Multi-subunit acetyl-CoA carboxylases

Excess membrane synthesis drives a primitive mode of cell proliferation

The peptidoglycan cell wall is a hallmark of the bacterial subkingdom. Surprisingly, many modern bacteria retain the ability to switch into a wall-free state called the L-form. L-form proliferation is remarkable in being independent of the normally essential FtsZ-based division machinery and in occurring by membrane blebbing and tubulation. We show that mutations leading to excess membrane synthesis are sufficient to drive L-form division in Bacillus subtilis. Artificially increasing the cell surface area to volume ratio in wild-type protoplasts generates similar shape changes and cell division. Our findings show that simple biophysical processes could have supported efficient cell proliferation during the evolution of early cells and provide an extant biological model for studying this problem.

The three-dimensional structure of the biotin carboxylase-biotin carboxyl carrier protein complex of E. coli acetyl-CoA carboxylase

Acetyl-coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) carboxylase is a biotin-dependent, multifunctional enzyme that catalyzes the regulated step in fatty acid synthesis. The Escherichia coli enzyme is composed of a homodimeric biotin carboxylase (BC), biotinylated biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP), and an α2β2 heterotetrameric carboxyltransferase. This enzyme complex catalyzes two half-reactions to form malonyl-coenzyme A. BC and BCCP participate in the first half-reaction, whereas carboxyltransferase and BCCP are involved in the second. Three-dimensional structures have been reported for the individual subunits; however, the structural basis for how BCCP reacts with the carboxylase or transferase is unknown. Therefore, we report here the crystal structure of E. coli BCCP complexed with BC to a resolution of 2.49 Å. The protein-protein complex shows a unique quaternary structure and two distinct interfaces for each BCCP monomer. These BCCP binding sites are unique compared to phylogenetically related biotin-dependent carboxylases and therefore provide novel targets for developing antibiotics against bacterial acetyl-CoA carboxylase.

A capillary electrophoretic assay for acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase

A simple off-column capillary electrophoretic (CE) assay for measuring acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase holoenzyme (holo-ACC) activity and inhibition was developed. The two reactions catalyzed by the holo-ACC components, biotin carboxylase (BC) and carboxyltransferase (CT), were simultaneously monitored in this assay. Acetyl coenzyme A (CoA), malonyl-CoA, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) were separated by capillary electrophoresis, and the depletion of ATP and acetyl-CoA as well as the production of ADP and malonyl-CoA were monitored. Inhibition of holo-ACC by the BC inhibitor, 2-amino-N,N-dibenzyloxazole-5-carboxamide, and the carboxyltransferase inhibitor, andrimid, was confirmed using this assay. A previously reported off-column CE assay for only the CT component of ACC was optimized, and an off-column CE assay for the BC component of ACC also was developed.

Characterizing the importance of the biotin carboxylase domain dimer for Staphylococcus aureus pyruvate carboxylase catalysis

Biotin carboxylase (BC) is a conserved component among biotin-dependent carboxylases and catalyzes the MgATP-dependent carboxylation of biotin, using bicarbonate as the CO₂ donor. Studies with Escherichia coli BC have suggested long-range communication between the two active sites of a dimer, although its mechanism is not well understood. In addition, mutations in the dimer interface can produce stable monomers that are still catalytically active. A homologous dimer for the BC domain is observed in the structure of the tetrameric pyruvate carboxylase (PC) holoenzyme. We have introduced site-specific mutations into the BC domain dimer interface of Staphylococcus aureus PC (SaPC), equivalent to those used for E. coli BC, and also made chimeras replacing the SaPC BC domain with the E. coli BC subunit (EcBC chimera) or the yeast ACC BC domain (ScBC chimera). We assessed the catalytic activities of these mutants and characterized their oligomerization states by gel filtration and analytical ultracentrifugation experiments. The K442E mutant and the ScBC chimera disrupted the BC dimer and were catalytically inactive, while the F403A mutant and the EcBC chimera were still tetrameric and retained catalytic activity. The R54E mutant was also tetrameric but was catalytically inactive. Crystal structures of the R54E, F403A, and K442E mutants showed that they were tetrameric in the crystal, with conformational changes near the mutation site as well as in the tetramer organization. We have also produced the isolated BC domain of SaPC. In contrast to E. coli BC, the SaPC BC domain is monomeric in solution and catalytically inactive.

Inhibitors of fatty acid synthesis in prokaryotes and eukaryotes as anti-infective, anticancer and anti-obesity drugs

There is a large range of diseases, such diabetes and cancer, which are connected to abnormal fatty acid metabolism in human cells. Therefore, inhibitors of human fatty acid synthase have great potential to manage or treat these diseases. In prokaryotes, fatty acid synthesis is important for signaling, as well as providing starting materials for the synthesis of phospholipids, which are required for the formation of the cell membrane. Recently, there has been renewed interest in the development of new molecules that target bacterial fatty acid synthases for the treatment of bacterial diseases. In this review, we look at the differences and similarities between fatty acid synthesis in humans and bacteria and highlight various small molecules that have been shown to inhibit either the mammalian or bacterial fatty acid synthase or both.

Structure and function of biotin-dependent carboxylases

Biotin-dependent carboxylases include acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), propionyl-CoA carboxylase (PCC), 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase (MCC), geranyl-CoA carboxylase, pyruvate carboxylase (PC), and urea carboxylase (UC). They contain biotin carboxylase (BC), carboxyltransferase (CT), and biotin-carboxyl carrier protein components. These enzymes are widely distributed in nature and have important functions in fatty acid metabolism, amino acid metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, polyketide biosynthesis, urea utilization, and other cellular processes. ACCs are also attractive targets for drug discovery against type 2 diabetes, obesity, cancer, microbial infections, and other diseases, and the plastid ACC of grasses is the target of action of three classes of commercial herbicides. Deficiencies in the activities of PCC, MCC, or PC are linked to serious diseases in humans. Our understanding of these enzymes has been greatly enhanced over the past few years by the crystal structures of the holoenzymes of PCC, MCC, PC, and UC. The structures reveal unanticipated features in the architectures of the holoenzymes, including the presence of previously unrecognized domains, and provide a molecular basis for understanding their catalytic mechanism as well as the large collection of disease-causing mutations in PCC, MCC, and PC. This review will summarize the recent advances in our knowledge on the structure and function of these important metabolic enzymes.

