201
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Hu X, Margadant FM, Yao M, Sheetz MP. Molecular stretching modulates mechanosensing pathways. Protein Sci 2017; 26:1337-1351. [PMID: 28474792 DOI: 10.1002/pro.3188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Revised: 04/26/2017] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
For individual cells in tissues to create the diverse forms of biological organisms, it is necessary that they must reliably sense and generate the correct forces over the correct distances and directions. There is considerable evidence that the mechanical aspects of the cellular microenvironment provide critical physical parameters to be sensed. How proteins sense forces and cellular geometry to create the correct morphology is not understood in detail but protein unfolding appears to be a major component in force and displacement sensing. Thus, the crystallographic structure of a protein domain provides only a starting point to then analyze what will be the effects of physiological forces through domain unfolding or catch-bond formation. In this review, we will discuss the recent studies of cytoskeletal and adhesion proteins that describe protein domain dynamics. Forces applied to proteins can activate or inhibit enzymes, increase or decrease protein-protein interactions, activate or inhibit protein substrates, induce catch bonds and regulate interactions with membranes or nucleic acids. Further, the dynamics of stretch-relaxation can average forces or movements to reliably regulate morphogenic movements. In the few cases where single molecule mechanics are studied under physiological conditions such as titin and talin, there are rapid cycles of stretch-relaxation that produce mechanosensing signals. Fortunately, the development of new single molecule and super-resolution imaging methods enable the analysis of single molecule mechanics in physiologically relevant conditions. Thus, we feel that stereotypical changes in cell and tissue shape involve mechanosensing that can be analyzed at the nanometer level to determine the molecular mechanisms involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xian Hu
- Mechanobiology Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117411.,Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, 0316, Norway
| | | | - Mingxi Yao
- Mechanobiology Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117411
| | - Michael Patrick Sheetz
- Mechanobiology Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117411.,Department of Biological Sciences, University of Columbia, New York, 10027
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202
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Liskova J, Hadraba D, Filova E, Konarik M, Pirk J, Jelen K, Bacakova L. Valve interstitial cell culture: Production of mature type I collagen and precise detection. Microsc Res Tech 2017; 80:936-942. [PMID: 28455837 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.22886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2016] [Revised: 03/30/2017] [Accepted: 04/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Collagen often acts as an extracellular and intracellular marker for in vitro experiments, and its quality defines tissue constructs. To validate collagen detection techniques, cardiac valve interstitial cells were isolated from pigs and cultured under two different conditions; with and without ascorbic acid. The culture with ascorbic acid reached higher cell growth and collagen deposition, although the expression levels of collagen gene stayed similar to the culture without ascorbic acid. The fluorescent microscopy was positive for collagen fibers in both the cultures. Visualization of only extracellular collagen returned a higher correlation coefficient when comparing the immunolabeling and second harmonic generation microscopy images in the culture with ascorbic acid. Lastly, it was proved that the hydroxyproline strongly contributes to the second-order susceptibility tensor of collagen molecules, and therefore the second harmonic generation signal is impaired in the culture without ascorbic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Liskova
- Institute of Physiology, the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, 142 20, Czech Republic
| | - Daniel Hadraba
- Institute of Physiology, the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, 142 20, Czech Republic.,Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Charles University, Prague, 162 00, Czech Republic.,Department of Biophysics, Hasselt University, Diepenbeek, B-3590, Belgium
| | - Elena Filova
- Institute of Physiology, the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, 142 20, Czech Republic
| | - Miroslav Konarik
- Institute for Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Prague, 140 21, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Pirk
- Institute for Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Prague, 140 21, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Jelen
- Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Charles University, Prague, 162 00, Czech Republic
| | - Lucie Bacakova
- Institute of Physiology, the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, 142 20, Czech Republic
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203
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Development Aspects of Zebrafish Myotendinous Junction: a Model System for Understanding Muscle Basement Membrane Formation and Failure. CURRENT PATHOBIOLOGY REPORTS 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s40139-017-0140-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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204
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Conway JRW, Warren SC, Timpson P. Context-dependent intravital imaging of therapeutic response using intramolecular FRET biosensors. Methods 2017; 128:78-94. [PMID: 28435000 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2017.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Revised: 03/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Intravital microscopy represents a more physiologically relevant method for assessing therapeutic response. However, the movement into an in vivo setting brings with it several additional considerations, the primary being the context in which drug activity is assessed. Microenvironmental factors, such as hypoxia, pH, fibrosis, immune infiltration and stromal interactions have all been shown to have pronounced effects on drug activity in a more complex setting, which is often lost in simpler two- or three-dimensional assays. Here we present a practical guide for the application of intravital microscopy, looking at the available fluorescent reporters and their respective expression systems and analysis considerations. Moving in vivo, we also discuss the microscopy set up and methods available for overlaying microenvironmental context to the experimental readouts. This enables a smooth transition into applying higher fidelity intravital imaging to improve the drug discovery process.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R W Conway
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research and The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Division, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia; St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Sean C Warren
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research and The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Division, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia; St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Paul Timpson
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research and The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Division, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia; St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia.
