Chemistry of single-walled carbon nanotubes

Ultra-flexibility and unusual electronic, magnetic and chemical properties of waved graphenes and nanoribbons

Two-dimensional materials have attracted increasing attention because of their particular properties and potential applications in next-generation nanodevices. In this work, we investigate the physical and chemical properties of waved graphenes/nanoribbons based on first-principles calculations. We show that waved graphenes are compressible up to a strain of 50% and ultra-flexible because of the vanishing in-plane stiffness. The conductivity of waved graphenes is reduced due to charge decoupling under high compression. Our analysis of pyramidalization angles predicts that the chemistry of waved graphenes can be easily controlled by modulating local curvatures. We further demonstrate that band gaps of armchair waved graphene nanoribbons decrease with the increase of compression if they are asymmetrical in geometry, while increase if symmetrical. For waved zigzag nanoribbons, their anti-ferromagnetic states are strongly enhanced by increasing compression. The versatile functions of waved graphenes enable their applications in multi-functional nanodevices and sensors.

A supramolecular approach for the facile solubilization and separation of covalently functionalized single-walled carbon nanotubes

Through a combination of an electronic-type selective diazonium-based attachment of a Hamilton receptor unit onto the carbon nanotube framework and a supramolecular recognition approach of a cyanuric acid derivative, we herein introduce a highly promising strategy for the tuning of carbon nanotube solubility and, directly related to that, a solution-based easy and straightforward separation of covalently functionalized carbon nanotube derivatives with respect to their unfunctionalized counterparts. The supramolecular complexation of the cyanuric acid derivative provides the driving force for the dramatically increased dispersibility and for the long-time stability of the individualized single-walled carbon nanotube derivatives in chloroform. The selective covalent functionalization of metallic carbon nanotubes can easily be analyzed with the aid of scanning Raman microscopy techniques. The functional derivatives have furthermore been characterized by UV/Vis-NIR and fluorescence spectroscopy as well as by mass spectrometric coupled thermogravimetric analysis. The investigation of the supramolecular complexation is based on an in-depth UV/Vis-NIR analysis and atomic force microscopy investigations.

Physicochemical determinants of multiwalled carbon nanotubes on cellular toxicity: influence of a synthetic method and post-treatment

Since the discovery of carbon nanotubes (CNTs), scientists have performed extensive studies on nanotubes in the fields of materials science, physics, and electronic engineering. Because multiwalled CNTs (MWCNTs) are not homogeneous materials, and because it is not feasible to test every newly synthesized MWCNT, this study was aimed at investigating the physicochemical properties that primarily determine the cellular toxicity of MWCNTs. This study analyzed the relationship between cell viability and physicochemical characteristics following exposure to eight different MWCNTs. We generated eight different MWCNTs using various synthetic methods and post-treatments. From this analysis, we sought to identify the major physicochemical determinants that could predict the cellular toxicity of MWCNTs, regardless of the synthetic method and post-treatment conditions. Creation of binding sites on the tube walls by breaking C-C bonds played a pivotal role in increasing toxicity and was most clearly demonstrated by a Raman G peak shift and the ID/IG ratio. In addition, several factors were found to be strongly related to cellular toxicity: surface charge in the case of MWCNTs created by the chemical vapor deposition method and surface area and EPR intensity in the case of MWCNTs created by the arc discharge based method. The methods developed in this study could be applied to the prediction of the toxicity of newly synthesized MWCNTs.

Tracking and quantification of single-walled carbon nanotubes in fish using near infrared fluorescence

Detection of SWCNTs in complex matrices presents a unique challenge as common techniques lack spatial resolution and specificity. Near infrared fluorescence (NIRF) has emerged as a valuable tool for detecting and quantifying SWCNTs in environmental samples by exploiting their innate fluorescent properties. The objective of this study was to optimize NIRF-based imaging and quantitation methods for tracking and quantifying SWCNTs in an aquatic vertebrate model in conjunction with assessing toxicological end points. Fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) were exposed by single gavage to SWCNTs and their distribution was tracked using a custom NIRF imaging system for 7 days. No overt toxicity was observed in any of the SWCNT treated fish; however, histopathology observations from gastrointestinal (GI) tissue revealed edema within the submucosa and altered mucous cell morphology. NIRF images showed strong SWCNT-derived fluorescence signals in whole fish and excised intestinal tissues. Fluorescence was not detected in other tissues examined, indicating that no appreciable intestinal absorption occurred. SWCNTs were quantified in intestinal tissues using a NIRF spectroscopic method revealing values that were consistent with the pattern of fluorescence observed with NIRF imaging. Results of this work demonstrate the utility of NIRF imaging as a valuable tool for examining uptake and distribution of SWCNTs in aquatic vertebrates.