Characterization of acetyl-CoA and propionyl-CoA carboxylases encoded by Leptospira interrogans serovar Lai: an initial biochemical study for leptospiral gluconeogenesis via anaplerotic CO(2) assimilation

Leptospira interrogans is the causative agent of leptospirosis. The in vitro growth of L. interrogans requires CO(2) and a partial 3-hydroxypropionate pathway involving two acyl-CoA carboxylases was suggested by genomic analysis to assimilate CO(2). Either set of the candidate genes heterologously co-expressed in Escherichia coli was able to demonstrate both acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) and propionyl-CoA carboxylase (PCC) activities. The tri-subunit holoenzyme (LA_2736-LA_2735 and LA_3803), although failed to be purified, was designated ACC based on its substrate preference toward acetyl-CoA. The partially purified bi-subunit holoenzyme (LA_2432-LA_2433) has a considerably higher activity against propionyl-CoA as the substrate than that of acetyl-CoA, and thus, designated PCC. Native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis indicated that this PCC has a molecular mass of around 669 kDa, suggesting an α(4)β(4) quaternary structure and both structural homology modeling and site-directed mutagenesis analysis of its carboxyltransferase subunit (LA_2433) indicated that the A431 residue located at the bottom of the putative substrate binding pocket may play an important role in substrate specificity determination. Both transcriptomic and proteomic data indicated that enzymes involved in the suggested partial 3-hydroxypropionate pathway were expressed in vivo in addition to ACC/PCC and the homologous genes in genomes of other Leptospira species were re-annotated accordingly. However, as the in vitro detected specific activity of ACC in the crude cell extract was too low to account for the growth of the bacterium in Ellinghausen-McCullough-Johnson-Harris minimal medium, further systematic analysis is required to unveil the mechanism of gluconeogenesis via anaplerotic CO(2) assimilation in Leptospira species.

Functional interaction of Azotobacter vinelandii cytoplasmic cyclophilin with the biotin carboxylase subunit of acetyl-CoA carboxylase

Cyclophilins (E.C. 5.1.2.8) are protein chaperones with peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase activity (PPIase). In the present study, we demonstrate a physical interaction among AvppiB, encoding the cytoplasmic cyclophilin from the soil nitrogen-fixing bacterium Azotobacter vinelandii, and AvaccC, encoding the biotin carboxylase subunit of acetyl-CoA carboxylase, which catalyzes the committed step in long-chain fatty acid synthesis. A decrease in AvppiB PPIase activity, in the presence of AvaccC, further confirms the interaction. However, PPIase activity seems not to be essential for these interactions since a PPIase active site mutant of cyclophilin does not abolish the AvaccC binding. We further show that the presence of cyclophilin largely influences the measured ATP hydrolyzing activity of AvaccA in a way that is negatively regulated by the PPIase activity. Taken together, our data support a novel role for cyclophilin in regulating biotin carboxylase activity.

Effects of ultrasound on growth, bioconversion of isoflavones and probiotic properties of parent and subsequent passages of Lactobacillus fermentum BT 8633 in biotin-supplemented soymilk

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of ultrasound on Lactobacillus fermentum BT 8633 in parent and subsequent passages based on their growth and isoflavone bioconversion activities in biotin-supplemented soymilk. The treated cells were also assessed for impact of ultrasound on probiotic properties. The growth of ultrasonicated parent cells increased (P<0.05) by 3.23-9.14% compared to that of the control during fermentation in biotin-soymilk. This was also associated with enhanced intracellular and extracellular (8.4-17.0% and 16.7-49.2%, respectively; P<0.05) β-glucosidase specific activity, leading to increased bioconversion of isoflavones glucosides to aglycones during fermentation in biotin-soymilk compared to that of the control (P<0.05). Such traits may be credited to the reversible permeabilized membrane of ultrasonicated parent cells that have facilitated the transport of molecules across the membrane. The growing characteristics of first, second and third passage of treated cells in biotin-soymilk were similar (P>0.05) to that of the control, where their growth, enzyme and isoflavone bioconversion activities (P>0.05) were comparable. This may be attributed to the temporary permeabilization in the membrane of treated cells. Ultrasound affected probiotic properties of parent L. fermentum, by reducing tolerance ability towards acid (pH 2) and bile; lowering inhibitory activities against selected pathogens and reducing adhesion ability compared to that of the control (P<0.05). The first, second and third passage of treated cells did not exhibit such traits, with the exception of their bile tolerance ability which was inherited to the first passage (P<0.05). Our results suggested that ultrasound could be used to increase bioactivity of biotin-soymilk via fermentation by probiotic L. fermentum FTDC 8633 for the development of functional food.

The SNPs in the ACACA gene are effective on fatty acid composition in Holstein milk

Fatty acid composition is an important economic trait for both dairy and beef cattle and controlled by genetic factors. Candidate genes controlling fatty acid composition may be found in fat synthesis and metabolism pathways. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase is the flux-determining enzyme in the regulation of fatty acid synthesis in animal tissues. One of two isozymes of this enzyme, acetyl-CoA carboxylase-α (ACACA), catalyses the first committed step of fatty acid synthesis in mammalian cytosol, leading to the biosynthesis of long-chain fatty acids. In the current study, the sequence comparison of the coding sequence (CDS) and two promoter regions (PIA and PIII) in bovine ACACA gene was performed between Japanese Black and Holstein cattle to detect nucleotide polymorphisms influencing fatty acid composition in milk and beef. Five single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were identified in the CDS region, 28 SNPs in the PIA region and three SNPs in the PIII region. Association study revealed that CCT/CCT type of PIII_#1, #2/PIA_#26 indicated a higher percentage of C14:0 in the milk of the Holstein cattle than CCT/GTC type (p = 0.050) and that a difference of the percentage of C16:0 was observed between CCT/CCT and GTC/GTC type (p = 0.023). CDS_#2 T/T type indicated a higher percentage of C18:0 than T/C type (p = 0.008). In addition, the Japanese Black cattle with CC/GT type of PIII_#1, #2 showed a higher percentage of C18:2 in the meat than those with GT/GT type (p = 0.025). Since PIII is the promoter specific to mammary gland during lactation, the altered expression of the ACACA gene owing to the SNPs in the PIII region may influence the fatty acid composition in the milk.

