Complete genome sequence of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 and genomic comparison with a laboratory strain K-12

Finding Genes in Genome Sequence

Gene finding is the process of identifying genome sequence regions representing stretches of DNA that encode biologically active products, such as proteins or functional noncoding RNAs. As this is usually the first step in the analysis of any novel genomic sequence or resequenced sample of well-known organisms, it is a very important issue, as all downstream analyses depend on the results. This chapter describes the biological basis for gene finding, and the programs and computational approaches that are available for the automated identification of protein-coding genes. For bacterial, archaeal, and eukaryotic genomes, as well as for multi-species sequence data originating from environmental community studies, the state of the art in automated gene finding is described.

Complete Genome Sequences of Curli-Negative and Curli-Positive Isolates of Foodborne Escherichia coli O157:H7 Strain 86-24

Escherichia coli O157:H7 strain 86-24 does not produce curli fimbriae, but gives rise to curli-positive isolates at a variable frequency. Here, we report the complete genome sequences of curli-negative and curli-positive isolates of strain 86-24.

Genes essential for the morphogenesis of the Shiga toxin 2-transducing phage from Escherichia coli O157:H7

Shiga toxin 2 (Stx2), one of the most important virulence factors of enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC), is encoded by phages. These phages (Stx2 phages) are often called lambda-like. However, most Stx2 phages are short-tailed, thus belonging to the family Podoviridae, and the functions of many genes, especially those in the late region, are unknown. In this study, we performed a systematic genetic and morphological analysis of genes with unknown functions in Sp5, the Stx2 phage from EHEC O157:H7 strain Sakai. We identified nine essential genes, which, together with the terminase genes, determine Sp5 morphogenesis. Four of these genes most likely encoded portal, major capsid, scaffolding and tail fiber proteins. Although exact roles/functions of the other five genes are unknown, one was involved in head formation and four were required for tail formation. One of the four tail genes encoded an unusually large protein of 2,793 amino-acid residues. Two genes that are likely required to maintain the lysogenic state were also identified. Because the late regions of Stx2 phages from various origins are highly conserved, the present study provides an important basis for better understanding the biology of this unique and medically important group of bacteriophages.

Functional Characterization of EscK (Orf4), a Sorting Platform Component of the Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli Injectisome

The type III secretion system (T3SS) is a supramolecular machine used by many bacterial pathogens to translocate effector proteins directly into the eukaryotic host cell cytoplasm. Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) is an important cause of infantile diarrheal disease in underdeveloped countries. EPEC virulence relies on a T3SS encoded within a chromosomal pathogenicity island known as the locus of enterocyte effacement (LEE). In this work, we pursued the functional characterization of the LEE-encoded protein EscK (previously known as Orf4). We provide evidence indicating that EscK is crucial for efficient T3S and belongs to the SctK (OrgA/YscK/MxiK) protein family, whose members have been implicated in the formation of a sorting platform for secretion of T3S substrates. Bacterial fractionation studies showed that EscK localizes to the inner membrane independently of the presence of any other T3SS component. Combining yeast two-hybrid screening and pulldown assays, we identified an interaction between EscK and the C-ring/sorting platform component EscQ. Site-directed mutagenesis of conserved residues revealed amino acids that are critical for EscK function and for its interaction with EscQ. In addition, we found that T3S substrate overproduction is capable of compensating for the absence of EscK. Overall, our data suggest that EscK is a structural component of the EPEC T3SS sorting platform, playing a central role in the recruitment of T3S substrates for boosting the efficiency of the protein translocation process.

IMPORTANCE

The type III secretion system (T3SS) is an essential virulence determinant for enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) colonization of intestinal epithelial cells. Multiple EPEC effector proteins are injected via the T3SS into enterocyte cells, leading to diarrheal disease. The T3SS is encoded within a genomic pathogenicity island termed the locus of enterocyte effacement (LEE). Here we unravel the function of EscK, a previously uncharacterized LEE-encoded protein. We show that EscK is central for T3SS biogenesis and function. EscK forms a protein complex with EscQ, the main component of the cytoplasmic sorting platform, serving as a docking site for T3S substrates. Our results provide a comprehensive functional analysis of an understudied component of T3SSs.

Decoding the Ecological Function of Accessory Genome

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O157:H7 primarily resides in cattle asymptomatically, and can be transmitted to humans through food. A study by Lupolova et al. applied a machine-learning approach to complex pan-genome information and predicted that only a small subset of bovine isolates have the potential to cause diseases in humans.

