The large tumor antigen: a "Swiss Army knife" protein possessing the functions required for the polyomavirus life cycle

The SV40 large tumor antigen (L-Tag) is involved in the replication and cell transformation processes that take place during the polyomavirus life cycle. The ability of the L-Tag to interact with and to inactivate the tumor suppressor proteins p53 and pRb, makes this polyfunctional protein an interesting target in the search for compounds with antiviral and/or antiproliferative activities designed for the management of polyomavirus-associated diseases. The severe diseases caused by polyomaviruses, mainly in immunocompromised hosts, and the absence of licensed treatments, make the discovery of new antipolyomavirus drugs urgent. Parallels can be made between the SV40 L-Tag and the human papillomavirus (HPV) oncoproteins (E6 and E7) as they are also able to deregulate the cell cycle in order to promote cell transformation and its maintenance. In this review, a presentation of the SV40 L-Tag characteristics, regarding viral replication and cellular transformation, will show how similar these two processes are between the polyoma- and papillomavirus families. Insights at the molecular level will highlight similarities in the binding of polyoma- and papillomavirus replicative helicases to the viral DNA and in their disruptions of the p53 and pRb tumor suppressor proteins.

Influence of treatment with Bifidobacteria bifidum on gut barrier function in IL-10 knockout mice

AIM: To explore the protective effect of different cycles of intervention with Bifidobacterium bifidum (B. bifidum) on colonic epithelial mucosal barrier in IL-10 knockout mice.

METHODS: Female IL-10 knockout (IL-10^-/-) mice and wild type (WT) mice were divided into four groups: WT group, WT + B. bifidum (BBf) group, IL-10^-/- group, and IL-10^-/- + B. bifidum group. The WT + B. bifidum and IL-10^-/- + B. bifidum groups were administered with B. bifidum by gavage at a dose of 10⁹ cells/d per mice for 2 wk, 4 wk, and 6 wk. The other groups were given phosphate buffered saline solution. The expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and interferon (INF)-γ in the colon was measured at the end of the experiment. Colonic tissues were collected for measurement of colonic epithelial permeability, transepithelial electrical resistance (TER), and expression of tight junction protein.

RESULTS: The expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, and INF-γ, and tight junction protein, colonic epithelial permeability, and TER in mice treated with B. bifidum for 4 wk were significantly different from those in control mice and mice treated with B. bifidum for 2 wk (all P < 0.01), but showed no significant differences with those in mice treated with B. bifidum for 6 wk.

CONCLUSION: B. bifidum intervention for 4 wk had a significant protective effect on colonic epithelial mucosal barrier in IL-10 knockout mice, and prolonged intervention did not significantly improve the protective effect of B. bifidum.

Assessing interactions between the associations of fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 common genetic variants and hormone receptor status with breast cancer risk

Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2) is a member of a receptor tyrosine kinase gene superfamily, involved in cell growth, invasiveness, motility, and angiogenesis, which has attracted considerable attention as a candidate gene for breast cancer (BC) since it was first identified through genome-wide association approach. In the past few years, the relationship between FGFR2 and BC has been reported in various ethnic groups; however, these studies have yielded contradictory results. To investigate this inconsistency, we performed a meta-analysis of 37 studies involving a total of 288,142 subjects for rs2981582, rs1219648, and rs2420946 polymorphism of the FGFR2 gene to evaluate the effect of FGFR2 on genetic susceptibility for BC. Overall, significantly increased BC risk was associated with these polymorphisms when all studies were pooled into the meta-analysis. In addition, our data indicate that FGFR2 is involved in BC susceptibility and confer its effect primarily in estrogen receptor-positive and progesterone receptor-positive tumors. When stratified by ethnicity, significantly increased risks were found in Caucasian and East Asian populations. However, no significant associations were detected among African descent populations. There was strong evidence of heterogeneity (P < 0.05), which largely disappeared after stratification by ethnicity. This meta-analysis demonstrated that FGFR2 polymorphism is a risk factor associated with increased BC susceptibility, but these associations vary in different ethnic populations.

The role of Sox genes in lung morphogenesis and cancer

The human lung consists of multiple cell types derived from early embryonic compartments. The morphogenesis of the lung, as well as the injury repair of the adult lung, is tightly controlled by a network of signaling pathways with key transcriptional factors. Lung cancer is the third most cancer-related death in the world, which may be developed due to the failure of regulating the signaling pathways. Sox (sex-determining region Y (Sry) box-containing) family transcriptional factors have emerged as potent modulators in embryonic development, stem cells maintenance, tissue homeostasis, and cancerogenesis in multiple processes. Recent studies demonstrated that the members of the Sox gene family played important roles in the development and maintenance of lung and development of lung cancer. In this context, we summarize our current understanding of the role of Sox family transcriptional factors in the morphogenesis of lung, their oncogenic potential in lung cancer, and their potential impact in the diagnosis, prognosis, and targeted therapy of lung cancer.

Elevation of soluble major histocompatibility complex class I related chain A protein in malignant and infectious diseases in Chinese patients

Background

Elevation of soluble major histocompatibility complex class I chain-related gene A (sMICA) products in serum has been linked to tissue/organ transplantation, autoimmune diseases and some malignant disorders. Cells infected by microbiological pathogens may release sMICA, whereas less is known whether and to what extent serum sMICA levels may change in infectious diseases.

Methods

The present study determined serum sMICA levels by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in a southern China population, including patients (n = 1041) suffering from several types of malignant and infectious diseases and healthy controls (n = 141).

Results

Relative to controls, serum sMICA elevation was significant in patients of hepatic cancer, and was approaching statistical significance in patients with lung, gastric and nasopharyngeal cancers. sMICA elevation was also associated with some bacterial (Enterobacteriaceae, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, non-fermenting Gram-negative bacteria and Gram-positive cocci), viral (hepatitis B and C) and the Microspironema pallidum infections.

Conclusion

Serum sMICA levels may be informative for the diagnosis of some malignant and infectious diseases. The results also indicate that microbiological infections should be considered as a potential confounding clinical condition causing serum sMICA elevation while using this test to evaluate the status of other disorders, such as cancers, host-graft response and autoimmune diseases.

Is NEDD4-1 a negative regulator of phosphatase and tensin homolog in gastric carcinogenesis?

