Dimeric (Gemini) Surfactants: Effect of the Spacer Group on the Association Behavior in Aqueous Solution

Solvation dynamics and rotational relaxation of coumarin 153 in mixed micelles of Triton X-100 and cationic gemini surfactants: effect of composition and spacer chain length of gemini surfactants

To demonstrate simultaneously how the solvation dynamics and rotational relaxation in nonionic micelles change with the composition of a gemini surfactant and how this change depends on spacer chain length of gemini surfactants.

Structural, biocomplexation and gene delivery properties of hydroxyethylated gemini surfactants with varied spacer length

Gemini surfactants with hexadecyl tails and hydroxyethylated head groups bridged with tetramethylene (G4), hexamethylene (G6) and dodecamethylene (G12) spacers were shown to self-assemble at the lower critical micelle concentration compared to their conventional m-s-m analogs. The lipoplex formation and the plasmid DNA transfer into different kinds of host cells were studied. In the case of eukaryotic cells, high transfection efficacy has been demonstrated for DNA-gemini complexes, which increased as follows: G6<G4<G12. Different activity series, i.e., G6>G4>G12 has been obtained in the case of transformation of bacterial cells with plasmid DNA-gemini complexes, mediated by electroporation technique. Solely G6 shows transformation efficacy exceeding the control result (uncomplexed DNA), while the inhibitory effect occurs for G4 and G12. Analysis of physico-chemical features of single surfactants and lipoplexes shows that compaction and condensation effects change as follows: G6<G4 ≤ G12, i.e., agree with the order of transfection efficacy, which is supported by membrane tropic properties of G12. On the other hand, gel retardation assay and docking study testify low electrostatic affinity in G12/DNA pair, thereby indicating that hydrophobic effect probably plays important role in the lipoplex formation. Two factors are assumed to be responsible for the inhibition effect of gemini in the case of transformation of bacterial cells. They are (i) an unfavorable influence of cationic surfactants on the electroporation procedure due to depressing the electrophoretic effect; and (ii) antibacterial activity of cationic surfactants that may cause the disruption of integrity of cell membranes.

Supramolecular Hydrogelators and Hydrogels: From Soft Matter to Molecular Biomaterials

In this review we intend to provide a relatively comprehensive summary of the work of supramolecular hydrogelators after 2004 and to put emphasis particularly on the applications of supramolecular hydrogels/hydrogelators as molecular biomaterials. After a brief introduction of methods for generating supramolecular hydrogels, we discuss supramolecular hydrogelators on the basis of their categories, such as small organic molecules, coordination complexes, peptides, nucleobases, and saccharides. Following molecular design, we focus on various potential applications of supramolecular hydrogels as molecular biomaterials, classified by their applications in cell cultures, tissue engineering, cell behavior, imaging, and unique applications of hydrogelators. Particularly, we discuss the applications of supramolecular hydrogelators after they form supramolecular assemblies but prior to reaching the critical gelation concentration because this subject is less explored but may hold equally great promise for helping address fundamental questions about the mechanisms or the consequences of the self-assembly of molecules, including low molecular weight ones. Finally, we provide a perspective on supramolecular hydrogelators. We hope that this review will serve as an updated introduction and reference for researchers who are interested in exploring supramolecular hydrogelators as molecular biomaterials for addressing the societal needs at various frontiers.

pH-Regulated surface property and pH-reversible micelle transition of a tertiary amine-based gemini surfactant in aqueous solution

