationalizing the complex mechanical behavior of structural biological materials and for systematizing the development of bioinspired designs for structural applications. They are employed to improve the mechanical properties, namely strength, wear resistance, stiffness, flexibility, fracture toughness, and energy absorption of different biological materials for a variety of functions (e.g., body support, joint movement, impact protection, weight reduction). The structural elements identified are: fibrous, helical, gradient, layered, tubular, cellular, suture, and overlapping. For each of the structural design elements, critical design parameters are presented along with constitutive equations with a focus on mechanical properties. Additionally, example organisms from varying biological classes are presented for each case to display the wide variety of environments where each of these elements is present. Examples of current bioinspired materials are also introduced for each element.

Modular architecture of protein binding units for designing properties of cellulose nanomaterials

Molecular biomimetic models suggest that proteins in the soft matrix of nanocomposites have a multimodular architecture. Engineered proteins were used together with nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) to show how this type of architecture leads to function. The proteins consist of two cellulose-binding modules (CBM) separated by 12-, 24-, or 48-mer linkers. Engineering the linkers has a considerable effects on the interaction between protein and NFC in both wet colloidal state and a dry film. The protein optionally incorporates a multimerizing hydrophobin (HFB) domain connected by another linker. The modular structure explains effects in the hydrated gel state, as well as the deformation of composite materials through stress distribution and crosslinking. Based on this work, strategies can be suggested for tuning the mechanical properties of materials through the coupling of protein modules and their interlinking architectures.

Marine Structural Biomaterials in Medical Biomimicry

Marine biomaterials display properties, behaviors, and functions that have not been artificially matched in relation to their hierarchical construction, crack-stopping properties, growth adaptation, and energy efficiency. The discovery and understanding of such features that are characteristic of natural biomaterials can be used to manufacture more energy-efficient and lightweight materials. However, a more detailed understanding of the design of natural biomaterials with good performance and the mechanism of their design is required. Far-reaching biomolecular characterization of biomaterials and biostructures from the ocean world is possible with sophisticated analytical methods, such as whole-genome RNA-seq, and de novo transcriptome sequencing and mass spectrophotometry-based sequencing. In combination with detailed material characterization, the elements in newly discovered biomaterials and their properties can be reconstituted into biomimetic or bio-inspired materials. A major aim of harnessing marine biomaterials is their translation into biomimetic counterparts. To achieve full translation, the genome, proteome, and hierarchical material characteristics, and their profiles in space and time, have to be associated to allow for smooth biomimetic translation. In this article, we highlight the novel science of marine biomimicry from a materials perspective. We focus on areas of material design and fabrication that have excelled in marine biological models, such as embedded interfaces, chiral organization, and the use of specialized composite material-on-material designs. Our emphasis is primarily on key materials with high value in healthcare in which we evaluate their future prospects. Marine biomaterials are among the most exquisite and powerful aspects in materials science today.

From Soft Self-Healing Gels to Stiff Films in Suckerin-Based Materials Through Modulation of Crosslink Density and β-Sheet Content

Suckerins are block-copolymer-like structural proteins constituting the building blocks of the strong squid sucker-ring teeth. Here, recombinant suckerin-19 is processed into biomaterials spanning a wide range of elasticity, from very soft hydrogels to stiff films with elastic modulus in the gigapascal range. The elasticity is controlled by the interplay between the β-sheet content and induced di-tyrosine crosslinking.

Water-based Engineering & Fabrication: Large-Scale Additive Manufacturing of Biomaterials

In nature, water assembles basic molecules into complex multi-functional structures with nano-to-macro property variation. Such processes generally consume low amounts of energy, produce little to no waste, and take advantage of ambient conditions. In contrast digital manufacturing platforms are generally characterized as uni-functional, wasteful, fuel-based and often toxic. In this paper we explore the role of water in biological construction and propose an enabling technology modeled after these findings. We present a water-based fabrication platform tailored for 3-D printing of water-based composites and regenerated biomaterials such as chitosan, cellulose or sodium alginate for the construction of highly sustainable products and building components. We demonstrate that water-based fabrication of biological materials can be used to tune mechanical, chemical and optical properties of aqueous material composites. The platform consists of a multi-nozzle extrusion system attached to a multi-axis robotic arm designed to additively fabricate extrusion-compatible gels with graded properties. Applications of the composites include small and medium-scale recyclable objects, as well as temporary largescale architectural structures.