Resistance to spiromesifen in Trialeurodes vaporariorum is associated with a single amino acid replacement in its target enzyme acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase

Spiromesifen is a novel insecticide and is classed as a tetronic acid derivative. It targets the insects' acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase (ACCase) enzyme, causing a reduction in lipid biosynthesis. At the time of this publication, there are no reports of resistance to this class of insecticides in insects although resistance has been observed in several mite species. The greenhouse whitefly Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) is a serious pest of protected vegetable and ornamental crops in temperate regions of the world and spiromesifen is widely used in its control. Mortality rates of UK and European populations of T. vaporariorum to spiromesifen were calculated and up to 26-fold resistance was found. We therefore sought to examine the molecular mechanism underlying spiromesifen resistance in this important pest. Pre-treatment with piperonyl butoxide did not synergize spiromesifen, suggesting a target-site resistance mechanism. The full length ACCase gene was sequenced for a range of T. vaporariorum strains and a strong association was found between spiromesifen resistance and a glutamic acid substitution with lysine in position 645 (E645K) of this gene. A TaqMan allelic discrimination assay confirmed these findings. Although this resistance is not considered sufficient to compromise the field performance of spiromesifen, this association of E645K with resistance is the first report of a potential target site mechanism affecting an ACCase inhibitor in an arthropod species.

An unanticipated architecture of the 750-kDa α6β6 holoenzyme of 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase

3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase (MCC), a member of the biotin-dependent carboxylase superfamily, is essential for the metabolism of leucine, and deficient mutations in this enzyme are linked to methylcrotonylglycinuria (MCG) and other serious diseases in humans ^1–8. MCC has strong sequence conservation with propionyl-CoA carboxylase (PCC), and their holoenzymes are both 750 kD α₆β₆ dodecamers. Therefore the architecture of the MCC holoenzyme is expected to be highly similar to that of PCC ⁹. Here we report the crystal structures of the Pseudomonas aeruginosa MCC (PaMCC) holoenzyme, alone and in complex with coenzyme A. Surprisingly, the structures show that the architecture and overall shape of PaMCC are strikingly different when compared to PCC. The α subunits display trimeric association in the PaMCC holoenzyme while they have no contacts with each other in PCC. Moreover, the positions of the two domains in the β subunit in PaMCC are swapped relative to those in PCC. The structural information establishes a foundation for understanding the disease-causing mutations of MCC and provides new insights into the catalytic mechanism and evolution of biotin-dependent carboxylases. The large structural differences between MCC and PCC also have general implications for the relationship between sequence conservation and structural similarity.

Structure-guided inhibitor design for human acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase by interspecies active site conversion

Inhibition of acetyl-CoA carboxylases (ACCs), a crucial enzyme for fatty acid metabolism, has been shown to promote fatty acid oxidation and reduce body fat in animal models. Therefore, ACCs are attractive targets for structure-based inhibitor design, particularly the carboxyltransferase (CT) domain, which is the primary site for inhibitor interaction. We have cloned, expressed, and purified the CT domain of human ACC2 using baculovirus-mediated insect cell expression system. However, attempts to crystallize the human ACC2 CT domain have not been successful in our hands. Hence, we have been using the available crystal structure of yeast CT domain to design human ACC inhibitors. Unfortunately, as the selectivity of the lead series has increased against the full-length human enzyme, the potency against the yeast enzyme has decreased significantly. This loss of potency against the yeast enzyme correlated with a complete lack of binding of the human-specific compounds to crystals of the yeast CT domain. Here, we address this problem by converting nine key active site residues of the yeast CT domain to the corresponding human residues. The resulting humanized yeast ACC-CT (yCT-H9) protein exhibits biochemical and biophysical properties closer to the human CT domain and binding to human specific compounds. We report high resolution crystal structures of yCT-H9 complexed with inhibitors that show a preference for the human CT domain. These structures offer insights that explain the species selectivity of ACC inhibitors and may guide future drug design programs.

Expression, purification and preliminary crystallographic analysis of Rv2247, the β subunit of acyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCD6) from Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) acyl-CoA carboxylase is involved in the biosynthesis of mycolic acids, which are a key component of the bacillus cell wall. The Mtb genome encodes six acyl-CoA carboxylase β subunits (ACCD1-6), three of which (ACCD4-6) are essential for survival of the pathogen on minimal medium. Mtb ACCD6 has been expressed, purified and crystallized. The two forms of Mtb ACCD6 crystals belonged to space groups P4(1)2(1)2 and P2(1)2(1)2(1) and diffracted to 2.9 and 2.5 Å resolution, respectively, at a synchrotron-radiation source.

Dimerization of the bacterial biotin carboxylase subunit is required for acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase activity in vivo

Acetyl coenzyme A (acteyl-CoA) carboxylase (ACC) is the first committed enzyme of the fatty acid synthesis pathway. Escherichia coli ACC is composed of four different proteins. The first enzymatic activity of the ACC complex, biotin carboxylase (BC), catalyzes the carboxylation of the protein-bound biotin moiety of another subunit with bicarbonate in an ATP-dependent reaction. Although BC is found as a dimer in cell extracts and the carboxylase activities of the two subunits of the dimer are interdependent, mutant BC proteins deficient in dimerization are reported to retain appreciable activity in vitro (Y. Shen, C. Y. Chou, G. G. Chang, and L. Tong, Mol. Cell 22:807-818, 2006). However, in vivo BC must interact with the other proteins of the complex, and thus studies of the isolated BC may not reflect the intracellular function of the enzyme. We have tested the abilities of three BC mutant proteins deficient in dimerization to support growth and report that the two BC proteins most deficient in dimerization fail to support growth unless expressed at high levels. In contrast, the wild-type protein supports growth at low expression levels. We conclude that BC must be dimeric to fulfill its physiological function.

AccD6, a key carboxyltransferase essential for mycolic acid synthesis in Mycobacterium tuberculosis, is dispensable in a nonpathogenic strain

Acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase (ACC) is a key enzyme providing a substrate for mycolic acid biosynthesis. Although in vitro studies have demonstrated that the protein encoded by accD6 (Rv2247) may be a functional carboxyltransferase subunit of ACC in Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the in vivo function and regulation of accD6 in slow- and fast-growing mycobacteria remain elusive. Here, directed mutagenesis demonstrated that although accD6 is essential for M. tuberculosis, it can be deleted in Mycobacterium smegmatis without affecting its cell envelope integrity. Moreover, we showed that although it is part of the type II fatty acid synthase operon, the accD6 gene of M. tuberculosis, but not that of M. smegmatis, possesses its own additional promoter (P(acc)). The expression level of accD6(Mtb) placed only under the control of P(acc) is 10-fold lower than that in wild-type M. tuberculosis but is sufficient to sustain cell viability. Importantly, this limited expression level affects growth, mycolic acid content, and cell morphology. These results provide the first in vivo evidence for AccD6 as a key player in the mycolate biosynthesis of M. tuberculosis, implicating AccD6 as the essential ACC subunit in pathogenic mycobacteria and an excellent target for new antitubercular compounds. Our findings also highlight important differences in the mechanism of acetyl carboxylation between pathogenic and nonpathogenic mycobacterial species.