A series of tertiary amide-based gemini surfactants, 2,2'-(1,4-phenylenebis(oxy))bis(N-(3-(dimethylamino)propyl)alkylamide), abbreviated as Cm-A-Cm (m = 8; 10; 12; 14), were synthesized. The surface property and aggregation behaviors of the Cm-A-Cm aqueous solutions were studied in detail. The Cm-A-Cm exhibited high and pH-regulated surface activity at the air/water interface; i.e., the critical micelle concentration was 5.6 × 10(-6) mol L(-1) at pH = 2.50 when m = 14 and was further regulated to 1.8 × 10(-6) mol L(-1) by altering the pH to 6.50. When the pH was tuned from 2.0 to 12.0, the appearance of the C12-A-C12 aqueous solution (35 mM) underwent 5 states: transparent water-like solution, viscous fluid, gel-like fluid, turbid liquid and dispersion system with white precipitate. The results of rheology, cryogenic transmission electron microscopy, and dynamic light scattering characterization revealed that the transition from water-like to viscous or gel-like liquid was actually due to aggregate microstructure transition from spherical to worm-like micelles. This transition was completely reversible between pH = 2.50 and 6.81, tuned by adding HCl and NaOH solutions for at least 4 cycles. Similar micellar transitions regulated by pH were also found for m = 8 and 10, whereas only worm-like micelles were formed for m = 14 at both acidic and nearly neutral conditions. Finally, a reasonable mechanism of aggregate behavior transition was proposed from the viewpoint of the molecular states, molecular structures, and the intra- and inter-molecular interactions.

Synthesis and antimicrobial activity of polysaccharide alginate derived cationic surfactant-metal(II) complexes

New natural polysaccharide carbohydrate derivatives of sodium alginate surfactant and its cobalt, copper and zinc complexes were synthesized. Structures of the synthesized compounds are reported using FTIR, (1)H NMR and UV-vis. The critical micelle concentration (CMC) value of the alginate surfactant and its metal complexes in aqueous solution was found out from surface tension measurements. Surface tension data at different temperatures served for the evaluation of the temperature-dependent CMC and the thermodynamics of micellization (ΔGmic, ΔHmic, ΔSmic) and adsorption (ΔGads, ΔGads, ΔSads). The surface activities of the synthesized polymeric surfactant and its metal complexes were influenced by their chemical structures and the type of the transition metals. These compounds were evaluated against Gram-positive bacteria (Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus), Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and fungi (Candida albicans and Asperigllus niger). The antibacterial and antifungal screening tests of the alginate surfactant metal complexes have shown good results compared to its precursor alginate surfactant.

Synthesis and Properties of 1,2,3,4-Butanetetracarboxylic Acid Type Gemini Surfactants with Semifluoroalkyl Chain as Hydrophobic Group

Two kinds of 1,2,3,4-butanetetracarboxylic acid type gemini surfactants having semifluoroalkyl groups (Rf-(CH2)n-; Rf = C8F17, n = 2,3,4,5,6,8,11) as diester of 2,3-bis-COOH and 1,4-bis-COOH were prepared from 1,2,3,6-tetrahydrophthalic anhydride as the key material. Their surface properties were studied by surface tension and surface pressure-area (π–A) measurements. Semifluoroalkylated geminis showed excellent surface tension re-ducing ability, but the values of the critical micelle concentration (CMC) and γCMC remained nearly unaffected by the methylene chain length. From the zero-pressure molecular areas of semifluoro-alkylated geminis and the compression modulus analysis, it was clarified that semifluoroalkylated gemini surfactants having short methylene chains would form more rigid monolayers than those having long methylene chains. But, there were not very large differences in surface properties between two geminis having the same methylene chain length.

Novel Synthesis of Anionic Gemini Surfactants from 1, 4-Diol as a Key Block Material

In this study, a series of all-hydrocarbon anionic gemini surfactants containing COOH (adipic acid-type and suberic acid-type), SO3Na, OSO3Na, and OP=O(OH)2 functional groups was developed from 1,4-diol and 1,4-diketone as a key block material. The effect of the surfactant head groups on the surface properties was investigated by surface tension and surface pressure-area (π-A) measurements. We found that the critical micelle concentrations (CMC) of the studied geminis were smaller by one order of magnitude than those of the corresponding 1+l-type surfactants. From π-A measurements, the limiting areas of COOH-type geminis were less than twofold of the area of the corresponding 1+1-type, which indicates that the gemini structure enabled tighter packing than is possible in surfactants of the 1+l-type. In contrast, the limiting area of the OP=O(OH)2-type gemini was larger than those of the COOH-type geminis. Furthermore, the suberic acid-type gemini showed a smaller limiting area than that of adipic acid-type gemini. Therefore, we can conclude that the flexibility of the gemini at the connecting position has a significant effect on formation of the monolayer at the air/water interface.