Infiltration of chitin by protein coacervates defines the squid beak mechanical gradient

The beak of the jumbo squid Dosidicus gigas is a fascinating example of how seamlessly nature builds with mechanically mismatched materials. A 200-fold stiffness gradient begins in the hydrated chitin of the soft beak base and gradually increases to maximum stiffness in the dehydrated distal rostrum. Here, we combined RNA-Seq and proteomics to show that the beak contains two protein families. One family consists of chitin-binding proteins (DgCBPs) that physically join chitin chains, whereas the other family comprises highly modular histidine-rich proteins (DgHBPs). We propose that DgHBPs play multiple key roles during beak bioprocessing, first by forming concentrated coacervate solutions that diffuse into the DgCBP-chitin scaffold, and second by inducing crosslinking via an abundant GHG sequence motif. These processes generate spatially controlled desolvation, resulting in the impressive biomechanical gradient. Our findings provide novel molecular-scale strategies for designing functional gradient materials.

Feeding in billfishes: inferring the role of the rostrum from a biomechanical standpoint

Perhaps the most striking feature of billfishes is the extreme elongation of the premaxillary bones forming their rostra. Surprisingly, the exact role of this structure in feeding is still controversial. The goal of this study is to investigate the use of the rostrum from a functional, biomechanical and morphological standpoint to ultimately infer its possible role during feeding. Using beam theory, experimental and theoretical loading tests were performed on the rostra from two morphologically different billfish, the blue marlin (Makaira nigricans) and the swordfish (Xiphias gladius). Two loading regimes were applied (dorsoventral and lateral) to simulate possible striking behaviors. Histological samples and material properties of the rostra were obtained along their lengths to further characterize structure and mechanical performance. Intraspecific results show similar stress distributions for most regions of the rostra, suggesting that this structure may be designed to withstand continuous loadings with no particular region of stress concentration. Although material stiffness increased distally, flexural stiffness increased proximally owing to higher second moment of area. The blue marlin rostrum was stiffer and resisted considerably higher loads for both loading planes compared with that of the swordfish. However, when a continuous load along the rostrum was considered, simulating the rostrum swinging through the water, swordfish exhibited lower stress and drag during lateral loading. Our combined results suggest that the swordfish rostrum is suited for lateral swiping to incapacitate their prey, whereas the blue marlin rostrum is better suited to strike prey from a wider variety of directions.

Biological materials and molecular biomimetics – filling up the empty soft materials space for tissue engineering applications

The discovery and molecular (genetic) characterization of novel biological materials offers great potential to expand the range of soft materials used for biomedical applications.

Robust, self-healing hydrogels synthesised from catechol rich polymers

Catechol rich polymers yield robust, self-healing hydrogels.

Air/water interfacial formation of freestanding, stimuli-responsive, self-healing catecholamine Janus-faced microfilms

A catecholamine freestanding film is discovered to be spontaneously formed at the air-water interface, and the film has unique properties of robust surface adhesiveness, self-healing, and stimuli-responsive properties. The interfacial film-producing procedure is a simple single step containing polyamines and catechol(amine)s. It is found that oxygen-rich regions existing at an air-water interface greatly accelerate the catecholamine crosslinking reaction.

Understanding and applying tyrosine biochemical diversity

This review highlights some of the recent advances made in our understanding of the diversity of tyrosine biochemistry and shows how this has inspired novel applications in numerous areas of molecular design and synthesis, including chemical biology and bioconjugation. The pathophysiological implications of tyrosine biochemistry will be presented from a molecular perspective and the opportunities for therapeutic intervention explored.