The expression of phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), a tumor suppressor gene, is frequently down-regulated in gastric carcinomas due to mutation, loss of heterozygosity, and promoter hypermethylation. However, it is unknown if additional mechanisms may account for the down-regulation of PTEN expression. While neuronal precursor cell-expressed developmentally down-regulated 4-1 (NEDD4-1) is believed to be a potential dual regulator of PTEN, there are conflicting reports regarding their interaction. To gain further insight into the role of NEDD4-1 and its association with PTEN in gastric carcinoma development, we measured the protein expression of NEDD4-1 and PTEN in gastric mucosae with various pathological lesions and found that NEDD4-1 increased from normal gastric mucosa to intestinal metaplasia and decreased from dysplasia to gastric carcinoma. These changes did not correlate with PTEN expression changes during gastric carcinogenesis. Moreover, we found similar results in protein levels in the primary tumors and adjacent non-tumorous tissues. These results differ from a previous report showing that expression of NEDD4-1 is up-regulated in gastric carcinomas, and show a more complex pattern of NEDD4-1 gene expression during gastric carcinogenesis.

Dynamic changes of lipopolysaccharide levels in different phases of acute on chronic hepatitis B liver failure

Background

High serum levels of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) with LPS-MD-2/TLR4 complex activated NF-kb and cytokine cause hepatic necrosis in animal models. We investigated the dynamic changes of LPS levels in patients with acute on chronic hepatitis B liver failure (ACHBLF).

Methods

We enrolled ACHBLF patients for a 12-week study. Patients’ LPS levels were measured along with 10 healthy controls. Patients on supportive care and recovered without intervention(s) were analyzed. Patients’ LPS levels during the disease progression phase, peak phase, and remission phase were compared with healthy controls.

Results

Among 30 patients enrolled, 25 who received interventions or expired during the study period were excluded from the analysis, five patients on supportive care who completed the study were analyzed. Significant abnormal distributions of LPS levels were observed in patients in different phases (0.0168±0.0101 in progression phase; 0.0960±0.0680 in peak phase; 0.0249±0.0365 in remission phase; and 0.0201±0.0146 in controls; respectively, p<0.05). The highest level of LPS was in the peak phase and significantly elevated when compared to controls (0.0201±0.0146 vs. 0.0960±0.0680, p = 0.007). There were no statistically significant differences in LPS levels between healthy controls and subjects in the progression phase or remission phase. Dynamic changes of LPS were correlated with MELD-Na in the progression phase (p = 0.01, R = 0.876) and in the peak phase (p = 0.000, R = −1.00).

Conclusions

Significant abnormal distributions of LPS levels were observed in ACHBLF with the highest level in the peak phase. The dynamic changes of LPS were correlated with disease severity and suggested LPS causing secondary hepatic injury.

Structural insight into coordinated recognition of trimethylated histone H3 lysine 9 (H3K9me3) by the plant homeodomain (PHD) and tandem tudor domain (TTD) of UHRF1 (ubiquitin-like, containing PHD and RING finger domains, 1) protein

UHRF1 is an important epigenetic regulator connecting DNA methylation and histone methylations. UHRF1 is required for maintenance of DNA methylation through recruiting DNMT1 to DNA replication forks. Recent studies have shown that the plant homeodomain (PHD) of UHRF1 recognizes the N terminus of unmodified histone H3, and the interaction is inhibited by methylation of H3R2, whereas the tandem tudor domain (TTD) of UHRF1 recognizes trimethylated histone H3 lysine 9 (H3K9me3). However, how the two domains of UHRF1 coordinately recognize histone methylations remains elusive. In this report, we identified that PHD largely enhances the interaction between TTD and H3K9me3. We present the crystal structure of UHRF1 containing both TTD and PHD (TTD-PHD) in complex with H3K9m3 peptide at 3.0 Å resolution. The structure shows that TTD-PHD binds to the H3K9me3 peptide with 1:1 stoichiometry with the two domains connected by the H3K9me3 peptide and a linker region. The TTD interacts with residues Arg-8 and trimethylated Lys-9, and the PHD interacts with residues Ala-1, Arg-2, and Lys-4 of the H3K9me3 peptide. The biochemical experiments indicate that PHD-mediated recognition of unmodified H3 is independent of the TTD, whereas TTD-mediated recognition of H3K9me3 PHD. Thus, both TTD and PHD are essential for specific recognition of H3K9me3 by UHRF1. Interestingly, the H3K9me3 peptide induces conformational changes of TTD-PHD, which do not affect the autoubiquitination activity or hemimethylated DNA binding affinity of UHRF1 in vitro. Taken together, our studies provide structural insight into the coordinated recognition of H3K9me3 by the TTD and PHD of UHRF1.

General aspects of colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the main causes of death. Cancer is initiated by several DNA damages, affecting proto-oncogenes, tumour suppressor genes, and DNA repairing genes. The molecular origins of CRC are chromosome instability (CIN), microsatellite instability (MSI), and CpG island methylator phenotype (CIMP). A brief description of types of CRC cancer is presented, including sporadic CRC, hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC) or Lynch syndromes, familiar adenomatous polyposis (FAP), MYH-associated polyposis (MAP), Peutz-Jeghers syndrome (PJS), and juvenile polyposis syndrome (JPS). Some signalling systems for CRC are also described, including Wnt-β-catenin pathway, tyrosine kinase receptors pathway, TGF-β pathway, and Hedgehog pathway. Finally, this paper describes also some CRC treatments.

Expression profile in rice panicle: insights into heat response mechanism at reproductive stage

Rice at reproductive stage is more sensitive to environmental changes, and little is known about the mechanism of heat response in rice panicle. Here, using rice microarray, we provided a time course gene expression profile of rice panicle at anther developmental stage 8 after 40°C treatment for 0 min, 20 min, 60 min, 2 h, 4 h, and 8 h. The identified differentially expressed genes were mainly involved in transcriptional regulation, transport, cellular homeostasis, and stress response. The predominant transcription factor gene families responsive to heat stress were Hsf, NAC, AP2/ERF, WRKY, MYB, and C₂H₂. KMC analysis discovered the time-dependent gene expression pattern under heat stress. The motif co-occurrence analysis on the promoters of genes from an early up-regulated cluster showed the important roles of GCC box, HSE, ABRE, and CE3 in response to heat stress. The regulation model central to ROS combined with transcriptome and ROS quantification data in rice panicle indicated the great importance to maintain ROS balance and the existence of wide cross-talk in heat response. The present study increased our understanding of the heat response in rice panicle and provided good candidate genes for crop improvement.