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205
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Abstract
Shortage of autologous blood vessel sources and disadvantages of synthetic grafts have increased interest in the development of tissue-engineered vascular grafts. However, tunica media, which comprises layered elastic laminae, largely determines arterial elasticity, and is difficult to synthesize. Here, we describe a method for fabrication of arterial grafts with elastic layer structure from cultured human vascular SMCs by periodic exposure to extremely high hydrostatic pressure (HP) during repeated cell seeding. Repeated slow cycles (0.002 Hz) between 110 and 180 kPa increased stress-fiber polymerization and fibronectin fibrillogenesis on SMCs, which is required for elastic fiber formation. To fabricate arterial grafts, seeding of rat vascular SMCs and exposure to the periodic HP were repeated alternatively ten times. The obtained medial grafts were highly elastic and tensile rupture strength was 1451 ± 159 mmHg, in which elastic fibers were abundantly formed. The patch medial grafts were sutured at the rat aorta and found to be completely patent and endothelialized after 2.5 months, although tubular medial constructs implanted in rats as interpositional aortic grafts withstood arterial blood pressure only in early acute phase. This novel organized self-assembly method would enable mass production of scaffold-free arterial grafts in vitro and have potential therapeutic applications for cardiovascular diseases.
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206
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Zhang N, Milleret V, Thompson-Steckel G, Huang NP, Vörös J, Simona BR, Ehrbar M. Soft Hydrogels Featuring In-Depth Surface Density Gradients for the Simple Establishment of 3D Tissue Models for Screening Applications. SLAS DISCOVERY 2017; 22:635-644. [PMID: 28277889 DOI: 10.1177/2472555217693191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) cell culture models are gaining increasing interest for use in drug development pipelines due to their closer resemblance to human tissues. Hydrogels are the first-choice class of materials to recreate in vitro the 3D extra-cellular matrix (ECM) environment, important in studying cell-ECM interactions and 3D cellular organization and leading to physiologically relevant in vitro tissue models. Here we propose a novel hydrogel platform consisting of a 96-well plate containing pre-cast synthetic PEG-based hydrogels for the simple establishment of 3D (co-)culture systems without the need for the standard encapsulation method. The in-depth density gradient at the surface of the hydrogel promotes the infiltration of cells deposited on top of it. The ability to decouple hydrogel production and cell seeding is intended to simplify the use of hydrogel-based platforms and thus increase their accessibility. Using this platform, we established 3D cultures relevant for studying stem cell differentiation, angiogenesis, and neural and cancer models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Zhang
- 1 Laboratory of Biosensors and Bioelectronics, University and ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,2 State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Vincent Milleret
- 3 Laboratory for Cell and Tissue Engineering, Department of Obstetrics, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,4 Ectica Technologies AG, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Greta Thompson-Steckel
- 1 Laboratory of Biosensors and Bioelectronics, University and ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ning-Ping Huang
- 2 State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - János Vörös
- 1 Laboratory of Biosensors and Bioelectronics, University and ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Martin Ehrbar
- 3 Laboratory for Cell and Tissue Engineering, Department of Obstetrics, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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207
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Abstract
Fibronectin (FN) assembly and fibrillogenesis are critically important in both development and the adult organism, but their importance in vascular functions is not fully understood. Here we identify a novel pathway by which haemodynamic forces regulate FN assembly and fibrillogenesis during vascular remodelling. Induction of disturbed shear stress in vivo and in vitro resulted in complex FN fibril assembly that was dependent on the mechanosensor PECAM. Loss of PECAM also inhibited the cell-intrinsic ability to remodel FN. Gain- and loss-of-function experiments revealed that PECAM-dependent RhoA activation is required for FN assembly. Furthermore, PECAM-/- mice exhibited reduced levels of active β1 integrin that were responsible for reduced RhoA activation and downstream FN assembly. These data identify a new pathway by which endothelial mechanotransduction regulates FN assembly and flow-mediated vascular remodelling.