Rapid determination of biosynthetic pathways using fractional isotope enrichment and high-resolution dynamic nuclear polarization enhanced NMR

Carbon-13 NMR has traditionally been a method of choice for the determination of metabolic pathways. Through fractional labeling, (13)C spectra allow the identification of fragments incorporated as a unit into a biosynthesized molecule. The low sensitivity of (13)C spectroscopy is an impediment to such studies, especially if compounded with an often limited availability of biosynthesized molecules. Dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) can increase the signal-to-noise ratio in magnetic resonance by several orders of magnitude, and in combination with high-resolution spectroscopy has the potential to increase the reach of this technique for metabolic profiling. Here, we present an application of high-resolution DNP enhanced NMR to the study of the biosynthetic pathways for membrane lipids. We show that fatty acid methyl esters are readily hyperpolarized in organic solvent. The resulting spectra resolve the various structural features of the chains, including atoms near the termini, as well as unsaturated and cyclopropyl groups. Peak patterns observed in fractionally labeled samples are explained by the way feed molecules are incorporated into fatty acid chains during synthesis. Differences in multiplet intensity between samples made from glucose and acetate feedstock mixtures further reveal metabolic preferences for these precursors in the biosynthesis of the product. In addition to the present study of lipid biosynthesis, high-resolution DNP-NMR of fractionally (13)C-labeled metabolites may present itself for the rapid determination of biosynthetic pathways in various biomedical applications, especially in cases of limited availability of the products of interest.

The surfactant of Legionella pneumophila Is secreted in a TolC-dependent manner and is antagonistic toward other Legionella species

When Legionella pneumophila grows on agar plates, it secretes a surfactant that promotes flagellum- and pilus-independent "sliding" motility. We isolated three mutants that were defective for surfactant. The first two had mutations in genes predicted to encode cytoplasmic enzymes involved in lipid metabolism. These genes mapped to two adjacent operons that we designated bbcABCDEF and bbcGHIJK. Backcrossing and complementation confirmed the importance of the bbc genes and suggested that the Legionella surfactant is lipid containing. The third mutant had an insertion in tolC. TolC is the outer membrane part of various trimolecular complexes involved in multidrug efflux and type I protein secretion. Complementation of the tolC mutant restored sliding motility. Mutants defective for an inner membrane partner of TolC also lacked a surfactant, confirming that TolC promotes surfactant secretion. L. pneumophila (lspF) mutants lacking type II protein secretion (T2S) are also impaired for a surfactant. When the tolC and lspF mutants were grown next to each other, the lsp mutant secreted surfactant, suggesting that TolC and T2S conjoin to mediate surfactant secretion, with one being the conduit for surfactant export and the other the exporter of a molecule that is required for induction or maturation of surfactant synthesis/secretion. Although the surfactant was not required for the extracellular growth, intracellular infection, and intrapulmonary survival of L. pneumophila, it exhibited antimicrobial activity toward seven other species of Legionella but not toward various non-Legionella species. These data suggest that the surfactant provides L. pneumophila with a selective advantage over other legionellae in the natural environment.

Early evolution of the biotin-dependent carboxylase family

Background

Biotin-dependent carboxylases are a diverse family of carboxylating enzymes widespread in the three domains of life, and thus thought to be very ancient. This family includes enzymes that carboxylate acetyl-CoA, propionyl-CoA, methylcrotonyl-CoA, geranyl-CoA, acyl-CoA, pyruvate and urea. They share a common catalytic mechanism involving a biotin carboxylase domain, which fixes a CO₂ molecule on a biotin carboxyl carrier peptide, and a carboxyl transferase domain, which transfers the CO₂ moiety to the specific substrate of each enzyme. Despite this overall similarity, biotin-dependent carboxylases from the three domains of life carrying their reaction on different substrates adopt very diverse protein domain arrangements. This has made difficult the resolution of their evolutionary history up to now.

Results

Taking advantage of the availability of a large amount of genomic data, we have carried out phylogenomic analyses to get new insights on the ancient evolution of the biotin-dependent carboxylases. This allowed us to infer the set of enzymes present in the last common ancestor of each domain of life and in the last common ancestor of all living organisms (the cenancestor). Our results suggest that the last common archaeal ancestor had two biotin-dependent carboxylases, whereas the last common bacterial ancestor had three. One of these biotin-dependent carboxylases ancestral to Bacteria most likely belonged to a large family, the CoA-bearing-substrate carboxylases, that we define here according to protein domain composition and phylogenetic analysis. Eukaryotes most likely acquired their biotin-dependent carboxylases through the mitochondrial and plastid endosymbioses as well as from other unknown bacterial donors. Finally, phylogenetic analyses support previous suggestions about the existence of an ancient bifunctional biotin-protein ligase bound to a regulatory transcription factor.

Conclusions

The most parsimonious scenario for the early evolution of the biotin-dependent carboxylases, supported by the study of protein domain composition and phylogenomic analyses, entails that the cenancestor possessed two different carboxylases able to carry out the specific carboxylation of pyruvate and the non-specific carboxylation of several CoA-bearing substrates, respectively. These enzymes may have been able to participate in very diverse metabolic pathways in the cenancestor, such as in ancestral versions of fatty acid biosynthesis, anaplerosis, gluconeogenesis and the autotrophic fixation of CO₂.

Renewable energy from Cyanobacteria: energy production optimization by metabolic pathway engineering

The need to develop and improve sustainable energy resources is of eminent importance due to the finite nature of our fossil fuels. This review paper deals with a third generation renewable energy resource which does not compete with our food resources, cyanobacteria. We discuss the current state of the art in developing different types of bioenergy (ethanol, biodiesel, hydrogen, etc.) from cyanobacteria. The major important biochemical pathways in cyanobacteria are highlighted, and the possibility to influence these pathways to improve the production of specific types of energy forms the major part of this review.