Interleukin-6 modulates colonic transepithelial ion transport in the stress-sensitive wistar kyoto rat

Immunological challenge stimulates secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-6, resulting in variety of biological responses. In the gastrointestinal tract, IL-6 modulates the excitability of submucosal neurons and stimulates secretion into the colonic lumen. When considered in the context of the functional bowel disorder, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), where plasma levels of IL-6 are elevated, this may reflect an important molecular mechanism contributing to symptom flares, particularly in the diarrhea-predominant phenotype. In these studies, colonic ion transport, an indicator of absorption and secretion, was assessed in the stress-sensitive Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rat model of IBS. Mucosa-submucosal colonic preparations from WKY and control Sprague Dawley (SD) rats were mounted in Ussing chambers and the basal short circuit current (I_SC) was electrophysiologically recorded and compared between the strains. Exposure to IL-6 (1 nM) stimulated a secretory current of greater amplitude in WKY as compared to SD samples. Furthermore, the observed IL-6-mediated potentiation of secretory currents evoked by veratridine and capsaicin in SD rats was blunted in WKY rats. Exposure to IL-6 also stimulated an increase in transepithelial resistance in both SD and WKY colonic tissue. These studies demonstrate that the neuroexcitatory effects of IL-6 on submucosal plexi have functional consequences with alterations in both colonic secretory activity and permeability. The IL-6-induced increase in colonic secretory activity appears to neurally mediated. Thus, local increases in IL-6 levels and subsequent activation of enteric neurons may underlie alterations in absorpto-secretory function in the WKY model of IBS.

A Critical Kinase Cascade in Neurological Disorders: PI 3-K, Akt, and mTOR

Neurodegenerative disorders lead to disability and death in a significant proportion of the world's population. However, many disorders of the nervous system remain with limited effective treatments. Kinase pathways in the nervous system that involve phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI 3-K), protein kinase B (Akt), and the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) offer exciting prospects for the understanding of neurodegenerative pathways and the development of new avenues of treatment. PI 3-K, Akt, and mTOR pathways are vital cellular components that determine cell fate during acute and chronic disorders, such as Huntington's disease, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, stroke, and trauma. Yet, the elaborate relationship among these kinases and the variable control of apoptosis and autophagy can lead to unanticipated biological and clinical outcomes. Crucial for the successful translation of PI 3-K, Akt, and mTOR into robust and safe clinical strategies will be the further elucidation of the complex roles that these kinase pathways hold in the nervous system.

A new mouse model for the study of human breast cancer metastasis

Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women, and this prevalence has a major impact on health worldwide. Localized breast cancer has an excellent prognosis, with a 5-year relative survival rate of 85%. However, the survival rate drops to only 23% for women with distant metastases. To date, the study of breast cancer metastasis has been hampered by a lack of reliable metastatic models. Here we describe a novel in vivo model using human breast cancer xenografts in NOD scid gamma (NSG) mice; in this model human breast cancer cells reliably metastasize to distant organs from primary tumors grown within the mammary fat pad. This model enables the study of the entire metastatic process from the proper anatomical site, providing an important new approach to examine the mechanisms underlying breast cancer metastasis. We used this model to identify gene expression changes that occur at metastatic sites relative to the primary mammary fat pad tumor. By comparing multiple metastatic sites and independent cell lines, we have identified several gene expression changes that may be important for tumor growth at distant sites.

The role of infections and coinfections with newly identified and emerging respiratory viruses in children

Acute respiratory infections are a major cause of morbidity in children both in developed and developing countries. A wide range of respiratory viruses, including respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), influenza A and B viruses, parainfluenza viruses (PIVs), adenovirus, rhinovirus (HRV), have repeatedly been detected in acute lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI) in children in the past decades. However, in the last ten years thanks to progress in molecular technologies, newly discovered viruses have been identified including human Metapneumovirus (hMPV), coronaviruses NL63 (HcoV-NL63) and HKU1 (HcoV-HKU1), human Bocavirus (HBoV), new enterovirus (HEV), parechovirus (HpeV) and rhinovirus (HRV) strains, polyomaviruses WU (WUPyV) and KI (KIPyV) and the pandemic H1N1v influenza A virus. These discoveries have heavily modified previous knowledge on respiratory infections mainly highlighting that pediatric population is exposed to a variety of viruses with similar seasonal patterns. In this context establishing a causal link between a newly identified virus and the disease as well as an association between mixed infections and an increase in disease severity can be challenging. This review will present an overview of newly recognized as well as the main emerging respiratory viruses and seek to focus on the their contribution to infection and co-infection in LRTIs in childhood.

Efficient detection of Mediterranean β-thalassemia mutations by multiplex single-nucleotide primer extension

β-Thalassemias and abnormal hemoglobin variants are among the most common hereditary abnormalities in humans. Molecular characterization of the causative genetic variants is an essential part of the diagnostic process. In geographic areas with high hemoglobinopathy prevalence, such as the Mediterranean region, a limited number of genetic variants are responsible for the majority of hemoglobinopathy cases. Developing reliable, rapid and cost-effective mutation-specific molecular diagnostic assays targeting particular populations greatly facilitates routine hemoglobinopathy investigations. We developed a one-tube single-nucleotide primer extension assay for the detection of eight common Mediterranean β-thalassemia mutations: Codon 5 (-CT); CCT(Pro)->C–, Codon 6 (-A); GAG(Glu)->G-G, Codon 8 (-AA); AAG(Lys)->–G, IVS-I-1 (G->A), IVS-I-6 (T->C), IVS-I-110 (G->A), Codon 39 (C->T), and IVS-II-745 (C->G), as well as the hemoglobin S variant beta 6(A3) Glu>Val. We validated the new assay using previously genotyped samples obtaining 100% agreement between independent genotyping methods. Our approach, applicable in a range of Mediterranean countries, offers a combination of high accuracy and rapidity exploiting standard techniques and widely available equipment. It can be further adapted to particular populations by including/excluding assayed mutations. We facilitate future modifications by providing detailed information on assay design.