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208
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Chen Z, Givens C, Reader JS, Tzima E. Haemodynamics Regulate Fibronectin Assembly via PECAM. Sci Rep 2017; 7:41223. [PMID: 28120882 PMCID: PMC5264604 DOI: 10.1038/srep41223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Fibronectin (FN) assembly and fibrillogenesis are critically important in both development and the adult organism, but their importance in vascular functions is not fully understood. Here we identify a novel pathway by which haemodynamic forces regulate FN assembly and fibrillogenesis during vascular remodelling. Induction of disturbed shear stress in vivo and in vitro resulted in complex FN fibril assembly that was dependent on the mechanosensor PECAM. Loss of PECAM also inhibited the cell-intrinsic ability to remodel FN. Gain- and loss-of-function experiments revealed that PECAM-dependent RhoA activation is required for FN assembly. Furthermore, PECAM-/- mice exhibited reduced levels of active β1 integrin that were responsible for reduced RhoA activation and downstream FN assembly. These data identify a new pathway by which endothelial mechanotransduction regulates FN assembly and flow-mediated vascular remodelling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongming Chen
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Chris Givens
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - John S Reader
- Wellcome Trust Center for Human Genetics, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Ellie Tzima
- Wellcome Trust Center for Human Genetics, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
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209
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Zhang S, Jiang Z, Shi J, Wang X, Han P, Qian W. An Efficient, Recyclable, and Stable Immobilized Biocatalyst Based on Bioinspired Microcapsules-in-Hydrogel Scaffolds. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2016; 8:25152-25161. [PMID: 27602594 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b09483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Design and preparation of high-performance immobilized biocatalysts with exquisite structures and elucidation of their profound structure-performance relationship are highly desired for green and sustainable biotransformation processes. Learning from nature has been recognized as a shortcut to achieve such an impressive goal. Loose connective tissue, which is composed of hierarchically organized cells by extracellular matrix (ECM) and is recognized as an efficient catalytic system to ensure the ordered proceeding of metabolism, may offer an ideal prototype for preparing immobilized biocatalysts with high catalytic activity, recyclability, and stability. Inspired by the hierarchical structure of loose connective tissue, we prepared an immobilized biocatalyst enabled by microcapsules-in-hydrogel (MCH) scaffolds via biomimetic mineralization in agarose hydrogel. In brief, the in situ synthesized hybrid microcapsules encapsulated with glucose oxidase (GOD) are hierarchically organized by the fibrous framework of agarose hydrogel, where the fibers are intercalated into the capsule wall. The as-prepared immobilized biocatalyst shows structure-dependent catalytic performance. The porous hydrogel permits free diffusion of glucose molecules (diffusion coefficient: ∼6 × 10(-6) cm(2) s(-1), close to that in water) and retains the enzyme activity as much as possible after immobilization (initial reaction rate: 1.5 × 10(-2) mM min(-1)). The monolithic macroscale of agarose hydrogel facilitates the easy recycling of the immobilized biocatalyst (only by using tweezers), which contributes to the nonactivity decline during the recycling test. The fiber-intercalating structure elevates the mechanical stability of the in situ synthesized hybrid microcapsules, which inhibits the leaching and enhances the stability of the encapsulated GOD, achieving immobilization efficiency of ∼95%. This study will, therefore, provide a generic method for the hierarchical organization of (bio)active materials and the rational design of novel (bio)catalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaohua Zhang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin) , Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Zhongyi Jiang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin) , Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Jiafu Shi
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin) , Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Xueyan Wang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin) , Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Pingping Han
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin) , Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Weilun Qian
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin) , Tianjin 300072, China
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210
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Foolen J, Shiu JY, Mitsi M, Zhang Y, Chen CS, Vogel V. Full-Length Fibronectin Drives Fibroblast Accumulation at the Surface of Collagen Microtissues during Cell-Induced Tissue Morphogenesis. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0160369. [PMID: 27564551 PMCID: PMC5001707 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0160369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Generating and maintaining gradients of cell density and extracellular matrix (ECM) components is a prerequisite for the development of functionality of healthy tissue. Therefore, gaining insights into the drivers of spatial organization of cells and the role of ECM during tissue morphogenesis is vital. In a 3D model system of tissue morphogenesis, a fibronectin-FRET sensor recently revealed the existence of two separate fibronectin populations with different conformations in microtissues, i.e. 