Effect of Polymethylene Spacer of Cationic Gemini Surfactants on Solvation Dynamics and Rotational Relaxation of Coumarin 153 in Aqueous Micelles

The present work demonstrates the solvation dynamics and rotational relaxation of Coumarin 153 (C-153) in the micelles of a series of cationic gemini surfactants, 12-s-12, 2Br(-) containing a hydrophobic polymethylene spacer with s = 3, 4, 6, 8, 12. Steady-state and time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) fluorescence spectroscopic techniques have been used to carry out this study. Steady-state and TCSPC fluorescence data suggest that C-153 molecules are located at the Stern layer of micelles. While probe molecules feel more or less the same micropolarity in the micellar phase, the microviscosity of micelles decreases with spacer chain length. Solvation dynamics at the Stern layer is bimodal in nature with fast solvation as a major component. Counter ions and water molecules bonded with the polar headgroups of surfactant molecules are responsible for the slow component. Average solvation time increases with spacer chain length because of the increased degree of counter ion dissociation. Some water molecules are involved in the solvation of counter ions themselves, resulting in the decrease in "free" water molecules to be available for the solvation of C-153. The hydrophobic spacer chain also has an effect on increasing the solvation time with increasing chain length. The average rotational relaxation time for C-153 decreases with spacer chain length with a rapid decrease at s > 4. The anisotropy decay of C-153 in micelles is biexponential in nature. The slow rotational relaxation is due to the lateral diffusion of C-153 in micelles. Lateral diffusion is much faster than the rotational motion of a micelle as a whole. The rotational motion of the micelle as a whole becomes faster with the decreasing size of micelles.

The influence of novel gemini surfactants containing cycloalkyl side-chains on the structural phases of DNA in solution

Very important to gene therapy is the delivery system of the nucleic acids (called a vector), which will enhance the efficiency of the transport of new DNA into cells whilst protecting against damage. A promising alternative to the currently used viral vectors are the systems based on amphiphilic compounds - lipoplexes. Among them, gemini surfactants, which consist of two hydrophobic chains and two cationic heads connected by a linker - spacer group, appear to be promising candidates. The subject of this study involves two gemini surfactants, alkoxy derivatives of bis-imidazolium quaternary salts, differing in the length of their spacer groups and how they interact with two types of salmon sperm DNA (low and high molecular weight (MW)) or plasmid DNA (pDNA). The mixtures of gemini surfactants with nucleic acids of differing p/n ratios (positive-to-negative charge ratio) were characterised by small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) of synchrotron radiation, dynamic light scattering (DLS), circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy (AFM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and gel electrophoresis techniques. This analysis allows for the selection of the most suitable and promising candidates for non-viral vectors in gene therapy, determination of the conditions needed to form stable complexes, identification of conformational changes in the DNA molecules upon interactions with gemini surfactants and in some cases, determination of the structures formed in these lipoplexes.

Synthesis and Properties of Alkyl Dibenzyl Ether Quaternary Ammonium Gemini Surfactant

Three gemini surfactants with dibenzyl ether spacer (10-B-10, 12-B-12, and 14-B-14) were synthesized and characterized. The surface activity and thermodynamic properties of micellization were determined by surface tension, steady-state fluorescence microscopy, and conductivity methods. The thermodynamic parameters of micellization (ΔmicG0, ΔmicH0, and ΔmicS0) derived from the electrical conductivity measurement implied that the micellization of these surfactants was driven by enthalpy. The enthalpy–entropy compensation of micellization showed that the stability of micelles increased with increasing alkyl chain length. Finally, we evaluated the effects of alkyl chain length on the interfacial tension, foam ability, and the emulsion stability.