Mathematical modelling of negative feedback regulation by carboxyltransferase

Acetyl-CoA carboxylase catalyses the first committed step in fatty acid synthesis in all organisms. The chemistry is accomplished in two half-reactions: activation of biotin via carboxylation by biotin carboxylase, followed by the carboxyltransferase-catalysed transfer of the carboxyl moiety from carboxybiotin to acetyl-CoA to generate malonyl-CoA. The Escherichia coli form of the carboxyltransferase subunit was recently found to regulate its own activity and expression by binding its own mRNA. By binding acetyl-CoA or the mRNA encoding its own subunits, carboxyltransferase is able to sense the metabolic state of the cell and attenuate its own translation and enzymatic activity using a negative feedback mechanism. Here, the network of these interactions is modelled mathematically with a set of non-linear differential equations. Numerical simulations of the model show that it qualitatively and quantitatively agrees with the experimental results for both inhibition of carboxyltransferase by mRNA and attenuation of translation. The modelling of the autoregulatory function of carboxyltransferase confirms that it is more than isolated interactions, but functions as a single dynamic system.

Biochemical characteristization of propionyl-coenzyme a carboxylase complex of Streptomyces toxytricini

Acyl-CoA carboxylases (ACC) are involved in important primary or secondary metabolic pathways such as fatty acid and/or polyketides synthesis. In the 62 kb fragment of pccB gene locus of Streptomyces toxytricini producing a pancreatic inhibitor lipstatin, 3 distinct subunit genes of presumable propionyl-CoA carboxylase (PCCase) complex, assumed to be one of ACC responsible for the secondary metabolism, were identified along with gene for a biotin protein ligase (Bpl). The subunits of PCCase complex were a subunit (AccA3), P subunit (PccB), and auxiliary ɛ subunit (PccE). In order to disclose the involvement of the PCCase complex in secondary metabolism, some biochemical characteristics of each subunit as well as their complex were examined. In the test of substrate specificity of the PCCase complex, it was confirmed that this complex showed much higher conversion of propionyl-CoA rather than acetyl-CoA. It implies the enzyme complex could play a main role in the production of methylmalonyl-CoA from propionyl-CoA, which is a precursor of secondary polyketide biosynthesis.

The effect of mixotrophy on microalgal growth, lipid content, and expression levels of three pathway genes in Chlorella sorokiniana

Nannochloropsis oculata CCMP 525, Dunaliella salina FACHB 435, and Chlorella sorokiniana CCTCC M209220 were compared in mixotrophic and photoautotrophic cultures in terms of growth rate, protein, and lipid content. Growth improved in glucose, and the biomass productivities of N. oculata, D. salina, and C. sorokiniana were found to be 1.4-, 2.2- and 4.2-fold that observed photoautotrophically. However, biomass and lipid production decreased at the highest glucose concentrations. Meanwhile, the content of protein and lipid were significantly augmented for mixotrophic conditions at least for some species. C. sorokiniana was found to be well suited for lipid production based on its high biomass production rate and lipid content reaching 51% during mixotrophy. Expression levels of accD (heteromeric acetyl-CoA carboxylase beta subunit), acc1 (homomeric acetyl-CoA carboxylase), rbcL (ribulose 1, 5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase large subunit) genes in C. sorokiniana were studied by real-time PCR. Increased expression levels of accD reflect the increased lipid content in stationary phase of mixotrophic growth, but expression of the acc1 gene remains low, suggesting that this gene may not be critical to lipid accumulation. Additionally, reduction of expression of the rbcL gene during mixotrophy indicated that utilization of glucose was found to reduce the role of this gene and photosynthesis.

Improved phloroglucinol production by metabolically engineered Escherichia coli

Phloroglucinol is a valuable chemical which has been successfully produced by metabolically engineered Escherichia coli. However, the low productivity remains a bottleneck for large-scale application and cost-effective production. In the present work, we cloned the key biosynthetic gene, phlD (a type III polyketide synthase), into a bacterial expression vector to produce phloroglucinol in E. coli and developed different strategies to re-engineer the recombinant strain for robust synthesis of phloroglucinol. Overexpression of E. coli marA (multiple antibiotic resistance) gene enhanced phloroglucinol resistance and elevated phloroglucinol production to 0.27 g/g dry cell weight. Augmentation of the intracellular malonyl coenzyme A (malonyl-CoA) level through coordinated expression of four acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase) subunits increased phloroglucinol production to around 0.27 g/g dry cell weight. Furthermore, the coexpression of ACCase and marA caused another marked improvement in phloroglucinol production 0.45 g/g dry cell weight, that is, 3.3-fold to the original strain. Under fed-batch conditions, this finally engineered strain accumulated phloroglucinol up to 3.8 g/L in the culture 12 h after induction, corresponding to a volumetric productivity of 0.32 g/L/h. This result was the highest phloroglucinol production to date and showed promising to make the bioprocess economically feasible.

Cloning, expression, and enzymatic activity of Acinetobacter baumannii and Klebsiella pneumoniae acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylases

Pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria are a major public health concern because they are causative agents of life-threatening hospital-acquired infections. Due to the increasing rates of resistance to available antibiotics, there is an urgent need to develop new drugs. Acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase (ACCase) is a promising target for the development of novel antibiotics. We describe here the expression, purification, and enzymatic activity of recombinant ACCases from two clinically relevant Gram-negative pathogens, Acinetobacter baumannii and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Recombinant ACCase subunits (AccAD, AccB, and AccC) were expressed and purified, and the holoenzymes were reconstituted. ACCase enzyme activity was monitored by direct detection of malonyl-coenzyme A (malonyl-CoA) formation by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Steady-state kinetics experiments showed similar k(cat) and K(M) values for both enzymes. In addition, similar IC(50) values were observed for inhibition of both enzymes by a previously reported ACCase inhibitor. To provide a higher throughput assay suitable for inhibitor screening, we developed and validated a luminescence-based ACCase assay that monitors ATP depletion. Finally, we established an enzyme activity assay for the isolated AccAD (carboxyltransferase) subunit, which is useful for determining whether novel ACCase inhibitors inhibit the biotin carboxylase or carboxyltransferase site of ACCase. The methods described here could be applied toward the identification and characterization of novel inhibitors.

Synthesis of the α,ω-dicarboxylic acid precursor of biotin by the canonical fatty acid biosynthetic pathway

Biotin synthesis requires the C7 α,ω-dicarboxylic acid, pimelic acid. Although pimelic acid was known to be primarily synthesized by a head to tail incorporation of acetate units, the synthetic mechanism was unknown. It has recently been demonstrated that in most bacteria the biotin pimelate moiety is synthesized by a modified fatty acid synthetic pathway in which the biotin synthetic intermediates are O-methyl esters disguised to resemble the canonical intermediates of the fatty acid synthetic pathway. Upon completion of the pimelate moiety, the methyl ester is cleaved. A very restricted set of bacteria have a different pathway in which the pimelate moiety is formed by cleavage of fatty acid synthetic intermediates by BioI, a member of the cytochrome P450 family.