'compact and adsorbed to collagen' versus 'extended and fibrillar' fibronectin that does not colocalize with the collagen scaffold. Here we asked how the presence of fibronectin might drive this cell-induced tissue morphogenesis, more specifically the formation of gradients in cell density and ECM composition. Microtissues were engineered in a high-throughput model system containing rectangular microarrays of 12 posts, which constrained fibroblast-populated collagen gels, remodeled by the contractile cells into trampoline-shaped microtissues. Fibronectin's contribution during the tissue maturation process was assessed using fibronectin-knockout mouse embryonic fibroblasts (Fn-/- MEFs) and floxed equivalents (Fnf/f MEFs), in fibronectin-depleted growth medium with and without exogenously added plasma fibronectin (full-length, or various fragments). In the absence of full-length fibronectin, Fn-/- MEFs remained homogenously distributed throughout the cell-contracted collagen gels. In contrast, in the presence of full-length fibronectin, both cell types produced shell-like tissues with a predominantly cell-free compacted collagen core and a peripheral surface layer rich in cells. Single cell assays then revealed that Fn-/- MEFs applied lower total strain energy on nanopillar arrays coated with either fibronectin or vitronectin when compared to Fnf/f MEFs, but that the presence of exogenously added plasma fibronectin rescued their contractility. While collagen decoration of single fibronectin fibers enhanced the non-persistent migration of both Fnf/f and Fn-/- MEFs, the migration speed was increased for Fn-/- MEFs on plasma fibronectin fibers compared to Fnf/f MEFs. In contrast, the average speed was the same for all cells on collagen-coated Fn fibers. A Fn-FRET sensor revealed that fibronectin on average was more extended on the microtissue surface compared to fibronectin in the core. Gradients of collagen-to-fibronectin ratios and of the fraction of collagen-adsorbed to stretched fibrillar fibronectin conformations might thereby provide critical cell migration cues. This study highlights a dominant role for fibronectin in tissue morphogenesis and the development of tissue heterogeneities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasper Foolen
- Laboratory of Applied Mechanobiology, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 4, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jau-Ye Shiu
- Laboratory of Applied Mechanobiology, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 4, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Maria Mitsi
- Laboratory of Applied Mechanobiology, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 4, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Yang Zhang
- Laboratory of Applied Mechanobiology, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 4, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christopher S. Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Viola Vogel
- Laboratory of Applied Mechanobiology, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 4, Zurich, Switzerland
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211
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Wang K, Wu F, Seo BR, Fischbach C, Chen W, Hsu L, Gourdon D. Breast cancer cells alter the dynamics of stromal fibronectin-collagen interactions. Matrix Biol 2016; 60-61:86-95. [PMID: 27503584 DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2016.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2016] [Revised: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Breast cancer cells recruit surrounding stromal cells, such as cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), to remodel their extracellular matrix (ECM) and promote invasive tumor growth. Two major ECM components, fibronectin (Fn) and collagen I (Col I), are known to interact with each other to regulate cellular behavior. In this study, we seek to understand how Fn and Col I interplay and promote a dysregulated signaling pathway to facilitate tumor progression. Specifically, we investigated the evolution of tumor-conditioned stromal ECM composition, structure, and relaxation. Furthermore, we assessed how evolving Fn-Col I interactions gradually affected pro-angiogenic signaling. Our data first indicate that CAFs initially assembled a strained, viscous, and unfolded Fn matrix. This early altered Fn matrix was later remodeled into a thick Col I-rich matrix that was characteristic of a dense tumor mass. Next, our results suggest that this ECM remodeling was primarily mediated by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). This MMP activity caused profound structural and mechanical changes in the developing ECM, which then modified vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) secretion by CAFs and matrix sequestration. Collectively, these findings enhance our understanding of the mechanisms by which Fn and Col I synergistically interplay in promoting a sustained altered signaling cascade to remodel the breast tumor stroma for invasive breast tumor growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Wang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14583, USA; Nancy E. and Peter C. Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14583, USA
| | - Fei Wu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14583, USA
| | - Bo Ri Seo
- Nancy E. and Peter C. Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14583, USA
| | - Claudia Fischbach
- Nancy E. and Peter C. Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14583, USA
| | - Weisi Chen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14583, USA
| | - Lauren Hsu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14583, USA
| | - Delphine Gourdon
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14583, USA; Department of Physics, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, K1N 6N5, Canada.