Pyrene-fullerene C60 dyads as light-harvesting antennas

A series of pyrene-fullerene C₆₀ dyads bearing pyrene units (PyFC₁₂, PyFPy, Py₂FC₁₂ and PyFN) were synthesized and characterized. Their optical properties were studied by absorption and fluorescence spectroscopies. Dyads were designed in this way because the pyrene moeities act as light-harvesting molecules and are able to produce “monomer” (PyFC₁₂) or excimer emission (PyFPy, Py₂FC₁₂ and PyFN). The fluorescence spectra of the dyads exhibited a significant decrease in the amount of pyrene monomer and excimer emission, without the appearance of a new emission band due to fullerene C₆₀. The pyrene fluorescence quenching was found to be almost quantitative, ranging between 96%–99% depending on the construct, which is an indication that energy transfer occurred from one of the excited pyrene species to the fullerene C₆₀.

Microscopic investigation of single-wall carbon nanotube uptake by Daphnia magna

The objectives of this study were to determine the extent of absorption of functionalized single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) across the gut epithelial cells in Daphnia magna. Several microscopic techniques were utilized, including micro-Raman spectroscopy, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) and selective area diffraction (SAD). In an effort to examine the variation in uptake due to surface properties, four groups of differently functionalized SWCNTs were used: hydroxylated (OH-SWCNTs), silicon dioxide (SiO2-SWCNTs), poly aminobenzenesulfonic acid (PABS-SWCNTs) and polyethylene glycol (PEG-SWCNTs). Raman spectroscopy was able to detect OH-SWCNTs within the gut, but lacked the spatial resolution that is needed to identify lower concentrations of SWCNTs that may have been absorbed by body tissues. Initially, low-magnification imaging of exposed D. magna sections in the TEM revealed several features, which suggested absorption of SWCNTs. However, subsequent analysis with additional techniques (HRTEM, X-ray energy-dispersive spectroscopy and SAD) indicated that these features were either artifacts produced via the specimen staining process or consisted of non-graphitic, organic structures. This latter observation emphasizes the inherent difficulty in resolving SWCNTs embedded within a complex, organic matrix, as well as the care with which imaging results must be interpreted and supplemented with other, more analytical techniques.

PLGA-carbon nanotube conjugates for intercellular delivery of caspase-3 into osteosarcoma cells

Cancer has arisen to be of the most prominent health care issues across the world in recent years. Doctors have used physiological intervention as well as chemical and radioactive therapeutics to treat cancer thus far. As an alternative to current methods, gene delivery systems with high efficiency, specificity, and safety that can reduce side effects such as necrosis of tissue are under development. Although viral vectors are highly efficient, concerns have arisen from the fact that viral vectors are sourced from lethal diseases. With this in mind, rod shaped nano-materials such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have become an attractive option for drug delivery due to the enhanced permeability and retention effect in tumors as well as the ability to penetrate the cell membrane. Here, we successfully engineered poly (lactic-co-glycolic) (PLGA) functionalized CNTs to reduce toxicity concerns, provide attachment sites for pro-apoptotic protein caspase-3 (CP3), and tune the temporal release profile of CP3 within bone cancer cells. Our results showed that CP3 was able to attach to functionalized CNTs, forming CNT-PLGA-CP3 conjugates. We show this conjugate can efficiently transduce cells at dosages as low as 0.05 μg/ml and suppress cell proliferation up to a week with no further treatments. These results are essential to showing the capabilities of PLGA functionalized CNTs as a non-viral vector gene delivery technique to tune cell fate.