Exploring the metabolic network of the epidemic pathogen Burkholderia cenocepacia J2315 via genome-scale reconstruction

BACKGROUND

Burkholderia cenocepacia is a threatening nosocomial epidemic pathogen in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) or a compromised immune system. Its high level of antibiotic resistance is an increasing concern in treatments against its infection. Strain B. cenocepacia J2315 is the most infectious isolate from CF patients. There is a strong demand to reconstruct a genome-scale metabolic network of B. cenocepacia J2315 to systematically analyze its metabolic capabilities and its virulence traits, and to search for potential clinical therapy targets.

RESULTS

We reconstructed the genome-scale metabolic network of B. cenocepacia J2315. An iterative reconstruction process led to the establishment of a robust model, iKF1028, which accounts for 1,028 genes, 859 internal reactions, and 834 metabolites. The model iKF1028 captures important metabolic capabilities of B. cenocepacia J2315 with a particular focus on the biosyntheses of key metabolic virulence factors to assist in understanding the mechanism of disease infection and identifying potential drug targets. The model was tested through BIOLOG assays. Based on the model, the genome annotation of B. cenocepacia J2315 was refined and 24 genes were properly re-annotated. Gene and enzyme essentiality were analyzed to provide further insights into the genome function and architecture. A total of 45 essential enzymes were identified as potential therapeutic targets.

CONCLUSIONS

As the first genome-scale metabolic network of B. cenocepacia J2315, iKF1028 allows a systematic study of the metabolic properties of B. cenocepacia and its key metabolic virulence factors affecting the CF community. The model can be used as a discovery tool to design novel drugs against diseases caused by this notorious pathogen.

A blue native-PAGE analysis of membrane protein complexes in Clostridium thermocellum

Background

Clostridium thermocellum is a Gram-positive thermophilic anaerobic bacterium with the unusual capacity to convert cellulosic biomass into ethanol and hydrogen. Identification and characterization of protein complexes in C. thermocellum are important toward understanding its metabolism and physiology.

Results

A two dimensional blue native/SDS-PAGE procedure was developed to separate membrane protein complexes of C. thermocellum. Proteins spots were identified by MALDI-TOF/TOF Mass spectrometry. 24 proteins were identified representing 13 distinct protein complexes, including several putative intact complexes. Interestingly, subunits of both the F1-F0-ATP synthase and the V1-V0-ATP synthase were detected in the membrane sample, indicating C. thermocellum may use alternative mechanisms for ATP generation.

Conclusion

Two dimensional blue native/SDS-PAGE was used to detect membrane protein complexes in C. thermocellum. More than a dozen putative protein complexes were identified, revealing the simultaneous expression of two sets of ATP synthase. The protocol developed in this work paves the way for further functional characterization of these protein complexes.

Fatty acid biosynthesis in actinomycetes

All organisms that produce fatty acids do so via a repeated cycle of reactions. In mammals and other animals, these reactions are catalyzed by a type I fatty acid synthase (FAS), a large multifunctional protein to which the growing chain is covalently attached. In contrast, most bacteria (and plants) contain a type II system in which each reaction is catalyzed by a discrete protein. The pathway of fatty acid biosynthesis in Escherichia coli is well established and has provided a foundation for elucidating the type II FAS pathways in other bacteria (White et al., 2005). However, fatty acid biosynthesis is more diverse in the phylum Actinobacteria: Mycobacterium, possess both FAS systems while Streptomyces species have only the multienzyme FAS II system and Corynebacterium species exclusively FAS I. In this review, we present an overview of the genome organization, biochemical properties and physiological relevance of the two FAS systems in the three genera of actinomycetes mentioned above. We also address in detail the biochemical and structural properties of the acyl-CoA carboxylases (ACCases) that catalyzes the first committed step of fatty acid synthesis in actinomycetes, and discuss the molecular bases of their substrate specificity and the structure-based identification of new ACCase inhibitors with antimycobacterial properties.

Reverse-genetic analysis of the two biotin-containing subunit genes of the heteromeric acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase in Arabidopsis indicates a unidirectional functional redundancy

The heteromeric acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase catalyzes the first and committed reaction of de novo fatty acid biosynthesis in plastids. This enzyme is composed of four subunits: biotin carboxyl-carrier protein (BCCP), biotin carboxylase, α-carboxyltransferase, and β-carboxyltransferase. With the exception of BCCP, single-copy genes encode these subunits in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Reverse-genetic approaches were used to individually investigate the physiological significance of the two paralogous BCCP-coding genes, CAC1A (At5g16390, codes for BCCP1) and CAC1B (At5g15530, codes for BCCP2). Transfer DNA insertional alleles that completely eliminate the accumulation of BCCP2 have no perceptible effect on plant growth, development, and fatty acid accumulation. In contrast, transfer DNA insertional null allele of the CAC1A gene is embryo lethal and deleteriously affects pollen development and germination. During seed development the effect of the cac1a null allele first becomes apparent at 3-d after flowering, when the synchronous development of the endosperm and embryo is disrupted. Characterization of CAC1A antisense plants showed that reducing BCCP1 accumulation to 35% of wild-type levels, decreases fatty acid accumulation and severely affects normal vegetative plant growth. Detailed expression analysis by a suite of approaches including in situ RNA hybridization, promoter:reporter transgene expression, and quantitative western blotting reveal that the expression of CAC1B is limited to a subset of the CAC1A-expressing tissues, and CAC1B expression levels are only about one-fifth of CAC1A expression levels. Therefore, a likely explanation for the observed unidirectional redundancy between these two paralogous genes is that whereas the BCCP1 protein can compensate for the lack of BCCP2, the absence of BCCP1 cannot be tolerated as BCCP2 levels are not sufficient to support heteromeric acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase activity at a level that is required for normal growth and development.