Velocity vector imaging of longitudinal mechanical properties of upstream and downstream shoulders and fibrous cap tops of human carotid atherosclerotic plaque

AIMS

Atherosclerotic plaque rupture is closely related to high regional mechanical stress in the plaque itself. We aimed to explore the longitudinal mechanical properties of upstream and downstream shoulders and fibrous cap tops of human atherosclerotic plaques in vivo by velocity vector imaging (VVI) combined with acoustic densitometry (AD) imaging.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We included 135 patients with carotid atherosclerotic plaque. VVI and AD were used to examine 3 regions of carotid plaque along the longitudinal-axis view. A total of 405 regions were classified with low or high AD values by corrected averages image intensity (AIIc%) < or ≥50, respectively. Peak systolic strain, strain rate (SR), and velocity were significantly greater for upstream than downstream shoulders and fibrous cap tops of carotid plaque (P < 0.05 for both). AIIc% was significantly lower for upstream than downstream plaque shoulders (P < 0.05). Peak systolic SR of the plaque regions was negatively correlated with corresponding AIIc% (R(2) = 0.499, P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The longitudinal strain of human carotid atherosclerotic plaques as derived by VVI is associated with its corresponding AD but also in part with the internal position of the strain, with values greater for upstream than downstream shoulders and fibrous cap tops.

Modulation of intestinal barrier by intestinal microbiota: pathological and therapeutic implications

Mammals and their intestinal microbiota peacefully coexist in a mutualistic relationship. Commensal bacteria play an active role in shaping and modulating physiological processes in the host, which include, but are not restricted to, the immune system and the intestinal barrier. Both play a crucial role in containing intestinal bacteria and other potentially noxious luminal antigens within the lumen and mucosal compartment. Although mutualism defines the relationship between the host and the intestinal microbiota, disruptions in this equilibrium may promote disease. Thus, alterations in gut microbiota (dysbiosis) have been linked to the recent increased expression of obesity, allergy, autoimmunity, functional and inflammatory disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). In this article, we review the evidence supporting a role of gut microbiota in regulating intestinal barrier function. We discuss the hypothesis that microbial factors can modulate the barrier in ways that can prevent or promote gastrointestinal disease. A better understanding of the role of the intestinal microbiota in maintaining a functional intestinal barrier may help develop targeted strategies to prevent and treat disease.

High expression of miR-21 and miR-155 predicts recurrence and unfavourable survival in non-small cell lung cancer

We synthesised the evidence of microRNAs as prognostic biomarkers in lung cancer. Studies were identified by searching PubMed, Embase and Web of Science until March 2012. Descriptive characteristics for studies were described and an additional meta-analysis for two specific microRNAs (miR-21 and miR-155) which were studied extensively was performed. Pooled hazard ratios (HRs) and their corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. The median study size was 88 patients (interquartile range [IQR]=53-193) and the median HR in the studies that reported statistically significant results was 2.855 (IQR=2.01-5.035). For the studies evaluating miR-21's association with clinical outcomes, the pooled HR suggested that high expression of miR-21 has a negative impact on overall survival (OS) in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) (HR=2.32[1.17-4.62], P<0.05) and recurrence-free survival (RFS)/cancer-specific survival (CSS) in lung adenocarcinoma (HR=2.43[1.67-3.54], P<0.001). As for miR-155, the pooled HR for OS was 2.09 (95%CI: 0.68-6.41, P>0.05) which was not statistically significant, but for RFS/CSS was 1.42 (95% CI: 1.10-1.83, P=0.007). These results indicate that microRNAs show promising associations with prognosis in lung cancer; moreover, specific microRNAs such as miR-21 and miR-155 can predict recurrence and poor survival in NSCLC.

Does anti-hepatitis B virus vaccine make any difference in long-term number of liver transplantation?

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Chronic hepatitis B infection is associated with an increased risk of cirrhosis, hepatic decompensation, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Our aim is to analyze, through a mathematical model, the potential impact of anti-HBV vaccine in the long-term (that is, decades after vaccination) number of LT.

METHODS

The model simulated that the prevalence of HBV infection was 0.5% and that approximately 20% of all the liver transplantation carried out in the state of São Paulo are due to HBV infection.

RESULTS

The theoretical model suggests that a vaccination program that would cover 80% of the target population would reach a maximum of about 14% reduction in the LT program.

CONCLUSION

Increasing the vaccination coverage against HBV in the state of São Paulo would have a relatively low impact on the number of liver transplantation. In addition, this impact would take several decades to materialize due to the long incubation period of liver failure due to HBV.

Hepatitis B viral core protein disrupts human host gene expression by binding to promoter regions

BACKGROUND

The core protein (HBc) of hepatitis B virus (HBV) has been implicated in the malignant transformation of chronically-infected hepatocytes and displays pleiotropic functions, including RNA- and DNA-binding activities. However, the mechanism by which HBc interacts with the human genome to exert effects on hepatocyte function remains unknown. This study investigated the distribution of HBc binding to promoters in the human genome and evaluated its effects on the related genes' expression.

RESULTS

Whole-genome chromatin immunoprecipitation microarray (ChIP-on-chip) analysis was used to identify HBc-bound human gene promoters. Gene Ontology and pathway analyses were performed on related genes. The quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay was used to verify ChIP-on-chip results. Five novel genes were selected for luciferase reporter assay evaluation to assess the influence of HBc promoter binding. The HBc antibody immunoprecipitated approximately 3100 human gene promoters. Among these, 1993 are associated with known biological processes, and 2208 regulate genes with defined molecular functions. In total, 1286 of the related genes mediate primary metabolic processes, and 1398 encode proteins with binding activity. Sixty-four of the promoters regulate genes related to the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways, and 41 regulate Wnt/beta-catenin pathway genes. The reporter gene assay indicated that HBc binding up-regulates proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase (SRC), type 1 insulin-like growth factor receptor (IGF1R), and neurotrophic tyrosine kinase receptor 2 (NTRK2), and down-regulates v-Ha-ras Harvey rat sarcoma viral oncogene (HRAS).

CONCLUSION

HBc has the ability to bind a large number of human gene promoters, and can disrupt normal host gene expression. Manipulation of the transcriptional profile in HBV-infected hepatocytes may represent a key pathogenic mechanism of HBV infection.