Wearable soft sensing suit for human gait measurement

Wearable robots based on soft materials will augment mobility and performance of the host without restricting natural kinematics. Such wearable robots will need soft sensors to monitor the movement of the wearer and robot outside the lab. Until now wearable soft sensors have not demonstrated significant mechanical robustness nor been systematically characterized for human motion studies of walking and running. Here, we present the design and systematic characterization of a soft sensing suit for monitoring hip, knee, and ankle sagittal plane joint angles. We used hyper-elastic strain sensors based on microchannels of liquid metal embedded within elastomer, but refined their design with the use of discretized stiffness gradients to improve mechanical durability. We found that these robust sensors could stretch up to 396% of their original lengths, would restrict the wearer by less than 0.17% of any given joint’s torque, had gauge factor sensitivities of greater than 2.2, and exhibited less than 2% change in electromechanical specifications through 1500 cycles of loading–unloading. We also evaluated the accuracy and variability of the soft sensing suit by comparing it with joint angle data obtained through optical motion capture. The sensing suit had root mean square (RMS) errors of less than 5° for a walking speed of 0.89 m/s and reached a maximum RMS error of 15° for a running speed of 2.7 m/s. Despite the deviation of absolute measure, the relative repeatability of the sensing suit’s joint angle measurements were statistically equivalent to that of optical motion capture at all speeds. We anticipate that wearable soft sensing will also have applications beyond wearable robotics, such as in medical diagnostics and in human–computer interaction.

Bone quality: the determinants of bone strength and fragility

Bone fragility is a major health concern, as the increased risk of bone fractures has devastating outcomes in terms of mortality, decreased autonomy, and healthcare costs. Efforts made to address this problem have considerably increased our knowledge about the mechanisms that regulate bone formation and resorption. In particular, we now have a much better understanding of the cellular events that are triggered when bones are mechanically stimulated and how these events can lead to improvements in bone mass. Despite these findings at the molecular level, most exercise intervention studies reveal either no effects or only minor benefits of exercise programs in improving bone mineral density (BMD) in osteoporotic patients. Nevertheless, and despite that BMD is the gold standard for diagnosing osteoporosis, this measure is only able to provide insights regarding the quantity of bone tissue. In this article, we review the complex structure of bone tissue and highlight the concept that its mechanical strength stems from the interaction of several different features. We revisited the available data showing that bone mineralization degree, hydroxyapatite crystal size and heterogeneity, collagen properties, osteocyte density, trabecular and cortical microarchitecture, as well as whole bone geometry, are determinants of bone strength and that each one of these properties may independently contribute to the increased or decreased risk of fracture, even without meaningful changes in aBMD. Based on these findings, we emphasize that while osteoporosis (almost) always causes bone fragility, bone fragility is not always caused just by osteoporosis, as other important variables also play a major role in this etiology. Furthermore, the results of several studies showing compelling data that physical exercise has the potential to improve bone quality and to decrease fracture risk by influencing each one of these determinants are also reviewed. These findings have meaningful clinical repercussions as they emphasize the fact that, even without leading to improvements in BMD, exercise interventions in patients with osteoporosis may be beneficial by improving other determinants of bone strength.

Jack of all trades: versatile catechol crosslinking mechanisms

Catechols play an important role in many natural systems. They are known to readily interact with both organic (e.g., amino acids) and inorganic (e.g., metal ions, metal oxides) compounds, thereby providing a powerful system for protein curing. Catechol crosslinked protein networks, such as sclerotized cuticle and byssal threads of the mussel, have been shown to exhibit excellent mechanical properties. A lot of effort has been devoted to mimicking the natural proteins using synthetic catechol-functionalized polymers. Despite the success in developing catechol-functionalized materials, the crosslinking chemistry of catechols is still a subject of debate. To develop materials with controlled and superior properties, a clear understanding of the crosslinking mechanism of catechols is of vital importance. This review describes the crosslinking pathways of catechol and derivatives in both natural and synthetic systems. We discuss existing pathways of catechol crosslinking and parameters that affect the catechol chemistry in detail. This overview will point towards a rational direction for further investigation of the complicated catechol chemistry.

The mechanics of PLGA nanofiber scaffolds with biomimetic gradients in mineral for tendon-to-bone repair