Novel fluorinated gemini surfactants with γ-butyrolactone segments

In this work, novel γ-butyrolactone-type monomeric and dimeric (gemini) surfactants with a semifluoroalkyl group [Rf- (CH2)3-; Rf = C4F9, C6F13, C8F17] as the hydrophobic group were successfully synthesized. Dimethyl malonate was dimerized or connected using Br(CH2)sBr (s = 0, 1, 2, 3) to give tetraesters, and they were bis-allylated. Radical addition of fluoroalkyl using Rf-I and an initiator, i.e., 2,2'-azobisisobutyronitrile for C4F9 or di-t-butyl peroxide for C6F13 and C8F17, was perform at high temperature, with prolonged heating, to obtain bis(semifluoroalkyl)-dilactone diesters. These dilactone diesters were hydrolyzed using KOH/EtOH followed by decarboxylation in AcOH to afford γ-butyrolactonetype gemini surfactants. Common 1 + 1 semifluoroalkyl lactone surfactants were synthesized using the same method. Their surfactant properties [critical micelle concentration (CMC), γCMC, pC20, ΓCMC, and AG] were investigated by measuring the surface tension of the γ-hydroxybutyrate form prepared in aqueous tetrabutylammonium hydroxide solution. As expected, the CMC values of the gemini surfactants were more than one order of magnitude smaller than those of the corresponding 1 + 1 surfactants. Other properties also showed the excellent ability of the gemini structure to reduce the surface tension. These surfactants were easily and quantitatively recovered by acidification. The monomeric surfactant was recovered in the γ-hydroxybutyric acid form, and the gemini surfactant as a mixture of γ-butyrolactone and γ-hydroxybutyric acid forms.

Thiol-responsive gemini poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(lactide) with a cystine disulfide spacer as an intracellular drug delivery nanocarrier

Thiol-responsive gemini micelles consisting of hydrophilic poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) blocks and hydrophobic polylactide (PLA) blocks with a cystine disulfide spacer were reported as effective intracellular nanocarriers of drugs. In the presence of cellular glutathione (GSH) as a reducing agent, gemini micelles gradually destabilize into monomeric micelles through cleavage of the cystine linkage. This destabilization of the gemini micelles changed their size distribution, with the appearance of small aggregates, and led to the enhanced release of encapsulated doxorubicin (DOX). The results obtained from cell culture via confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) for cellular uptake, as well as cell viability measurements for anticancer efficacy suggest the potential of disulfide-based gemini polymeric micelles as controlled drug delivery carriers.

Syntheses of Tartaric Acid-Based Hybrid Gemini Surfactants Containing Fluorocarbon and Hydrocarbon Chains

Tartaric acid-based symmetric and hybrid gemini surfactants having dodecyloxy (C12H25O-) and tridecafluoro nonyloxy groups (C6F13(CH2)3O-) as hydrophobic groups were synthesized, and their surface properties were studied by surface tension (γ)-concentration and surface pressure-area (π-A) measurements. All geminis showed superior surfactant properties to 1+1 type surfactant. Especially, hybrid gemini showed high efficiency of lowering the surface tension comparable to that of bis(C6F13(CH2)3O) gemini. Further, hybrid gemini showed an unusual existence of two breakpoints at γ = ∼25 and 18 mN m−1. In the π-A measurements, regardless of symmetric or hybrid structures, geminis having fluoroalkyl group formed only liquid condensed monolayers while the bis(dodecyloxy) gemini formed solid monolayer. Molecular occupied areas of hybrid gemini were subequal to the mean of those of symmetric geminis.

Synthesis and physiochemical properties of novel gemini surfactants with phenyl-1,4-bis(carbamoylmethyl) spacer

A series of novel gemini surfactants, namely, phenyl-1,4-bis[(carbamoylmethyl) N,N-(dimethylalkyl ammonium chloride)] (a, b and c), was synthesized systematically and characterized by FTIR, ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR and MS.

New insights into binding interaction of novel ester-functionalized m-E2-m gemini surfactants with lysozyme: a detailed multidimensional study

Different binding patterns of m-E2-m (12-E2-12 and 14-E2-14) surfactants to HEWL.

Highly stable foams generated in mixed systems of ethanediyl-1,2-bis(dodecyldimethylammonium bromide) and alcohols

Highly stable foams were generated using a gemini surfactant, ethanediyl-1,2-bis(dodecyldimethylammonium bromide) (12-2-12) together with hexanol (C₆OH) or heptanol (C₇OH), in aqueous solution. There exists the optimum addition for both alcohols.