High-performance method for specific effect on nucleic acids in cells using TiO2~DNA nanocomposites

Nanoparticles are used to solve the current drug delivery problem. We present a high-performance method for efficient and selective action on nucleic acid target in cells using unique TiO₂·PL-DNA nanocomposites (polylysine-containing DNA fragments noncovalently immobilized onto TiO₂ nanoparticles capable of transferring DNA). These nanocomposites were used for inhibition of human influenza A (H3N2) virus replication in infected MDCK cells. They showed a low toxicity (TC₅₀ ≈ 1800 μg/ml) and a high antiviral activity (>99.9% inhibition of the virus replication). The specificity factor (antisense effect) appeared to depend on the delivery system of DNA fragments. This factor for nanocomposites is ten-times higher than for DNA in the presence of lipofectamine. IC₅₀ for nanocomposites was estimated to be 1.5 μg/ml (30 nM for DNA), so its selectivity index was calculated as ~1200. Thus, the proposed nanocomposites are prospective for therapeutic application.

Tocotrienols reverse cardiovascular, metabolic and liver changes in high carbohydrate, high fat diet-fed rats

Tocotrienols have been reported to improve lipid profiles, reduce atherosclerotic lesions, decrease blood glucose and glycated haemoglobin concentrations, normalise blood pressure in vivo and inhibit adipogenesis in vitro, yet their role in the metabolic syndrome has not been investigated. In this study, we investigated the effects of palm tocotrienol-rich fraction (TRF) on high carbohydrate, high fat diet-induced metabolic, cardiovascular and liver dysfunction in rats. Rats fed a high carbohydrate, high fat diet for 16 weeks developed abdominal obesity, hypertension, impaired glucose and insulin tolerance with increased ventricular stiffness, lower systolic function and reduced liver function. TRF treatment improved ventricular function, attenuated cardiac stiffness and hypertension, and improved glucose and insulin tolerance, with reduced left ventricular collagen deposition and inflammatory cell infiltration. TRF improved liver structure and function with reduced plasma liver enzymes, inflammatory cell infiltration, fat vacuoles and balloon hepatocytes. TRF reduced plasma free fatty acid and triglyceride concentrations but only omental fat deposition was decreased in the abdomen. These results suggest that tocotrienols protect the heart and liver, and improve plasma glucose and lipid profiles with minimal changes in abdominal obesity in this model of human metabolic syndrome.

FOXM1 coming of age: time for translation into clinical benefits?

A decade since the first evidence implicating the cell cycle transcription factor Forkhead Box M1 (FOXM1) in human tumorigenesis, a slew of subsequent studies revealed an oncogenic role of FOXM1 in the majority of human cancers including oral, nasopharynx, oropharynx, esophagus, breast, ovary, prostate, lung, liver, pancreas, kidney, colon, brain, cervix, thyroid, bladder, uterus, testis, stomach, skin, and blood. Its aberrant upregulation in almost all different cancer types suggests a fundamental role for FOXM1 in tumorigenesis. Its dose-dependent expression pattern correlated well with tumor progression starting from cancer predisposition and initiation, early premalignancy and progression, to metastatic invasion. In addition, emerging studies have demonstrated a causal link between FOXM1 and chemotherapeutic drug resistance. Despite the well-established multifaceted roles for FOXM1 in all stages of oncogenesis, its translation into clinical benefit is yet to materialize. In this contribution, I reviewed and discussed how our current knowledge on the oncogenic mechanisms of FOXM1 could be exploited for clinical use as biomarker for risk prediction, early cancer screening, molecular diagnostics/prognostics, and/or companion diagnostics for personalized cancer therapy.

Proteomics based detection of differentially expressed proteins in human osteoblasts subjected to mechanical stress

Mechanical stress is essential for bone development. Mechanical stimuli are transduced to biochemical signals that regulate proliferation, differentiation, and cytoskeletal reorganization in osteoblasts. In this study, we used proteomics to evaluate differences in the protein expression profiles of untreated Saos-2 osteoblast cells and Saos-2 cells subjected to mechanical stress loading. Using 2-D electrophoresis, MALDI-TOF mass spectroscopy, and bioinformatics, we identified a total of 26 proteins differentially expressed in stress loaded cells compared with control cells. Stress loaded Saos-2 cells exhibited significant upregulation of 17 proteins and significant downregulation of 9 proteins compared with control cells. Proteins that were most significantly upregulated in mechanically loaded cells included those regulating osteogenesis, energy metabolism, and the stress response, such as eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (12-fold), mitochondrial ATP synthase (8-fold), and peptidylprolyl isomerase A (cyclophilin A)-like 3 (6.5-fold). Among the proteins that were significantly downregulated were those involved in specific signaling pathways and cell proliferation, such as protein phosphatase regulatory (inhibitor) subunit 12B (13.8-fold), l-lactate dehydrogenase B (9.4-fold), Chain B proteasome activator Reg (Alpha) PA28 (7.7-fold), and ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal esterase L1 (6.9-fold). Our results provide a platform to understand the molecular mechanisms underlying mechanotransduction.

Sensitive HPV genotyping based on the flow-through hybridization and gene chip

Persistent infection of high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) has been recognized as the direct cause of cervical carcinoma. Therefore, detection and genotyping of HPV are important to cervical-cancer screening. In this study, we have evaluated the efficacy of flow-through hybridization and gene chip (HybriMax) on HPV genotyping through comparison of the results with Hybrid Capture II (HC-II) and in situ hybridization (ISH). 591 women were classified into 6 groups according to their histological diagnoses. The overall accordance rate on 13 types of HPV genotypes between HybriMax and HC-II were 92.5% and 100% in the cancer group. The overall accordance was excellent with the Kappa index (KI) of 0.814. The value of KI in each group was 0.750 (normal cytological diagnosis), 0.781 (chronic cervicitis), 0.80 (condyloma acuminatum), 0.755 (cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) I), 0.723 (CIN II), and 0.547 (CIN III) (0.75 > KI > 0.4, good; KI ≥ 0.75, excellent). The 10 most common HPV subtype detected by HybriMax were 16, 52/58, 18, 33, 31, 81, 53, 68, and 66 in patients, and 16, 68, 18, 52, 58, 11, 53, 31/39, and 33 in normal controls. In conclusion, HybriMax is an efficient method for HPV genotyping and more suitable for clinical use.