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212
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Futakuchi A, Inoue T, Fujimoto T, Inoue-Mochita M, Kawai M, Tanihara H. The effects of ripasudil (K-115), a Rho kinase inhibitor, on activation of human conjunctival fibroblasts. Exp Eye Res 2016; 149:107-115. [PMID: 27394186 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2016.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2016] [Revised: 06/17/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The most common cause of glaucoma surgery failure is scar formation induced by activation of wound-healing responses and resultant fibrosis at the surgical site. We investigated the effects of ripasudil, a Rho kinase inhibitor, on activation of human conjunctival fibroblasts (HConF). HConF were pretreated with different concentrations of ripasudil for 1 h before addition of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β2, followed by incubation for 48 h. TGF-β2-treated fibroblasts exhibited a significant increase in expression of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), a marker of fibroblast-to-myofibroblast differentiation, and this increase was significantly suppressed, in a dose-dependent manner, by pretreatment with ripasudil. Ripasudil pretreatment also significantly attenuated TGF-β2-induced fibronectin production and collagen gel contraction. TGF-β2 increased both the number of viable cells and the number of cells in the G2/M phase of the cell cycle; these effects were attenuated by pretreatment with ripasudil. In addition, we explored the effects of ripasudil on stimulation of HConF by activated macrophages. Human monocytic cell line THP-1 cells were differentiated into M1 or M2 macrophage-like cells, and HConF were treated with conditioned media derived from these macrophages in the presence or absence of ripasudil. Conditioned medium from M2 macrophage-like cells induced a significant increase in α-SMA expression, viable cell numbers, and gel contraction, all of which were significantly suppressed by ripasudil. Thus, overall, ripasudil attenuated activation of human conjunctival fibroblasts. Ripasudil may be of therapeutic utility, preventing excessive scarring after glaucoma filtration surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akiko Futakuchi
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Toshihiro Inoue
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan.
| | - Tomokazu Fujimoto
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Miyuki Inoue-Mochita
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Motofumi Kawai
- Department of Ophthalmology, Asahikawa Medical University, Asahikawa, Japan
| | - Hidenobu Tanihara
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
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213
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Fauzi MB, Lokanathan Y, Aminuddin BS, Ruszymah BHI, Chowdhury SR. Ovine tendon collagen: Extraction, characterisation and fabrication of thin films for tissue engineering applications. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2016; 68:163-171. [PMID: 27524008 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2016.05.109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2016] [Revised: 04/14/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Collagen is the most abundant extracellular matrix (ECM) protein in the human body, thus widely used in tissue engineering and subsequent clinical applications. This study aimed to extract collagen from ovine (Ovis aries) Achilles tendon (OTC), and to evaluate its physicochemical properties and its potential to fabricate thin film with collagen fibrils in a random or aligned orientation. Acid-solubilized protein was extracted from ovine Achilles tendon using 0.35M acetic acid, and 80% of extracted protein was measured as collagen. SDS-PAGE and mass spectrometry analysis revealed the presence of alpha 1 and alpha 2 chain of collagen type I (col I). Further analysis with Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) confirms the presence of triple helix structure of col I, similar to commercially available rat tail col I. Drying the OTC solution at 37°C resulted in formation of a thin film with randomly orientated collagen fibrils (random collagen film; RCF). Introduction of unidirectional mechanical intervention using a platform rocker prior to drying facilitated the fabrication of a film with aligned orientation of collagen fibril (aligned collagen film; ACF). It was shown that both RCF and ACF significantly enhanced human dermal fibroblast (HDF) attachment and proliferation than that on plastic surface. Moreover, cells were distributed randomly on RCF, but aligned with the direction of mechanical intervention on ACF. In conclusion, ovine tendon could be an alternative source of col I to fabricate scaffold for tissue engineering applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- M B Fauzi
- Tissue Engineering Centre, UKM Medical Centre, Jalan Yaacob Latiff, Bandar Tun Razak, 56000 Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Y Lokanathan
- Tissue Engineering Centre, UKM Medical Centre, Jalan Yaacob Latiff, Bandar Tun Razak, 56000 Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - B S Aminuddin
- Tissue Engineering Centre, UKM Medical Centre, Jalan Yaacob Latiff, Bandar Tun Razak, 56000 Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Ear, Nose & Throat Consultant Clinic, Ampang Puteri Specialist Hospital, Taman Dato Ahmad Razali, 68000 Ampang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - B H I Ruszymah
- Tissue Engineering Centre, UKM Medical Centre, Jalan Yaacob Latiff, Bandar Tun Razak, 56000 Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Department of Physiology, UKM Medical Centre, Jalan Yaacob Latiff, Bandar Tun Razak, 56000 Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - S R Chowdhury
- Tissue Engineering Centre, UKM Medical Centre, Jalan Yaacob Latiff, Bandar Tun Razak, 56000 Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
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214
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Abstract