THE ELECTRONIC TRANSPORT PROPERTIES IN NAPHTHOPYRAN-BASED OPTICAL MOLECULAR SWITCH WITH CARBON NANOTUBE ELECTRODES

By applying nonequilibrium Green's function (NEGF) formalism combined first-principles density functional theory (DFT), we investigate the electronic transport properties of optical molecular switch based on the naphthopyran molecule with two different single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) electrodes. The molecule that comprises the switch can convert between the closed and open forms upon photoexcitation. Theoretical results show that these two forms exhibit very different conductance properties both in armchair and zigzag junction, which can realize the on and off states of the molecular switch. Meantime, the chirality of the SWCNT electrodes strongly affects the switching characteristics of the molecular junctions. The maximum value of on–off ratio can reach 292 at 1.6 V for the switch with zigzag SWCNT electrodes.

Nanographene and graphene edges: electronic structure and nanofabrication

Graphene can be referred to as an infinite polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) consisting of an infinite number of benzene rings fused together. However, at the nanoscale, nanographene's properties lie in between those of bulk graphene and large PAH molecules, and its electronic properties depend on the influence of the edges, which disrupt the infinite π-electron system. The resulting modulation of the electronic states depends on whether the nanographene edge is the armchair or zigzag type, corresponding to the two fundamental crystal axes. In this Account, we report the results of fabricating both types of edges in the nanographene system and characterizing their electronic properties using a scanning probe microscope. We first introduce the theoretical background to understand the two types of finite size effects on the electronic states of nanographene (i) the standing wave state and (ii) the edge state which correspond to the armchair and zigzag edges, respectively. Most importantly, characterizing the standing wave and edge states could play a crucial role in understanding the chemical reactivity, thermodynamic stability and magnetism of nanosized graphene--important knowledge in the design and realization of promising functionalized nanocarbon materials. In the second part, we present scanning probe microscopic characterization of both edge types to experimentally characterize the two electronic states. As predicted, we find the armchair-edged nanographene to have an energetically stable electronic pattern. The zigzag-edged nanographene shows a nonbonding (π radical) pattern, which is the source of the material's electronic and magnetic properties and its chemical activity. Precise control of the edge geometry is a practical requirement to control the electronic structure. We show that we can fabricate the energetically unstable zigzag edges using scanning probe manipulation techniques, and we discuss challenges in using these techniques for that purpose.

Degradation of multiwall carbon nanotubes by bacteria

Understanding the environmental transformation of multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) is important to their life cycle assessment and potential environmental impacts. We report that a bacterial community is capable of degrading (14)C-labeled MWCNTs into (14)CO2 in the presence of an external carbon source via co-metabolism. Multiple intermediate products were detected, and genotypic characterization revealed three possible microbial degraders: Burkholderia kururiensis, Delftia acidovorans, and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. This result suggests that microbe/MWCNTs interaction may impact the long-term fate of MWCNTs.

Low-temperature plasma synthesis of carbon nanotubes and graphene based materials and their fuel cell applications

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene, and materials based on these, are largely used in multidisciplinary fields. Many techniques have been put forward to synthesize them. Among all kinds of approaches, the low-temperature plasma approach is widely used due to its numerous advantages, such as highly distributed active species, reduced energy requirements, enhanced catalyst activation, shortened operation time and decreased environmental pollution. This tutorial review focuses on the recent development of plasma synthesis of CNTs and graphene based materials and their electrochemical application in fuel cells.

X-RAY PHOTOELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY AND SCANNING ELECTROCHEMICAL MICROSCOPY STUDIES OF BRANCHED MULTIWALLED CARBON NANOTUBE PAPER MODIFIED BY ELECTROCHEMICAL GRAFTING AND CLICK CHEMISTRY

Modification of nanomaterials through electrochemical grafting is a useful approach to introduce linking groups on to the surface of these structures. This work shows the possibility of applying electrochemical grafting to branched multiwalled carbon nanotube paper with an electrical resistance of 0.1 ohm-cm, and subsequent reaction of the grafted 4-azidobenzenediazonium with ethynylferrocene through the Sharpless click chemistry reaction. A comparison is made between this paper electrode and adsorbed single-walled carbon nanotubes on a glassy carbon electrode, with electrochemistry, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and scanning electrochemical microscopy used for characterization.