Increasing fatty acid production in E. coli by simulating the lipid accumulation of oleaginous microorganisms

Unlike many oleaginous microorganisms, E. coli only maintains a small amount of natural lipids in cells, impeding its utility to overproduce fatty acids. In this study, acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) from Acinetobacter calcoaceticus was expressed in E. coli to redirect the carbon flux to the generation of malonyl-CoA, which resulted in a threefold increase in intracellular lipids. Moreover, providing a high level of NADPH by overexpressing malic enzyme and adding malate to the culture medium resulted in a fourfold increase in intracellular lipids (about 197.74 mg/g). Co-expression of ACC and malic enzyme resulted in 284.56 mg/g intracellular lipids, a 5.6-fold increase compared to the wild-type strain. This study provides some attractive strategies for increasing lipid production in E. coli by simulating the lipid accumulation of oleaginous microorganisms, which could aid the development of a prokaryotic fatty acid producer.

Overexpression of biotin synthase and biotin ligase is required for efficient generation of sulfur-35 labeled biotin in E. coli

Background

Biotin is an essential enzyme cofactor that acts as a CO₂ carrier in carboxylation and decarboxylation reactions. The E. coli genome encodes a biosynthetic pathway that produces biotin from pimeloyl-CoA in four enzymatic steps. The final step, insertion of sulfur into desthiobiotin to form biotin, is catalyzed by the biotin synthase, BioB. A dedicated biotin ligase (BirA) catalyzes the covalent attachment of biotin to biotin-dependent enzymes. Isotopic labeling has been a valuable tool for probing the details of the biosynthetic process and assaying the activity of biotin-dependent enzymes, however there is currently no established method for ³⁵S labeling of biotin.

Results

In this study, we produced [³⁵S]-biotin from Na³⁵SO₄ and desthiobiotin with a specific activity of 30.7 Ci/mmol, two orders of magnitude higher than previously published methods. The biotinylation domain (PfBCCP-79) from the Plasmodium falciparum acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) was expressed in E. coli as a biotinylation substrate. We found that overexpression of the E. coli biotin synthase, BioB, and biotin ligase, BirA, increased PfBCCP-79 biotinylation 160-fold over basal levels. Biotinylated PfBCCP-79 was purified by affinity chromatography, and free biotin was liberated using acid hydrolysis. We verified that we had produced radiolabeled biologically active [D]-biotin that specifically labels biotinylated proteins through reuptake in E. coli.

Conclusions

The strategy described in our report provides a simple and effective method for the production of [³⁵S]-biotin in E. coli based on affinity chromatography.

Crystal structure of the alpha(6)beta(6) holoenzyme of propionyl-coenzyme A carboxylase

Propionyl-coenzyme A carboxylase (PCC), a mitochondrial biotin-dependent enzyme, is essential for the catabolism of the amino acids Thr, Val, Ile and Met, cholesterol and fatty acids with an odd number of carbon atoms. Deficiencies in PCC activity in humans are linked to the disease propionic acidaemia, an autosomal recessive disorder that can be fatal in infants. The holoenzyme of PCC is an alpha(6)beta(6) dodecamer, with a molecular mass of 750 kDa. The alpha-subunit contains the biotin carboxylase (BC) and biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP) domains, whereas the beta-subunit supplies the carboxyltransferase (CT) activity. Here we report the crystal structure at 3.2-A resolution of a bacterial PCC alpha(6)beta(6) holoenzyme as well as cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) reconstruction at 15-A resolution demonstrating a similar structure for human PCC. The structure defines the overall architecture of PCC and reveals unexpectedly that the alpha-subunits are arranged as monomers in the holoenzyme, decorating a central beta(6) hexamer. A hitherto unrecognized domain in the alpha-subunit, formed by residues between the BC and BCCP domains, is crucial for interactions with the beta-subunit. We have named it the BT domain. The structure reveals for the first time the relative positions of the BC and CT active sites in the holoenzyme. They are separated by approximately 55 A, indicating that the entire BCCP domain must translocate during catalysis. The BCCP domain is located in the active site of the beta-subunit in the current structure, providing insight for its involvement in the CT reaction. The structural information establishes a molecular basis for understanding the large collection of disease-causing mutations in PCC and is relevant for the holoenzymes of other biotin-dependent carboxylases, including 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase (MCC) and eukaryotic acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC).

Crystal structures and mutational analyses of acyl-CoA carboxylase beta subunit of Streptomyces coelicolor

The first committed step of fatty acid and polyketides biosynthesis, the biotin-dependent carboxylation of an acyl-CoA, is catalyzed by acyl-CoA carboxylases (ACCases) such as acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) and propionyl-CoA carboxylase (PCC). ACC and PCC in Streptomyces coelicolor are homologue multisubunit complexes that can carboxylate different short chain acyl-CoAs. While ACC is able to carboxylate acetyl-, propionyl-, or butyryl-CoA with approximately the same specificity, PCC only recognizes propionyl- and butyryl-CoA as substrates. How ACC and PCC have such different specificities toward these substrates is only partially understood. To further understand the molecular basis of how the active site residues can modulate the substrate recognition, we mutated D422, N80, R456, and R457 of PccB, the catalytic beta subunit of PCC. The crystal structures of six PccB mutants and the wild type crystal structure were compared systematically to establish the sequence-structure-function relationship that correlates the observed substrate specificity toward acetyl-, propionyl-, and butyryl-CoA with active site geometry. The experimental data confirmed that D422 is a key determinant of substrate specificity, influencing not only the active site properties but further altering protein stability and causing long-range conformational changes. Mutations of N80, R456, and R457 lead to variations in the quaternary structure of the beta subunit and to a concomitant loss of enzyme activity, indicating the importance of these residues in maintaining the active protein conformation as well as a critical role in substrate binding.

Current understanding of fatty acid biosynthesis and the acyl carrier protein

FA (fatty acid) synthesis represents a central, conserved process by which acyl chains are produced for utilization in a number of end-products such as biological membranes. Central to FA synthesis, the ACP (acyl carrier protein) represents the cofactor protein that covalently binds all fatty acyl intermediates via a phosphopantetheine linker during the synthesis process. FASs (FA synthases) can be divided into two classes, type I and II, which are primarily present in eukaryotes and bacteria/plants respectively. They are characterized by being composed of either large multifunctional polypeptides in the case of type I or consisting of discretely expressed mono-functional proteins in the type II system. Owing to this difference in architecture, the FAS system has been thought to be a good target for the discovery of novel antibacterial agents, as exemplified by the antituberculosis drug isoniazid. There have been considerable advances in this field in recent years, including the first high-resolution structural insights into the type I mega-synthases and their dynamic behaviour. Furthermore, the structural and dynamic properties of an increasing number of acyl-ACPs have been described, leading to an improved comprehension of this central carrier protein. In the present review we discuss the state of the understanding of FA synthesis with a focus on ACP. In particular, developments made over the past few years are highlighted.