Fibronectin is a large vertebrate glycoprotein that is found in soluble and insoluble forms and involved in diverse processes. Protomeric fibronectin is a dimer of subunits, each of which comprises 29-31 modules - 12 type I, two type II and 15-17 type III. Plasma fibronectin is secreted by hepatocytes and circulates in a compact conformation before it binds to cell surfaces, converts to an extended conformation and is assembled into fibronectin fibrils. Here we review biophysical and structural studies that have shed light on how plasma fibronectin transitions from the compact to the extended conformation. The three types of modules each have a well-organized secondary and tertiary structure as defined by NMR and crystallography and have been likened to "beads on a string". There are flexible sequences in the N-terminal tail, between the fifth and sixth type I modules, between the first two and last two of the type III modules, and at the C-terminus. Several specific module-module interactions have been identified that likely maintain the compact quaternary structure of circulating fibronectin. The quaternary structure is perturbed in response to binding events, including binding of fibronectin to the surface of vertebrate cells for fibril assembly and to bacterial adhesins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa M Maurer
- a Departments of Biomolecular Chemistry and Medicine , University of Wisconsin-Madison , Madison , WI , United States
| | - Wenjiang Ma
- a Departments of Biomolecular Chemistry and Medicine , University of Wisconsin-Madison , Madison , WI , United States
| | - Deane F Mosher
- a Departments of Biomolecular Chemistry and Medicine , University of Wisconsin-Madison , Madison , WI , United States
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215
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Vennin C, Herrmann D, Lucas MC, Timpson P. Intravital imaging reveals new ancillary mechanisms co-opted by cancer cells to drive tumor progression. F1000Res 2016; 5. [PMID: 27239290 PMCID: PMC4870995 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.8090.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Intravital imaging is providing new insights into the dynamics of tumor progression in native tissues and has started to reveal the layers of complexity found in cancer. Recent advances in intravital imaging have allowed us to look deeper into cancer behavior and to dissect the interactions between tumor cells and the ancillary host niche that promote cancer development. In this review, we provide an insight into the latest advances in cancer biology achieved by intravital imaging, focusing on recently discovered mechanisms by which tumor cells manipulate normal tissue to facilitate disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Vennin
- The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Division, The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - David Herrmann
- The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Division, The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Morghan C Lucas
- The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Division, The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Paul Timpson
- The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Division, The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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216
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Gupta M, Doss B, Lim CT, Voituriez R, Ladoux B. Single cell rigidity sensing: A complex relationship between focal adhesion dynamics and large-scale actin cytoskeleton remodeling. Cell Adh Migr 2016; 10:554-567. [PMID: 27050660 DOI: 10.1080/19336918.2016.1173800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Many physiological and pathological processes involve tissue cells sensing the rigidity of their environment. In general, tissue cells have been shown to react to the stiffness of their environment by regulating their level of contractility, and in turn applying traction forces on their environment to probe it. This mechanosensitive process can direct early cell adhesion, cell migration and even cell differentiation. These processes require the integration of signals over time and multiple length scales. Multiple strategies have been developed to understand force- and rigidity-sensing mechanisms and much effort has been concentrated on the study of cell adhesion complexes, such as focal adhesions, and cell cytoskeletons. Here, we review the major biophysical methods used for measuring cell-traction forces as well as the mechanosensitive processes that drive cellular responses to matrix rigidity on 2-dimensional substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mukund Gupta
- a Mechanobiology Institute (MBI) , National University of Singapore , Singapore
| | - Bryant Doss
- a Mechanobiology Institute (MBI) , National University of Singapore , Singapore
| | - Chwee Teck Lim
- a Mechanobiology Institute (MBI) , National University of Singapore , Singapore.,b Department of Biomedical Engineering , Faculty of Engineering, National University of Singapore , Singapore
| | | | - Benoit Ladoux
- a Mechanobiology Institute (MBI) , National University of Singapore , Singapore.,d Institut Jacques Monod (IJM) , CNRS UMR 7592 & University Paris Diderot , Paris , France
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217
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Kim CL, Kim DE. Self-healing Characteristics of Collagen Coatings with Respect to Surface Abrasion. Sci Rep 2016; 6:20563. [PMID: 27010967 PMCID: PMC4806355 DOI: 10.1038/srep20563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2015] [Accepted: 01/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
A coating based on collagen with self-healing properties was developed for applications in mechanical components that are prone to abrasion due to contact with a counter surface. The inherent swelling behavior of collagen in water was exploited as the fundamental mechanism behind self-healing of a wear scar formed on the surface. The effects of freeze-drying process and water treatment of the collagen coatings on their mechanical and self-healing properties were analyzed. Water was also used as the medium to trigger the self-healing effect of the collagen coatings after the wear test. It was found that collagen coatings without freeze-drying did not demonstrate any self-healing effect whereas the coatings treated by freeze-drying process showed remarkable self-healing effect. Overall, collagen coatings that were freeze-dried and water treated showed the best friction and self-healing properties. Repeated self-healing ability of these coatings with respect to wear scar was also demonstrated. It was also confirmed that the self-healing property of the collagen coating was effective over a relatively wide range of temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang-Lae Kim