Nanocarbon Hybrids: The Paradigm of Nanoscale Self-Ordering/Self-Assembling by Means of Charge Transfer/Doping Interactions

The scope of this Perspective is to highlight the potential of nanoscale self-ordering/self-assembling nanocarbons-fullerenes, single-wall carbon nanotubes, and graphene-en route toward novel charge transfer hybrids that unify several functions such as light harvesting, charge separation, and, eventually, catalysis. All of the given examples are fully characterized by a broad range of spectroscopic as well as microscopic techniques and, as such, document the success in tuning the electronic structure of functional nanocarbons by means of charge transfer/doping interactions.

Graphene in light: design, synthesis and applications of photo-active graphene and graphene-like materials

Graphene functionalized with photo-active units has become one of the most exciting topics of research in the last few years, which remarkably sustains and expands the graphene boom. The rise of photo-active graphene in photonics and optoelectronics is evidenced by a spate of recent reports on topics ranging from photodetectors, photovoltaics, and optoelectronics to photocatalysis. For these applications, the fabrication of photo-active graphene through appropriate chemical functionalization strategies is essential as pristine graphene has zero bandgap and only weak absorption of photons. Written from the chemists' point of view, up-to-date chemical functionalization of graphene with various small organic molecules, conjugated polymers, rare-earth components, and inorganic semiconductors is reviewed. Particular attention is paid to the development of graphene functionalized with light-harvesting moieties, including materials synthesis, characterization, energy/charge-transfer processes, and applications in photovoltaics. Challenges currently faced by researchers and future perspectives in this field are also discussed.

Fuel cell electrocatalyst using polybenzimidazole-modified carbon nanotubes as support materials

Toward the next generation fuel cell systems, the development of a novel electrocatalyst for the polymer electrolyte fuel cell (PEFC) is crucial to overcome the drawbacks of the present electrocatalyst. As a conductive supporting material for the catalyst, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have emerged as a promising candidate, and many attempts have been carried out to introduce CNT, in place of carbon black. On the other hand, as a polymer electrolyte, polybenzimidazoles (PBIs) have been recognized as a powerful candidate due to the high proton conductivity above 100 °C under non-humid conditions. In 2008, we found that these two materials have a strong physical interaction and form a stable hybrid material, in which the PBIs uniformly wrap the surfaces of the CNTs. Furthermore, PBIs serve as effective binding sites for the formation of platinum (Pt) nanoparticles to fabricate a ternary composite (CNT/PBIs/Pt). In this review article, we summarize the fundamental properties of the CNT/PBIs/Pt and discuss their potential as a new electrocatalyst for the PEFC in comparison with the conventional ones. Furthermore, potential applications of CNT/PBIs including use of the materials for oxygen reduction catalysts and reinforcement of PBI films are summarized.

Effect of multi-walled carbon nanotube surface modification on bioactivity in the C57BL/6 mouse model

The current study tests the hypothesis that multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) with different surface chemistries exhibit different bioactivity profiles in vivo. In addition, the study examined the potential contribution of the NLRP3 inflammasome in MWCNT-induced lung pathology. Unmodified (BMWCNT) and MWCNT that were surface functionalised with -COOH (FMWCNT), were instilled into C57BL/6 mice. The mice were then examined for biomarkers of inflammation and injury, as well as examined histologically for development of pulmonary disease as a function of dose and time. Biomarkers for pulmonary inflammation included cytokines, mediators and the presence of inflammatory cells (IL-1β, IL-18, IL-33, cathepsin B and neutrophils) and markers of injury (albumin and lactate dehydrogenase). The results show that surface modification by the addition of the -COOH group to the MWCNT, significantly reduced the bioactivity and pathogenicity. The results of this study also suggest that in vivo pathogenicity of the BMWCNT and FMWCNT correlates with activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in the lung.

Carbon nanotubes: synthesis, structure, functionalization, and characterization

Carbon nanotubes have generated great expectations in the scientific arena, mainly due to their spectacular properties, which include a high aspect ratio, high strain resistance, and high strength, along with high conductivities. Nowadays, carbon nanotubes are produced by a variety of methods, each of them with advantages and disadvantages. Once produced, carbon nanotubes can be chemically modified, using a wide range of chemical reactions. Functionalization makes these long wires much easier to manipulate and dispersible in several solvents. In addition, the properties of carbon nanotubes can be combined with those of organic appendages. Finally, carbon nanotubes need to be carefully characterized, either as pristine or modified materials.