Aggregation behavior of long-chain piperidinium ionic liquids in ethylammonium nitrate

Micelles formed by the long-chain piperidinium ionic liquids (ILs) N-alkyl-N-methylpiperidinium bromide of general formula CnPDB (n = 12, 14, 16) in ethylammonium nitrate (EAN) were investigated through surface tension and dissipative particle dynamics (DPD) simulations. Through surface tension measurements, the critical micelle concentration (cmc), the effectiveness of surface tension reduction (Πcmc), the maximum excess surface concentration (Гmax) and the minimum area occupied per surfactant molecule (Amin) can be obtained. A series of thermodynamic parameters (DG0 m, DH0 m and DS0 m) of micellization can be calculated and the results showed that the micellization was entropy-driven. In addition, the DPD simulation was performed to simulate the whole aggregation process behavior to better reveal the micelle formation process.

Effects of spacer chain length of amino acid-based gemini surfactants on wormlike micelle formation

We studied the effects of the spacer chain length of amino acid-based gemini surfactants on the formation of wormlike micelles in aqueous solutions. The surfactants used were synthesized by reacting dodecanoylglutamic acid anhydride with diamine compounds (ethylenediamine, pentanediamine, and octanediamine), and were abbreviated as 12-GsG-12 (s: the spacer chain length of 2, 5, and 8 methylene units). These surfactants yielded viscoelastic wormlike micellar solutions at pH 9 upon mixing with a cationic monomeric surfactant, hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (HTAB). We found that the rheological behavior was strongly dependent on the spacer chain length and HTAB concentration. When the shortest spacer chain analogue (12-G2G-12) was used, an increased HTAB concentration resulted in the following structural transformations of the micelles: (i) spherical or rodlike micelles; (ii) anionic wormlike micelles exhibiting a transient network structure; (iii) anionic wormlike micelles with a micellar branching or interconnected structure; and (iv) cationic wormlike micelles. Similarly, when the middle spacer chain analogue (12-G5G-12) was used, a structural transformation from anionic to cationic wormlike micelles occurs; however, molecular aggregates with a lower positive curvature were also formed in this transition region. When the longest spacer analogue (12-G8G-12) was used, the formation of cation-rich molecular aggregates was not observed. These transition behaviors were attributed to the packing geometry of the gemini surfactants with HTAB. Additionally, as the spacer chain length increased, the zero-shear viscosity in the anionic wormlike micellar region decreased, suggesting limited one-dimensional micellar growth of spherical, rodlike, or anionic wormlike micelles.

Synthesis and Properties of a Series of CO2 Switchable Gemini Imidazolium Surfactants

Novel switchable gemini imidazolium surfactants with different carbon atoms in hydrophobic group were successfully synthesized by condensation of fatty acid with triethylene tetramine, then the intermediates were reacted with CO2 to give the imidazolinium bicarbonates. The structures of intermediates and products were identified by IR and 1H-NMR spectra. As the results show, the structures of the products obtained correspond to the target compounds designed. By surface tension measurements, these Gemini surfactants have excellent surface activity with low cmc and surface tension. The conductivity and surface tension cycles show that these surfactants could be switched from imidazoline (neutral form) to imidazolium bicarbonate (charged form) reversibly and repeatedly.

Environmentally responsive polymeric materials: effect of the topological structure on self-assembly

A novel amphiphilic homopolymer (PAGC8), containing two hydrophilic head groups and double hydrophobic tails in each repeat unit, has been prepared by solution polymerization and named as "a geminized amphiphilic homopolymer" in this paper, which is capable of self-assembling into various nanoobjects depending on the solution concentration and solvent properties. Characterization of the self-assembly behaviors was carried out by steady-state fluorescence, transmission electron microscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance techniques. Particular emphasis was dedicated to the environmental responsiveness of the assemblies. The morphologies were observed to transform from micelle-type to vesicles on adding a certain amount of ethanol. It is noteworthy that the assemblies were able to trap hydrophilic (rhodamine B) and hydrophobic (Sudan Red) molecules. Subsequently different nanoobjects were found after the encapsulation. To probe the effect of the topological structure on the self-assembly behaviors, the properties of an additional homopolymer with single charge pendant architecture on the backbone were investigated for comparison. Significant differences in structure between the two architectures brought out remarkable variations in aggregates, which were non-responsive to the solvent environment, or encapsulation of molecules. Based on the experimental results, we proposed a possible mechanism of the morphological transitions of the assemblies.