- Center for Nano-Wear, School of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Dae-Eun Kim
- Center for Nano-Wear, School of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea
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218
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Nakayama KH, Surya VN, Gole M, Walker T, Yang W, Lai ES, Ostrowski M, Fuller GG, Dunn AR, Huang NF. Nanoscale Patterning of Extracellular Matrix Alters Endothelial Function under Shear Stress. NANO LETTERS 2016; 16:410-419. [PMID: 26670737 PMCID: PMC4758680 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b04028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The role of nanotopographical extracellular matrix (ECM) cues in vascular endothelial cell (EC) organization and function is not well-understood, despite the composition of nano- to microscale fibrillar ECMs within blood vessels. Instead, the predominant modulator of EC organization and function is traditionally thought to be hemodynamic shear stress, in which uniform shear stress induces parallel-alignment of ECs with anti-inflammatory function, whereas disturbed flow induces a disorganized configuration with pro-inflammatory function. Since shear stress acts on ECs by applying a mechanical force concomitant with inducing spatial patterning of the cells, we sought to decouple the effects of shear stress using parallel-aligned nanofibrillar collagen films that induce parallel EC alignment prior to stimulation with disturbed flow resulting from spatial wall shear stress gradients. Using real time live-cell imaging, we tracked the alignment, migration trajectories, proliferation, and anti-inflammatory behavior of ECs when they were cultured on parallel-aligned or randomly oriented nanofibrillar films. Intriguingly, ECs cultured on aligned nanofibrillar films remained well-aligned and migrated predominantly along the direction of aligned nanofibrils, despite exposure to shear stress orthogonal to the direction of the aligned nanofibrils. Furthermore, in stark contrast to ECs cultured on randomly oriented films, ECs on aligned nanofibrillar films exposed to disturbed flow had significantly reduced inflammation and proliferation, while maintaining intact intercellular junctions. This work reveals fundamental insights into the importance of nanoscale ECM interactions in the maintenance of endothelial function. Importantly, it provides new insight into how ECs respond to opposing cues derived from nanotopography and mechanical shear force and has strong implications in the design of polymeric conduits and bioengineered tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karina H. Nakayama
- Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford, CA
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
- Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto
| | - Vinay N. Surya
- Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford, CA
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University School of Engineering, Stanford, CA
| | - Monica Gole
- Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto
| | - Travis Walker
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR
| | - Weiguang Yang
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
| | - Edwina S. Lai
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University School of Engineering, Stanford, CA
| | - Maggie Ostrowski
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University School of Engineering, Stanford, CA
| | - Gerald G. Fuller
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University School of Engineering, Stanford, CA
| | - Alexander R. Dunn
- Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford, CA
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University School of Engineering, Stanford, CA
| | - Ngan F. Huang
- Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford, CA
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
- Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto
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219
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Mitsi M, Schulz MMP, Gousopoulos E, Ochsenbein AM, Detmar M, Vogel V. Walking the Line: A Fibronectin Fiber-Guided Assay to Probe Early Steps of (Lymph)angiogenesis. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0145210. [PMID: 26689200 PMCID: PMC4686943 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0145210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2015] [Accepted: 12/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis are highly complex morphogenetic processes, central to many physiological and pathological conditions, including development, cancer metastasis, inflammation and wound healing. While it is described that extracellular matrix (ECM) fibers are involved in the spatiotemporal regulation of angiogenesis, current angiogenesis assays are not specifically designed to dissect and quantify the underlying molecular mechanisms of how the fibrillar nature of ECM regulates vessel sprouting. Even less is known about the role of the fibrillar ECM during the early stages of lymphangiogenesis. To address such questions, we introduced here an in vitro (lymph)angiogenesis assay, where we used microbeads coated with endothelial cells as simple sprouting sources and deposited them on single Fn fibers used as substrates to mimic fibrillar ECM. The fibers were deposited on a transparent substrate, suitable for live microscopic observation of the ensuing cell outgrowth events at the single cell level. Our proof-of-concept studies revealed that fibrillar Fn, compared to Fn-coated surfaces, provides far stronger sprouting and guidance cues to endothelial cells, independent of the tested mechanical strains of the Fn fibers. Additionally, we found that VEGF-A, but not VEGF-C, stimulates the collective outgrowth of lymphatic endothelial cells (LEC), while the collective outgrowth of blood vascular endothelial cells (HUVEC) was prominent even in the absence of these angiogenic factors. In addition to the findings presented here, the modularity of our assay allows for the use of different ECM or synthetic fibers as substrates, as well as of other cell types, thus expanding the range of applications in vascular biology and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Mitsi