Role of molecular determinants of store-operated Ca(2+) entry (Orai1, phospholipase A2 group 6, and STIM1) in focal adhesion formation and cell migration

BACKGROUND

Store-operated Ca(2+) entry is important for cell migration.

RESULTS

This study presents characterization of localization and roles of Orai1, STIM1, and PLA2g6 in adhesion dynamics during cell migration.

CONCLUSION

Orai1 and PLA2g6 are involved in adhesion formation at the front, whereas STIM1 participates in both adhesion formation and disassembly.

SIGNIFICANCE

Results uncovered new parameters of Orai1, STIM1, and PLA2g6 involvement in cell migration. Store-operated Ca(2+) entry and its major determinants are known to be important for cell migration, but the mechanism of their involvement in this complex process is unknown. This study presents a detailed characterization of distinct roles of Orai1, STIM1, and PLA2g6 in focal adhesion (FA) formation and migration. Using HEK293 cells, we discovered that although molecular knockdown of Orai1, STIM1, or PLA2g6 resulted in a similar reduction in migration velocity, there were profound differences in their effects on number, localization, and lifetime of FAs. Knockdown of STIM1 caused an increase in lifetime and number of FAs, their redistribution toward lamellae region, and an increase in cell tail length. In contrast, the number of FAs in Orai1- or PLA2g6-deficient cells was significantly reduced, and FAs accumulated closer to the leading edge. Assembly rate and Vinculin phosphorylation of FAs was similarly reduced in Orai1, PLA2g6, or STIM1-deficient cells. Although Orai1 and PLA2g6 accumulated and co-localized at the leading edge, STIM1 distribution was more complex. We found STIM1 protrusions in lamellipodia, which co-localized with FAs, whereas major accumulation could be seen in central and retracting parts of the cell. Interestingly, knockdown of Orai1 and PLA2g6 produced similar and non-additive effect on migration, whereas knockdown of STIM1 simultaneously with either Orai1 or PLA2g6 produced additional inhibition. Together these data suggest that although Orai1, PLA2g6, and STIM1 play major roles in formation of new FAs at the leading edge, STIM1 may also be involved in Orai1- and PLA2g6-independent disassembly of FAs in the back of cells.

Calcification of vestibular schwannoma: a case report and literature review

Calcification rarely occurs in vestibular schwannoma (VS), and only seven cases of calcified VS have been reported in the literature. Here, we report a 48-year-old man with VS, who had a history of progressive left-sided hearing loss for 3 years. Neurological examination revealed that he had left-sided hearing loss and left cerebellar ataxia. Magnetic resonance imaging and computerized tomography angiography showed a mass with calcification in the left cerebellopontine angle (CPA). The tumor was successfully removed via suboccipital craniotomy, and postoperative histopathology showed that the tumor was a schwannoma. We reviewed seven cases of calcified VS that were previously reported in the literature, and we analyzed and summarized the characteristics of these tumors, including the calcification, texture, and blood supply. We conclude that calcification in VS is associated with its texture and blood supply, and these characteristics affect the surgical removal of the tumor.

Epidemiology and molecular characterization of hepatitis B virus infection in isolated villages in the Western Brazilian Amazon

Individuals from three isolated, rural communities in the western Brazilian Amazon were evaluated for serological markers of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection, HBV genotype, and the presence of risk factors for infection and transmission. Of the 225 individuals studied, 79.1% had serological evidence of HBV infection; 10.2% individuals were chronic carriers for HBV surface antigen (HBsAg-positive). Analysis of risk factors indicates that HBV is transmitted mainly horizontally within the family from a chronic "active" carrier for hepatitis B "e" antigen (HBeAg-positive), though a strong possibility of vertical transmission remains. The predominance of HBV genotype F, with a higher genomic similarity between the isolates, indicated a relatively recent introduction of HBV, from a common source, to the area. This study sheds light on the HBV epidemiology in the Brazilian Amazon region and highlights the need for greater emphasis on HBV control and immunization programs.

The incidence and prevalence of thyroid autoimmunity

The thyroid gland is the most common organ affected by autoimmune disease. Other autoimmune diseases, most notably type 1 diabetes mellitus, are increasing in incidence. It is unknown whether autoimmune thyroid diseases are following the same pattern. This review summarizes studies of autoimmune thyroid disease incidence and prevalence since 1950, not only for these measures of occurrences, but also for commenting on identified risk factors for thyroid autoimmunity. We find that incidence of autoimmune thyroid disease is currently higher than in historic series although the studies are so variable in design, patient population, disease definition, and laboratory methods that it is impossible to tell whether this difference is real. Further research is required to assess the possibility of changing disease patterns of autoimmune thyroid disease as opposed to simple changes in diagnostic thresholds.

BioDoser: improved dose-estimation software for biological radiation dosimetry

This paper introduces a software program that was developed with the aims to improve the efficiency and veracity of calibration curve fitting and data processing in radiation biological dosimetry and other biological experiments, and which is termed BioDoser. BioDoser uses least squares and loop testing of monotonicity method and algorithm of non-uniformed confidence interval. In addition, this program enables integration of multiple different biomarkers typically used in biological dosimetry. These include partial body exposure, minimum number of cells to be analyzed, G function correction modules that are helpful in dose estimation when using chromosome aberration frequencies, micronucleus rate, comet assay and other biological methods. The software is freely available at http://bit.ly/kKBSNR.

Accelerated atherosclerosis in SLE: mechanisms and prevention approaches

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a multi-organ autoimmune disease characterized by increased serum autoantibody levels and tissue damage. With improved diagnosis and more effective treatment of the resultant kidney disease, accelerated atherosclerosis has become a major cause of morbidity in patients suffering from SLE. Although the exact mechanisms for SLE-accelerated atherosclerosis are unknown, multiple factors have been established as potential players in this process. Among these potential players are dysregulation of T and B cell populations and increased circulating levels of inflammatory cytokines. In addition, SLE patients exhibit a proatherogenic lipid profile characterized by low HDL and high LDL and triglycerides. Recent therapeutic approaches have focused on targeting B cells, the producers of autoantibodies, but most studies do not consider the effects of these treatments on atherosclerosis. Evidence suggests that T cells play a major role in SLE-accelerated atherosclerosis. Therefore, therapies targeted at T cells may also prove invaluable in treating SLE and atherosclerosis.