A process for microbial hydrocarbon synthesis: Overproduction of fatty acids in Escherichia coli and catalytic conversion to alkanes

The development of renewable alternatives to diesel and jet fuels is highly desirable for the heavy transportation sector, and would offer benefits over the production and use of short-chain alcohols for personal transportation. Here, we report the development of a metabolically engineered strain of Escherichia coli that overproduces medium-chain length fatty acids via three basic modifications: elimination of beta-oxidation, overexpression of the four subunits of acetyl-CoA carboxylase, and expression of a plant acyl-acyl carrier protein (ACP) thioesterase from Umbellularia californica (BTE). The expression level of BTE was optimized by comparing fatty acid production from strains harboring BTE on plasmids with four different copy numbers. Expression of BTE from low copy number plasmids resulted in the highest fatty acid production. Up to a seven-fold increase in total fatty acid production was observed in engineered strains over a negative control strain (lacking beta-oxidation), with a composition dominated by C(12) and C(14) saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Next, a strategy for producing undecane via a combination of biotechnology and heterogeneous catalysis is demonstrated. Fatty acids were extracted from a culture of an overproducing strain into an alkane phase and fed to a Pd/C plug flow reactor, where the extracted fatty acids were decarboxylated into saturated alkanes. The result is an enriched alkane stream that can be recycled for continuous extractions. Complete conversion of C(12) fatty acids extracted from culture to alkanes has been demonstrated yielding a concentration of 0.44 g L(-1) (culture volume) undecane.

The role of acyl-coenzyme A carboxylase complex in lipstatin biosynthesis of Streptomyces toxytricini

Streptomyces toxytricini produces lipstatin, a specific inhibitor of pancreatic lipase, which is derived from two fatty acid moieties with eight and 14 carbon atoms. The pccB gene locus in 10.6 kb fragment of S. toxytricini chromosomal DNA contains three genes for acyl-coenzyme A carboxylase (ACCase) complex accA3, pccB, and pccE that are presumed to be involved in secondary metabolism. The pccB gene encoding a β subunit of ACCase [carboxyltransferase (CT)] was identified upstream of pccE gene for a small protein of ε subunit. The accA3 encoding the α subunit of ACCase [biotin carboxylase (BC)] was also identified downstream of pccB gene. When the pccB and pccE genes were inactivated by homologous recombination, the lipstatin production was reduced as much as 80%. In contrast, the accumulation of another compound, tetradeca-5.8-dienoic acid (the major lipstatin precursor), was 4.5-fold increased in disruptant compared with wild-type. It implies that PccB of S. toxytricini is involved in the activation of octanoic acid to hexylmalonic acid for lipstatin biosynthesis.

A tale of two functions: enzymatic activity and translational repression by carboxyltransferase

Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase catalyzes the first committed step in fatty acid synthesis. Escherichia coli acetyl-CoA carboxylase is composed of biotin carboxylase, carboxyltransferase and biotin carboxyl carrier protein functions. The accA and accD genes that code for the α- and β-subunits, respectively, are not in an operon, yet yield an α₂β₂ carboxyltransferase. Here, we report that carboxyltransferase regulates its own translation by binding the mRNA encoding its subunits. This interaction is mediated by a zinc finger on the β-subunit; mutation of the four cysteines to alanine diminished nucleic acid binding and catalytic activity. Carboxyltransferase binds the coding regions of both subunit mRNAs and inhibits translation, an inhibition that is relieved by the substrate acetyl-CoA. mRNA binding reciprocally inhibits catalytic activity. Preferential binding of carboxyltransferase to RNA in situ was shown using fluorescence resonance energy transfer. We propose an unusual regulatory mechanism by which carboxyltransferase acts as a ‘dimmer switch’ to regulate protein production and catalytic activity, while sensing the metabolic state of the cell through acetyl-CoA concentration.

Genome-wide transposon mutagenesis identifies a role for host neuroendocrine stress hormones in regulating the expression of virulence genes in Salmonella

Bacterial sensing of environmental signals plays a key role in regulating virulence and mediating bacterium-host interactions. The sensing of the neuroendocrine stress hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) plays an important role in modulating bacterial virulence. We used MudJ transposon mutagenesis to globally screen for genes regulated by neuroendocrine stress hormones in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. We identified eight hormone-regulated genes, including yhaK, iroC, nrdF, accC, yedP, STM3081, and the virulence-related genes virK and mig14. The mammalian alpha-adrenergic receptor antagonist phentolamine reversed the hormone-mediated effects on yhaK, virK, and mig14 but did not affect the other genes. The beta-adrenergic receptor antagonist propranolol had no activity in these assays. The virK and mig14 genes are involved in antimicrobial peptide resistance, and phenotypic screens revealed that exposure to neuroendocrine hormones increased the sensitivity of S. Typhimurium to the antimicrobial peptide LL-37. A virK mutant and a virK mig14 double mutant also displayed increased sensitivity to LL-37. In contrast to enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC), we have found no role for the two-component systems QseBC and QseEF in the adrenergic regulation of any of the identified genes. Furthermore, hormone-regulated gene expression could not be blocked by the QseC inhibitor LED209, suggesting that sensing of hormones is mediated through alternative signaling pathways in S. Typhimurium. This study has identified a role for host-derived neuroendocrine stress hormones in downregulating S. Typhimurium virulence gene expression to the benefit of the host, thus providing further insights into the field of host-pathogen communication.

Discovery and optimization of antibacterial AccC inhibitors

The biotin carboxylase (AccC) is part of the multi-component bacterial acetyl coenzyme-A carboxylase (ACCase) and is essential for pathogen survival. We describe herein the affinity optimization of an initial hit to give 2-(2-chlorobenzylamino)-1-(cyclohexylmethyl)-1H-benzo[d]imidazole-5-carboxamide (1), which was identified using our proprietary Automated Ligand Identification System (ALIS).(1) The X-ray co-crystal structure of 1 was solved and revealed several key interactions and opportunities for further optimization in the ATP site of AccC. Structure Based Drug Design (SBDD) and parallel synthetic approaches resulted in a novel series of AccC inhibitors, exemplified by (R)-2-(2-chlorobenzylamino)-1-(2,3-dihydro-1H-inden-1-yl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridine-5-carboxamide (40). This compound is a potent and selective inhibitor of bacterial AccC with an IC(50) of 20 nM and a MIC of 0.8 microg/mL against a sensitized strain of Escherichia coli (HS294 E. coli).