- Laboratory of Applied Mechanobiology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | - Michael Detmar
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Viola Vogel
- Laboratory of Applied Mechanobiology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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220
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PDGFRα plays a crucial role in connective tissue remodeling. Sci Rep 2015; 5:17948. [PMID: 26639755 PMCID: PMC4671150 DOI: 10.1038/srep17948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2015] [Accepted: 11/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) plays a pivotal role in the remodeling of connective tissues. Emerging data indicate the distinctive role of PDGF receptor-α (PDGFRα) in this process. In the present study, the Pdgfra gene was systemically inactivated in adult mouse (α-KO mouse), and the role of PDGFRα was examined in the subcutaneously implanted sponge matrices. PDGFRα expressed in the fibroblasts of Pdgfra-preserving control mice (Flox mice), was significantly reduced in the sponges in α-KO mice. Neovascularized areas were largely suppressed in the α-KO mice than in the Flox mice, whereas the other parameters related to the blood vessels and endothelial cells were similar. The deposition of collagen and fibronectin and the expression of collagen 1a1 and 3a1 genes were significantly reduced in α-KO mice. There was a significantly decrease in the number and dividing fibroblasts in the α-KO mice, and those of macrophages were similar between the two genotypes. Hepatocyte growth factor (Hgf) gene expression was suppressed in Pdgfra-inactivated fibroblasts and connective tissue. The findings implicate the role of PDGFRα-dependent ECM and HGF production in fibroblasts that promotes the remodeling of connective tissue and suggest that PDGFRα may be a relevant target to regulate connective tissue remodeling.
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221
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Mechanosensing in cell-matrix adhesions - Converting tension into chemical signals. Exp Cell Res 2015; 343:35-41. [PMID: 26518118 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2015.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2015] [Accepted: 10/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Cell-matrix adhesions have since long been recognized to be critical for the survival and proliferation of cells. In fact, these adhesive structures do not only physically anchor cells, but they also induce vital intracellular signaling at cell-matrix adhesion sites. Recent progress in the cell adhesion field is now starting to provide data and ideas how this so far enigmatic signaling process is induced and regulated by intracellular acto-myosin tension, or stiffness of the extracellular matrix. Understanding how cells are using this mechanosignaling system will be key to control biological processes such as development, cancer growth, metastasis formation and tissue regeneration. In this review, we illustrate and discuss the mechanosignaling mechanisms important in the regulation of cell-matrix adhesions at the molecular level.
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222
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Raoufi M, Das T, Schoen I, Vogel V, Brüggemann D, Spatz JP. Nanopore Diameters Tune Strain in Extruded Fibronectin Fibers. NANO LETTERS 2015; 15:6357-64. [PMID: 26360649 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b01356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Fibronectin is present in the extracellular matrix and can be assembled into nanofibers in vivo by undergoing conformational changes. Here, we present a novel approach to prepare fibronectin nanofibers under physiological conditions using an extrusion approach through nanoporous aluminum oxide membranes. This one-step process can prepare nanofiber bundles up to a millimeter in length and with uniform fiber diameters in the nanometer range. Most importantly, by using different pore diameters and protein concentrations in the extrusion process, we could induce varying lasting structural changes in the fibers, which were monitored by Förster resonance energy transfer and should impose different physiological functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Raoufi
- Department of New Materials and Biosystems, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems , Heisenbergstraße 3, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany
- Department of Biophysical Chemistry, University of Heidelberg , INF 253, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Nanotechnology Research Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Science , Tehran 1417614411, Iran
| | - Tamal Das
- Department of New Materials and Biosystems, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems , Heisenbergstraße 3, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany
- Department of Biophysical Chemistry, University of Heidelberg , INF 253, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ingmar Schoen
- Laboratory of Applied Mechanobiology, Department of Health Sciences and Technology ETH Zurich , Vladimir-Prelog Weg 4 (HCI F443), CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Viola Vogel
- Laboratory of Applied Mechanobiology, Department of Health Sciences and Technology ETH Zurich , Vladimir-Prelog Weg 4 (HCI F443), CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Dorothea Brüggemann
- Department of New Materials and Biosystems, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems , Heisenbergstraße 3, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany
- Department of Biophysical Chemistry, University of Heidelberg , INF 253, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Joachim P Spatz
- Department of New Materials and Biosystems, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems , Heisenbergstraße 3, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany
- Department of Biophysical Chemistry, University of Heidelberg , INF 253, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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