The search for genetic mouse models of prodromal Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease is characterized and diagnosed by bradykinetic motor symptoms caused by the loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra. The pathological and non-motor behavioral changes that occur prior to degeneration are less well characterized, although changes in gait, olfaction and cognition have been recognized in familial Parkinson's disease subjects. Gene mutations associated familial Parkinson's disease give rise to mitochondrial changes, altered energy homeostasis and intracellular trafficking deficits, and these can be modeled in transgenic mice. Here we discuss the recent finding of prodromal behavioral disturbances in a PINK1 deficient mouse that manifest prior to dopaminergic cell death and correlate to 5-HT fiber losses and mitochondrial morphological changes. We discuss the representation of the PINK1 deficient mouse and other genetic models to accurately recapitulate early Parkinson's disease. Prodromal symptoms and underlying pathology modeled in mice and cell lines from human subjects may have wide implications for earlier diagnosis. Current and emerging therapies need to be tailored to target both early cognitive and late stage motor symptoms.

Predictive value of neutrophil infiltration as a marker of Helicobacter pylori infection

AIM: To evaluate the predictive value of neutrophil infiltration as a marker of Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection.

METHODS: A total of 315 patients with dyspepsia symptoms who underwent upper gastrointestinal endoscopy were enrolled in this study. Biopsies were evaluated using the updated Sydney system. The medication history of all patients in the preceding 4 wk was recorded. The diagnosis of H. pylori infection was based on ¹³C-urea breath test at least 4 wk after withdrawal of antisecretory drugs, antibiotics and related drugs. For the patients with subtotal gastrectomy, the diagnosis of H. pylori infection was based on anti-H. pylori immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibody. Serum anti-H. pylori IgG antibody was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (Biohit, Finland).

RESULTS: The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value of neutrophil infiltration in the diagnosis of H. pylori infection were 92.3%, 83.5%, 77.4% and 94.7%, respectively. Neutrophil infiltration of gastric mucosa in the histological analysis was strongly associated with H. pylori infection (77.4% vs 5.3% in the neutrophil infiltration negative group, P = 0.000). Moderate neutrophil infiltration was more frequent in H. pylori infection when compared to mild infiltration (81.8% and 75%, respectively), but did not reach statistical significance. For those patients with negative rapid urease test, H. pylori was detected in 73.2% of patients with positive neutrophil infiltration on histology. In patients with subtotal gastrectomy, the diagnostic accuracy of neutrophil infiltration in H. pylori infection was 50%.

CONCLUSION: Neutrophil infiltration is closely associated with H. pylori and may be recognized as a sign of this infection.

Initial experience in single-incision transumbilical laparoscopic liver resection: indications, potential benefits, and limitations

Background. Single-incision transumbilical laparoscopic liver resection (SITLLR) has been recently described in limited series. We report our experience in SITLLR and discuss the future of this approach in terms of indications, potential benefits, and limitations, with a special reference to laparoscopic liver resection (LLR). Patients and Methods. Six patients underwent SITLLR. Indications were biliary cysts (3 cases), hydatid cysts (2), and colorectal liver metastasis (1). Procedures consisted in cysts unroofing, left lateral lobectomy, pericystectomy, and wedge resection. SITLLR was performed with 11 mm reusable trocar, 10 or 5 mm 30° scopes, 10 mm ultrasound probe, curved reusable instruments, and straight disposable bipolar shears. Results. Neither conversion to open surgery nor insertion of supplementary trocars was necessary. Median laparoscopic time was 105.5 minutes and median blood loss 275 mL. Median final umbilical scar length was 1.5 cm, and median length of stay was 4 days. No early or late complications occurred. Conclusion. SITLLR remains a challenging procedure. It is feasible in highly selected patients, requiring experience in hepatobiliary and laparoscopic surgery and skills in single-incision laparoscopy. Apart from cosmetic benefit, our experience and literature review did not show significant advantages if compared with multiport LLR, underlying that specific indications remain to be established.

Overexpression of FoxM1 is associated with tumor progression in patients with clear cell renal cell carcinoma

Background

Fork head box M1 (FoxM1) is a proliferation-associated transcription factor essential for cell cycle progression. Numerous studies have documented that FoxM1 has multiple functions in tumorigenesis and its elevated levels are frequently associated with cancer progression. The present study was conducted to investigate the expression of FoxM1 and its prognostic significance in clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC). Meanwhile, the function of FoxM1 in human ccRCC was further investigated in cell culture models.

Methods

Real-time quantitative PCR, western blot and immunohistochemistry were used to explore FoxM1 expression in ccRCC cell lines and primary ccRCC clinical specimens. FoxM1 expression was knocked down by small interfering RNA (siRNA) in Caki-1 and 786-O cells; proliferation, colony formation, cell cycle, migration, invasion, and angiogenesis were assayed.

Results

FoxM1 expression was up-regulated in the majority of the ccRCC clinical tissue specimens at both mRNA and protein levels. Clinic pathological analysis showed that FoxM1 expression was significantly correlated with primary tumor stage (P <0.001), lymph node metastasis (P = 0.01), distant metastasis (P = 0.01), TNM stage (P < 0.001) and histological grade (P = 0.003). The Kaplan–Meier survival curves revealed that high FoxM1 expression was associated with poor prognosis in ccRCC patients (P < 0.001). FoxM1 expression was an independent prognostic marker of overall ccRCC patient survival in a multivariate analysis (P = 0.008). Experimentally, we found that down-regulation of FoxM1 inhibited cell proliferation and induced cell cycle arrest with reduced expression of cyclin B1, cyclin D1, and Cdk2, and increased expression of p21 and p27. Also, down-regulation of FoxM1 reduced expression and activity of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), MMP-9 and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), resulting in the inhibition of migration, invasion, and angiogenesis.

Conclusions

These results suggest that FoxM1 expression is likely to play important roles in ccRCC development and progression, and that FoxM1 is a prognostic biomarker and a promising therapeutic target for ccRCC.