Attachment of dissimilar materials is prone to failure due to stress concentrations that can arise their interface. A compositionally or structurally graded transition can dissipate these stress concentrations and thereby toughen an attachment. The interface between compliant tendon and stiff bone utilizes a monotonic change in hydroxylapatite mineral ("mineral") content to produce a gradient in mechanical properties and mitigate stress concentrations. Previous efforts to mimic the natural tendon-to-bone attachment have included electrospun nanofibrous polymer scaffolds with gradients in mineral. Mineralization of the nanofiber scaffolds has typically been achieved using simulated body fluid (SBF). Depending on the specific formulation of SBF, mineral morphologies ranged from densely packed small crystals to platelike crystal florets. Although this mineralization of scaffolds produced increases in modulus, the peak modulus achieved remained significantly below that of bone. Missing from these prior empirical approaches was insight into the effect of mineral morphology on scaffold mechanics and on the potential for the approach to ultimately achieve moduli approaching that of bone. Here, we applied two mineralization methods to generate scaffolds with spatial gradations in mineral content, and developed methods to quantify the stiffening effects and evaluate them in the context of theoretical bounds. We asked whether either of the mineralization methods we developed holds potential to achieve adequate stiffening of the scaffold, and tested the hypothesis that the smoother, denser mineral coating could attain more potent stiffening effects. Testing this hypothesis required development of and comparison to homogenization bounds, and development of techniques to estimate mineral volume fractions and spatial gradations in modulus. For both mineralization strategies, energy dispersive X-ray analysis demonstrated the formation of linear gradients in mineral concentration along the length of the scaffolds, and Raman spectroscopic analysis revealed that the mineral produced was hydroxylapatite. Mechanical testing showed that the stiffness gradient using the new method was significantly steeper. By analyzing the scaffolds using micromechanical modeling techniques and extrapolating from our experimental results, we present evidence that the new mineralization protocol has the potential to achieve levels of stiffness adequate to contribute to enhanced repair of tendon-to-bone attachments.

Mechanical properties of the cuticles of three cockroach species that differ in their wind-evoked escape behavior

The structural and material properties of insect cuticle remain largely unexplored, even though they comprise the majority (approximately 80%) of animals. Insect cuticle serves many functions, including protection against predatory attacks, which is especially beneficial to species failing to employ effective running escape responses. Despite recent advances in our understanding of insect escape behaviors and the biomechanics of insect cuticle, there are limited studies on the protective qualities of cuticle to extreme mechanical stresses and strains imposed by predatory attacks, and how these qualities vary between species employing different escape responses. Blattarians (cockroaches) provide an appropriate model system for such studies. Wind-evoked running escape responses are strong in Periplaneta americana, weak in Blaberus craniifer and absent in Gromphodorhina portentosa, putting the latter two species at greater risk of being struck by a predator. We hypothesized that the exoskeletons in these two larger species could provide more protection from predatory strikes relative to the exoskeleton of P. americana. We quantified the protective qualities of the exoskeletons by measuring the puncture resistance, tensile strength, strain energy storage, and peak strain in fresh samples of thoracic and abdominal cuticles from these three species. We found a continuum in puncture resistance, tensile strength, and strain energy storage between the three species, which were greatest in G. portentosa, moderate in B. craniifer, and smallest in P. americana. Histological measurements of total cuticle thickness followed this same pattern. However, peak strain followed a different trend between species. The comparisons in the material properties drawn between the cuticles of G. portentosa, B. craniifer, and P. americana demonstrate parallels between cuticular biomechanics and predator running escape responses.

Nanoconfined β-sheets mechanically reinforce the supra-biomolecular network of robust squid Sucker Ring Teeth

The predatory efficiency of squid and cuttlefish (superorder Decapodiformes) is enhanced by robust Sucker Ring Teeth (SRT) that perform grappling functions during prey capture. Here, we show that SRT are composed entirely of related structural “suckerin” proteins whose modular designs enable the formation of nanoconfined β-sheet-reinforced polymer networks. Thirty-seven previously undiscovered suckerins were identified from transcriptomes assembled from three distantly related decapodiform cephalopods. Similarity in modular sequence design and exon–intron architecture suggests that suckerins are encoded by a multigene family. Phylogenetic analysis supports this view, revealing that suckerin genes originated in a common ancestor ~350 MYa and indicating that nanoconfined β-sheet reinforcement is an ancient strategy to create robust bulk biomaterials. X-ray diffraction, nanomechanical, and micro-Raman spectroscopy measurements confirm that the modular design of the suckerins facilitates the formation of β-sheets of precise nanoscale dimensions and enables their assembly into structurally robust supramolecular networks stabilized by cooperative hydrogen bonding. The suckerin gene family has likely played a key role in the evolutionary success of decapodiform cephalopods and provides a large molecular toolbox for biomimetic materials engineering.