Ionic liquid integrated multiwalled carbon nanotube in a poly(vinylidene fluoride) matrix: formation of a piezoelectric β-polymorph with significant reinforcement and conductivity improvement

Multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) are functionalized covalently with ionic liquid (IL, 3-aminoethyl imidazolium bromide) which helps good dispersion of IL-functionalized MWNTs (MWNT-IL) in the poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) matrix. Analysis of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) micrographs suggests ∼10 nm coating thickness of MWNTs by ILs, and the covalent linkage of ILs with MWNTs is confirmed from FT-IR and Raman spectra. PVDF nanocomposites with full β-polymorphic (piezoelectric) form are prepared using MWNT-IL by both the solvent cast and melt-blending methods. The FE-SEM and TEM micrographs indicate that IL-bound MWNTs are homogeneously dispersed within the PVDF matrix. Increasing MWNT-IL concentration in the composites results in increased β polymorph formation with a concomitant decrease of the α polymorph, and a 100% β polymorph formation occurs for 1 wt % MWNT-IL in both the fabrication conditions. A differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) study shows that the MWNT-ILs are an efficient nucleating agent for PVDF crystallization preferentially nucleating the β form due to its dipolar interactions with PVDF. The glass transition temperature (T(g)) gradually increases with an increase in MWNT-IL concentration, and the storage modulus (G') of the composites increases significantly, showing a maximum increase of 101.3% for 0.5 wt % MWNT-IL. The Young's modulus increases with MWNT-IL concentration, and analysis of the data using the Halpin-Tsai equation suggests that at low concentration they adopt an orientation parallel to the film surface; however, at higher MWNT-IL concentration it is randomly oriented. The tensile strength also increases with an increase in MWNT-IL concentration, and both the Young's modulus and the tensile strength of solvent cast films are lower than melt-blended samples. The elongation at break in the solvent cast samples shows a maximum, but in melt-blended samples it decreases continuously with increasing MWNT-IL concentration. The composites exhibit a very low conductivity percolation threshold at 0.05 wt %, and the three-dimensional conducting network is produced. Higher conductivity (∼1 S/cm for 1% MWNT-IL) than other MWNT/PVDF composites has been attributed to the anchored ionic liquid.

Theoretical study on the functionalization of BC₂N nanotube with amino groups

Using density functional theory calculations, we investigated properties of a functionalized BC₂N nanotube with NH₃ and five other NH₂-X molecules in which one of the hydrogen atoms of NH₃ is substituted by X = -CH₃, -CH₂CH₃, -COOH, -CH₂COOH and -CH₂CN functional groups. It was found that NH₃ can be preferentially adsorbed on top of the boron atom, with adsorption energy of -12.0 kcal mol(-1). The trend of adsorption-energy change can be correlated with the trend of relative electron-withdrawing or -donating capability of the functional groups. The adsorption energies are calculated to be in the range of -1.8 to -14.2 kcal mol(-1), and their relative magnitude order is found as follows: H₂N(CH₂CH₃) > H₂N(CH₃) > NH₃ > H2N(CH₂COOH) > H2N(CH₂CN) > H₂N(COOH). Overall, the functionalization of BC₂N nanotube with the amino groups results in little change in its electronic properties. The preservation of electronic properties of BC₂N coupled with the enhancement of solubility renders their chemical modification with either NH₃ or amino functional groups to be a way for the purification of BC₂N nanotubes.

CO(2) -responsive "smart" single-walled carbon nanotubes

A new type of "smart" single-walled carbon nanotubes is created by wrapping a pyrene-labeled CO(2) -responsive polymer via π-π stacking. The polymer/SWNT hybrids not only undergo a hydrophobic-hydrophilic transition upon CO(2) stimulus of CO(2) in a mixed solvent, but also exhibit switchable dispersion/aggregation states upon the alternate bubbling of CO(2) and N(2) in pure water.