Over-expression of a novel JAZ family gene from Glycine soja, increases salt and alkali stress tolerance

Salt and alkali stress are two of the main environmental factors limiting crop production. Recent discoveries show that the JAZ family encodes plant-specific genes involved in jasmonate signaling. However, there is only limited information about this gene family in abiotic stress response, and in wild soybean (Glycine soja), which is a species noted for its tolerance to alkali and salinity. Here, we isolated and characterized a novel JAZ family gene, GsJAZ2, from G. soja. Transcript abundance of GsJAZ2 increased following exposure to salt, alkali, cold and drought. Over-expression of GsJAZ2 in Arabidopsis resulted in enhanced plant tolerance to salt and alkali stress. The expression levels of some alkali stress response and stress-inducible marker genes were significantly higher in the GsJAZ2 overexpression lines as compared to wild-type plants. Subcellular localization studies using a GFP fusion protein showed that GsJAZ2 was localized to the nucleus. These results suggest that the newly isolated wild soybean GsJAZ2 is a positive regulator of plant salt and alkali stress tolerance.

Antibiotic resistance amongst healthcare-associated pathogens in China

The People's Republic of China, commonly known as China, comprises approximately one-fifth of the world's population. Because of the expanding size and density of its population and the frequent interaction of people with animals, China is a hotspot for the emergence and spread of new microbial threats and is a major contributor to the worldwide infectious disease burden. In recent years, the emergence and rapid spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) generated considerable interest in the Chinese healthcare system and its infection control and prevention measures. This review examines antibiotic misuse and the status of antibiotic resistance in the Chinese healthcare system. China has high rates of antibiotic resistance driven by misuse of these agents in a healthcare system that provides strong incentives for overprescribing and in a country where self-medication is common. Tuberculosis remains a serious problem in China, with a high prevalence of multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant strains. Drug resistance amongst nosocomial bacteria has been on a rapid upward trend with a strong inclination towards multidrug resistance. There is a need for effective infection prevention and control measures and strict use of antibiotics in China to control the rise and spread of antibiotic resistance in the country.

[Extracellular miRNA: a novel molecular biomarker for lung cancer]

Though continuous development and progress have been made in the early diagnosis and treatment of cancer, it is still difficult to find a sensitive, accurate and minimally invasive biomarker for cancer diagnosis and treatment. MicroRNA (miRNA) is a class of non-coding small endogenous RNAs of 21-24 nucleotides in length. As a novel molecular biomarker, extracellular miRNA (ec-miRNA) has the potential to be a minimally invasive, highly sensitive and highly specific marker in cancer diagnosis. Many research achievements of ec-miRNA have been accumulated in recent years. In this paper, the origin, function and detection of ec-miRNA, its role in lung cancer diagnosis as a novel molecular biomarker, and some issues are reviewed.

Sensory dysfunction of bladder mucosa and bladder oversensitivity in a rat model of metabolic syndrome

Purpose

To study the role of sensory dysfunction of bladder mucosa in bladder oversensitivity of rats with metabolic syndrome.

Materials and Methods

Female Wistar rats were fed a fructose-rich diet (60%) or a normal diet for 3 months. Based on cystometry, the fructose-fed rats (FFRs) were divided into a group with normal detrusor function or detrusor overactivity (DO). Acidic adenosine triphosphate (ATP) solution (5mM, pH 3.3) was used to elicit reflex micturition. Cystometric parameters were evaluated before and after drug administration. Functional proteins of the bladder mucosa were assessed by western blotting.

Results

Compared to the controls, intravesical acidic ATP solution instillation induced a significant increase in provoked phasic contractions in both FFR groups and a significant decrease in the mean functional bladder capacity of group DO. Pretreatment with capsaicin for C-fiber desentization, intravesical liposome for mucosal protection, or intravenous pyridoxal 5-phosphate 6-azophenyl-2′,4′-disulfonic acid for antagonized purinergic receptors can interfere with the urodynamic effects of intravesical ATP in FFRs and controls. Over-expression of TRPV1, P2X₃, and iNOS proteins, and down-regulation of eNOS proteins were observed in the bladder mucosa of both fructose-fed groups.

Conclusions

Alterations of sensory receptors and enzymes in the bladder mucosa, including over-expression of TRPV1, P2X₃, and iNOS proteins, can precipitate the emergence of bladder phasic contractions and oversensitivity through the activation of C-afferents during acidic ATP solution stimulation in FFRs. The down-regulation of eNOS protein in the bladder mucosa of FFRs may lead to a failure to suppress bladder oversensitivity and phasic contractions. Sensory dysfunction of bladder mucosa and DO causing by metabolic syndrome are easier to elicit bladder oversensitivity to certain urothelium stimuli.

mTOR signaling pathway and Peutz-Jeghers syndrome

The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway is one of the most important intracellular signal transduction pathways and is involved in a series of biological activities, such as gene transcription, protein translation, ribosome synthesis, and cell apoptosis. The abnormal activation of the mTOR signaling pathway has a close relationship with the development of some hereditary diseases, tumors and diabetes. Intervention with biological processes of these diseases by influencing the mTOR signalling pathway with all kinds of biological means has become a hot area of research for several years. This article reviews the recent advances in understanding the composition and function of the mTOR signaling pathway and its role in the pathogenesis of Peutz-Jeghers syndrome. It is expected that molecular therapy targeting the mTOR signalling pathway can be used for preventive therapy of Peutz-Jeghers syndrome.

Macrophage-targeted therapy: CD64-based immunotoxins for treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases

Diseases caused by chronic inflammation (e.g., arthritis, multiple sclerosis and diabetic ulcers) are multicausal, thus making treatment difficult and inefficient. Due to the age-associated nature of most of these disorders and the demographic transition towards an overall older population, efficient therapeutic intervention strategies will need to be developed in the near future. Over the past decades, elimination of activated macrophages using CD64-targeting immunotoxins has proven to be a promising way of resolving inflammation in animal models. More recent data have shown that the M1-polarized population of activated macrophages in particular is critically involved in the chronic phase. We recapitulate the latest progress in the development of IT. These have advanced from full-length antibodies, chemically coupled to bacterial toxins, into single chain variants of antibodies, genetically fused with fully human enzymes. These improvements have increased the range of possible target diseases, which now include chronic inflammatory diseases. At present there are no therapeutic strategies focusing on macrophages to treat chronic disorders. In this review, we focus on the role of different polarized macrophages and the potential of CD64-based IT to intervene in the process of chronic inflammation.