Multiscale structural gradients enhance the biomechanical functionality of the spider fang

The spider fang is a natural injection needle, hierarchically built from a complex composite material comprising multiscale architectural gradients. Considering its biomechanical function, the spider fang has to sustain significant mechanical loads. Here we apply experiment-based structural modelling of the fang, followed by analytical mechanical description and Finite-Element simulations, the results of which indicate that the naturally evolved fang architecture results in highly adapted effective structural stiffness and damage resilience. The analysis methods and physical insights of this work are potentially important for investigating and understanding the architecture and structural motifs of sharp-edge biological elements such as stingers, teeth, claws and more.

Extraordinary strain hardening by gradient structure

Gradient structures have evolved over millions of years through natural selection and optimization in many biological systems such as bones and plant stems, where the structures change gradually from the surface to interior. The advantage of gradient structures is their maximization of physical and mechanical performance while minimizing material cost. Here we report that the gradient structure in engineering materials such as metals renders a unique extra strain hardening, which leads to high ductility. The grain-size gradient under uniaxial tension induces a macroscopic strain gradient and converts the applied uniaxial stress to multiaxial stresses due to the evolution of incompatible deformation along the gradient depth. Thereby the accumulation and interaction of dislocations are promoted, resulting in an extra strain hardening and an obvious strain hardening rate up-turn. Such extraordinary strain hardening, which is inherent to gradient structures and does not exist in homogeneous materials, provides a hitherto unknown strategy to develop strong and ductile materials by architecting heterogeneous nanostructures.

Mesostructure from hydration gradients in demosponge biosilica

Organisms of the phylum Porifera, that is, sponges, utilize enzymatic hydrolysis to concatenate bioavailable inorganic silicon to produce lightweight, strong, and often flexible skeletal elements called spicules. In their optical transparency, these remarkable biomaterials resemble fused silica, despite having been formed under ambient marine biological conditions. Although previous studies have elucidated the chemical mechanisms of spicule formation and revealed the extensive hydration of these glasses, their precise composition and local and medium-range structures had not been determined. We have employed a combination of compositional analysis, (1) H and (29) Si solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and synchrotron X-ray total scattering to characterize spicule-derived silica produced by the demosponge Tethya aurantia. These studies indicate that the materials are highly hydrated, but in an inhomogeneous manner. The spicule-derived silica is, on average, perfectly dense for the given extent of hydration and regions of fully condensed and unstrained SiO networks persist throughout each monolithic spicule. To accommodate chemical strain and defects, the extensive hydration is concentrated in distinct regions that give rise to mesostructural features. The chemistry responsible for producing spicule silica resembles hydrolytic sol-gel processing, which offers exceptional control over the precise local atomic arrangement of materials. However, the specific processing involved in forming the sponge spicule silica further results in regions of fully condensed silica coexisting with regions of incomplete condensation. This mesostructure suggests a mechanism for atomistic defect tolerance and strain relief that may account for the unusual mechanical properties of the biogenic spicules.

Cephalopod culture: current status of main biological models and research priorities

A recent revival in using cephalopods as experimental animals has rekindled interest in their biology and life cycles, information with direct applications also in the rapidly growing ornamental aquarium species trade and in commercial aquaculture production for human consumption. Cephalopods have high rates of growth and food conversion, which for aquaculture translates into short culture cycles, high ratios of production to biomass and high cost-effectiveness. However, at present, only small-scale culture is possible and only for a few species: the cuttlefish Sepia officinalis, the loliginid squid Sepioteuthis lessoniana and the octopuses Octopus maya and O. vulgaris. These four species are the focus of this chapter, the aims of which are as follows: (1) to provide an overview of the culture requirements of cephalopods, (2) to highlight the physical and nutritional requirements at each phase of the life cycle regarded as essential for successful full-scale culture and (3) to identify current limitations and the topics on which further research is required. Knowledge of cephalopod culture methods is advanced, but commercialization is still constrained by the highly selective feeding habits of cephalopods and their requirement for large quantities of high-quality (preferably live) feed, particularly in the early stages of development. Future research should focus on problems related to the consistent production of viable numbers of juveniles, the resolution of which requires a better understanding of nutrition at all phases of the life cycle and better broodstock management, particularly regarding developments in genetic selection, control of reproduction and quality of eggs and offspring.