Covalent functionalization of graphene with reactive intermediates

Graphene, a material made exclusively of sp(2) carbon atoms with its π electrons delocalized over the entire 2D network, is somewhat chemically inert. Covalent functionalization can enhance graphene's properties including opening its band gap, tuning conductivity, and improving solubility and stability. Covalent functionalization of pristine graphene typically requires reactive species that can form covalent adducts with the sp(2) carbon structures in graphene. In this Account, we describe graphene functionalization reactions using reactive intermediates of radicals, nitrenes, carbenes, and arynes. These reactive species covalently modify graphene through free radical addition, CH insertion, or cycloaddition reactions. Free radical additions are among the most common reaction, and these radicals can be generated from diazonium salts and benzoyl peroxide. Electron transfer from graphene to aryl diazonium ion or photoactivation of benzoyl peroxide yields aryl radicals that subsequently add to graphene to form covalent adducts. Nitrenes, electron-deficient species generated by thermal or photochemical activation of organic azides, can functionalize graphene very efficiently. Because perfluorophenyl nitrenes show enhanced bimolecular reactions compared with alkyl or phenyl nitrenes, perfluorophenyl azides are especially effective. Carbenes are used less frequently than nitrenes, but they undergo CH insertion and C═C cycloaddition reactions with graphene. In addition, arynes can serve as a dienophile in a Diels-Alder type reaction with graphene. Further study is needed to understand and exploit the chemistry of graphene. The generation of highly reactive intermediates in these reactions leads to side products that complicate the product composition and analysis. Fundamental questions remain about the reactivity and regioselectivity of graphene. The differences in the basal plane and the undercoordinated edges of graphene and the zigzag versus arm-chair configurations warrant comprehensive studies. The availability of well-defined pristine graphene starting materials in large quantities remains a key obstacle to the advancement of synthetic graphene chemistry.

Understanding Interfaces in Metal-Graphitic Hybrid Nanostructures

Metal-graphitic interfaces formed between metal nanoparticles (MNPs) and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) or graphene play an important role in the properties of such hybrid nanostructures. This Perspective summarizes different types of interfaces that exist within the metal-carbon nanoassemblies and discusses current efforts on understanding and modeling the interfacial conditions and interactions. Characterization of the metal-graphitic interfaces is described here, including microscopy, spectroscopy, electrochemical techniques, and electrical measurements. Recent studies on these nanohybrids have shown that the metal-graphitic interfaces play critical roles in both controlled assembly of nanoparticles and practical applications of nanohybrids in chemical sensors and fuel cells. Better understanding, design, and manipulation of metal-graphitic interfaces could therefore become the new frontier in the research of MNP/CNT or MNP/graphene hybrid systems.

Advances in 2D boron nitride nanostructures: nanosheets, nanoribbons, nanomeshes, and hybrids with graphene

The recent surge in graphene research has stimulated interest in the investigation of various 2-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials. Among these materials, the 2D boron nitride (BN) nanostructures are in a unique position. This is because they are the isoelectric analogs to graphene structures and share very similar structural characteristics and many physical properties except for the large band gap. The main forms of the 2D BN nanostructures include nanosheets (BNNSs), nanoribbons (BNNRs), and nanomeshes (BNNMs). BNNRs are essentially BNNSs with narrow widths in which the edge effects become significant; BNNMs are also variations of BNNSs, which are supported on certain metal substrates where strong interactions and the lattice mismatch between the substrate and the nanosheet result in periodic shallow regions on the nanosheet surface. Recently, the hybrids of 2D BN nanostructures with graphene, in the form of either in-plane hybrids or inter-plane heterolayers, have also drawn much attention. In particular, the BNNS-graphene heterolayer architectures are finding important electronic applications as BNNSs may serve as excellent dielectric substrates or separation layers for graphene electronic devices. In this article, we first discuss the structural basics, spectroscopic signatures, and physical properties of the 2D BN nanostructures. Then, various top-down and bottom-up preparation methodologies are reviewed in detail. Several sections are dedicated to the preparation of BNNRs, BNNMs, and BNNS-graphene hybrids, respectively. Following some more discussions on the applications of these unique materials, the article is concluded with a summary and perspectives of this exciting new field.

Unique diagnostic and therapeutic roles of porphyrins and phthalocyanines in photodynamic therapy, imaging and theranostics

Porphyrinic molecules have a unique theranostic role in disease therapy; they have been used to image, detect and treat different forms of diseased tissue including age-related macular degeneration and a number of different cancer types. Current focus is on the clinical imaging of tumour tissue; targeted delivery of photosensitisers and the potential of photosensitisers in multimodal biomedical theranostic nanoplatforms. The roles of porphyrinic molecules in imaging and pdt, along with research into improving their selective uptake in diseased tissue and their utility in theranostic applications are highlighted in this Review.