Controlling mechanical properties of bio-inspired hydrogels by modulating nano-scale, inter-polymeric junctions

Quinone tanning is a well-characterized biochemical process found in invertebrates, which produce diverse materials from extremely hard tissues to soft water-resistant adhesives. Herein, we report new types of catecholamine PEG derivatives, PEG-NH-catechols that can utilize an expanded spectrum of catecholamine chemistry. The PEGs enable simultaneous participation of amine and catechol in quinone tanning crosslinking. The intermolecular reaction between PEG-NH-catechols forms a dramatic nano-scale junction resulting in enhancement of gelation kinetics and mechanical properties of PEG hydrogels compared to results obtained by using PEGs in the absence of amine groups. Therefore, the study provides new insight into designing new crosslinking chemistry for controlling nano-scale chemical reactions that can broaden unique properties of bulk hydrogels.

Non-protein amino acids and neurodegeneration: the enemy within

Animals, in common with plants and microorganisms, synthesise proteins from a pool of 20 protein amino acids (plus selenocysteine and pyrolysine) (Hendrickson et al., 2004). This represents a small proportion (~2%) of the total number of amino acids known to exist in nature (Bell, 2003). Many 'non-protein' amino acids are synthesised by plants, and in some cases constitute part of their chemical armoury against pathogens, predators or other species competing for the same resources (Fowden et al., 1967). Microorganisms can also use selectively toxic amino acids to gain advantage over competing organisms (Nunn et al., 2010). Since non-protein amino acids (and imino acids) are present in legumes, fruits, seeds and nuts, they are ubiquitous in the diets of human populations around the world. Toxicity to humans is unlikely to have been the selective force for their evolution, but they have the clear potential to adversely affect human health. In this review we explore the links between exposure to non-protein amino acids and neurodegenerative disorders in humans. Environmental factors play a major role in these complex disorders which are predominantly sporadic (Coppede et al., 2006). The discovery of new genes associated with neurodegenerative diseases, many of which code for aggregation-prone proteins, continues at a spectacular pace but little progress is being made in identifying the environmental factors that impact on these disorders. We make the case that insidious entry of non-protein amino acids into the human food chain and their incorporation into protein might be contributing significantly to neurodegenerative damage.

Dopamine-Mediated Sclerotization of Regenerated Chitin in Ionic Liquid

Chitin is a promising structural material for biomedical applications, due to its many advantageous properties and abundance in nature. However, its usage and development in the biomedical field have been stagnant, because of chitin’s poor mechanical properties in wet conditions and the difficulties in transforming it into an applicable form. To overcome these challenges, we created a novel biomimetic chitin composite. This regenerated chitin, prepared with ionic liquid, showed improved mechanical properties in wet conditions by mimicking insect cuticle and squid beak sclerotization, i.e., catechol-meditated cross-linking. By ionic liquid-based heat treatment, dopamine oxidation produced melanin-like compounds and dopamine-meditated cross-links without any solvent evaporation and oxidant utilization. The dopamine-meditated sclerotization increased the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of the regenerated chitin by 2.52-fold, measured after six weeks of phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) submersion. In addition, the linear swelling ratio (LSR) of the chitin film was reduced by about 22%. This strategy raises a possibility of using regenerated chitin as an artificial hard tissue in wet conditions.

Marine hydroid perisarc: a chitin- and melanin-reinforced composite with DOPA-iron(III) complexes

Many marine invertebrates utilize biomacromolecules as building blocks to form their load-bearing tissues. These polymeric tissues are appealing for their unusual physical and mechanical properties, including high hardness and stiffness, toughness and low density. Here, a marine hydroid perisarc of Aglaophenia latirostris was investigated to understand how nature designs a stiff, tough and lightweight sheathing structure. Chitin, protein and a melanin-like pigment, were found to represent 10, 17 and 60 wt.% of the perisarc, respectively. Interestingly, similar to the adhesive and coating of marine mussel byssus, a DOPA (3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine) containing protein and iron were detected in the perisarc. Resonance Raman microprobe analysis of perisarc indicates the presence of catechol-iron(III) complexes in situ, but it remains to be determined whether the DOPA-iron(III) interaction plays a cohesive role in holding the protein, chitin and melanin networks together.

Catechol-functionalized chitosan/iron oxide nanoparticle composite inspired by mussel thread coating and squid beak interfacial chemistry

Biological materials offer a wide range of multifunctional and structural properties that are currently not achieved in synthetic materials. Herein we report on the synthesis and preparation of bioinspired organic/inorganic composites that mimic the key physicochemical features associated with the mechanical strengthening of both squid beaks and mussel thread coatings using chitosan as an initial template. While chitosan is a well-known biocompatible material, it suffers from key drawbacks that have limited its usage in a wider range of structural biomedical applications. First, its load-bearing capability in hydrated conditions remains poor, and second it completely dissolves at pH < 6, preventing its use in mild acidic microenvironments. In order to overcome these intrinsic limitations, a chitosan-based organic/inorganic biocomposite is prepared that mimics the interfacial chemistry of squid beaks and mussel thread coating. Chitosan was functionalized with catechol moieties in a highly controlled fashion and combined with superparamagnetic iron oxide (γ-Fe2O3) nanoparticles to give composites that represent a significant improvement in functionality of chitosan-based biomaterials. The inorganic/organic (γ-Fe2O3/catechol) interfaces are stabilized and strengthened by coordination bonding, resulting in hybrid composites with improved stability at high temperatures, physiological pH conditions, and acid/base conditions. The inclusion of superparamagnetic particles also makes the composites stimuli-responsive.

Wear and abrasion resistance selection maps of biological materials

The mechanical design of biological materials has generated widespread interest in recent years, providing many insights into their intriguing structure-property relationships. A critical characteristic of load-bearing materials, which is central to the survival of many species, is their wear and abrasion tolerance. In order to be fully functional, protective armors, dentitious structures and dynamic appendages must be able to tolerate repetitive contact loads without significant loss of materials or internal damage. However, very little is known about this tribological performance. Using a contact mechanics framework, we have constructed materials selection charts that provide general predictions about the wear performance of biological materials as a function of their fundamental mechanical properties. One key assumption in constructing these selection charts is that abrasion tolerance is governed by the first irreversible damage at the contact point. The maps were generated using comprehensive data from the literature and encompass a wide range of materials, from heavily mineralized to fully organic materials. Our analysis shows that the tolerance of biological materials against abrasion depends on contact geometry, which is ultimately correlated to environmental and selective pressures. Comparisons with experimental data from nanoindentation experiments are also drawn in order to verify our predictions. With the increasing amount of data available for biological materials also comes the challenge of selecting relevant model systems for bioinspired materials engineering. We suggest that these maps will be able to guide this selection by providing an overview of biological materials that are predicted to exhibit the best abrasion tolerance, which is of fundamental interest for a wide range of applications, for instance in restorative implants and protective devices.

Layer-by-layer polyelectrolyte deposition: a mechanism for forming biocomposite materials

Complex coacervates prepared from poly(aspartic acid) (polyAsp) and poly-l-histidine (polyHis) were investigated as models of the metastable protein phases used in the formation of biological structures such as squid beak. When mixed, polyHis and polyAsp form coacervates whereas poly-l-glutamic acid (polyGlu) forms precipitates with polyHis. Layer-by-layer (LbL) structures of polyHis-polyAsp on gold substrates were compared with those of precipitate-forming polyHis-polyGlu by monitoring with iSPR and QCM-D. PolyHis-polyAsp LbL was found to be stiffer than polyHis-polyGlu LbL with most water evicted from the structure but with sufficient interfacial water remaining for molecular rearrangement to occur. This thin layer is believed to be fluid and like preformed coacervate films, capable of spreading over both hydrophilic ethylene glycol as well as hydrophobic monolayers. These results suggest that coacervate-forming polyelectrolytes deserve consideration for potential LbL applications and point to LbL as an important process by which biological materials form.

Advances in Fabrication Materials of Honeycomb Structure Films by the Breath-Figure Method

Creatures in nature possess almost perfect structures and properties, and exhibit harmonization and unification between structure and function. Biomimetics, mimicking nature for engineering solutions, provides a model for the development of functional surfaces with special properties. Recently, honeycomb structure materials have attracted wide attention for both fundamental research and practical applications and have become an increasingly hot research topic. Though progress in the field of breath-figure formation has been reviewed, the advance in the fabrication materials of bio-inspired honeycomb structure films has not been discussed. Here we review the recent progress of honeycomb structure fabrication materials which were prepared by the breath-figure method. The application of breath figures for the generation of all kinds of honeycomb is discussed.