Evolution of a zoonotic pathogen: investigating prophage diversity in enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157 by long-read sequencing

Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) O157 is a zoonotic pathogen for which colonization of cattle and virulence in humans is associated with multiple horizontally acquired genes, the majority present in active or cryptic prophages. Our understanding of the evolution and phylogeny of EHEC O157 continues to develop primarily based on core genome analyses; however, such short-read sequences have limited value for the analysis of prophage content and its chromosomal location. In this study, we applied Single Molecule Real Time (SMRT) sequencing, using the Pacific Biosciences long-read sequencing platform, to isolates selected from the main sub-clusters of this clonal group. Prophage regions were extracted from these sequences and from published reference strains. Genome position and prophage diversity were analysed along with genetic content. Prophages could be assigned to clusters, with smaller prophages generally exhibiting less diversity and preferential loss of structural genes. Prophages encoding Shiga toxin (Stx) 2a and Stx1a were the most diverse, and more variable compared to prophages encoding Stx2c, further supporting the hypothesis that Stx2c-prophage integration was ancestral to acquisition of other Stx types. The concept that phage type (PT) 21/28 (Stx2a+, Stx2c+) strains evolved from PT32 (Stx2c+) was supported by analysis of strains with excised Stx-encoding prophages. Insertion sequence elements were over-represented in prophage sequences compared to the rest of the genome, showing integration in key genes such as stx and an excisionase, the latter potentially acting to capture the bacteriophage into the genome. Prophage profiling should allow more accurate prediction of the pathogenic potential of isolates.

Overexpressed Proteins in Hypervirulent Clade 8 and Clade 6 Strains of Escherichia coli O157:H7 Compared to E. coli O157:H7 EDL933 Clade 3 Strain

Escherichia coli O157:H7 is responsible for severe diarrhea and hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), and predominantly affects children under 5 years. The major virulence traits are Shiga toxins, necessary to develop HUS and the Type III Secretion System (T3SS) through which bacteria translocate effector proteins directly into the host cell. By SNPs typing, E. coli O157:H7 was separated into nine different clades. Clade 8 and clade 6 strains were more frequently associated with severe disease and HUS. In this study, we aimed to identify differentially expressed proteins in two strains of E. coli O157:H7 (clade 8 and clade 6), obtained from cattle and compared them with the well characterized reference EDL933 strain (clade 3). Clade 8 and clade 6 strains show enhanced pathogenicity in a mouse model and virulence-related properties. Proteins were extracted and analyzed using the TMT-6plex labeling strategy associated with two dimensional liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry in tandem. We detected 2241 proteins in the cell extract and 1787 proteins in the culture supernatants. Attention was focused on the proteins related to virulence, overexpressed in clade 6 and 8 strains compared to EDL933 strain. The proteins relevant overexpressed in clade 8 strain were the curli protein CsgC, a transcriptional activator (PchE), phage proteins, Stx2, FlgM and FlgD, a dienelactone hydrolase, CheW and CheY, and the SPATE protease EspP. For clade 6 strain, a high overexpression of phage proteins was detected, mostly from Stx2 encoding phage, including Stx2, flagellin and the protease TagA, EDL933_p0016, dienelactone hydrolase, and Haemolysin A, amongst others with unknown function. Some of these proteins were analyzed by RT-qPCR to corroborate the proteomic data. Clade 6 and clade 8 strains showed enhanced transcription of 10 out of 12 genes compared to EDL933. These results may provide new insights in E. coli O157:H7 mechanisms of pathogenesis.

Intracellular d-Serine Accumulation Promotes Genetic Diversity via Modulated Induction of RecA in Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli

We recently discovered that exposure of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) to d-serine resulted in accumulation of this unusual amino acid, induction of the SOS regulon, and downregulation of the type III secretion system that is essential for efficient colonization of the host. Here, we have investigated the physiological relevance of this elevated SOS response, which is of particular interest given the presence of Stx toxin-carrying lysogenic prophages on the EHEC chromosome that are activated during the SOS response. We found that RecA elevation in response to d-serine, while being significant, was heterogeneous and not capable of activating stx expression or stx phage transduction to a nonlysogenic recipient. This "SOS-like response" was, however, capable of increasing the mutation frequency associated with low-level RecA activity, thus promoting genetic diversity. Furthermore, this response was entirely dependent on RecA and enhanced in the presence of a DNA-damaging agent, indicating a functional SOS response, but did not result in observable cleavage of the LexA repressor alone, indicating a controlled mechanism of induction. This work demonstrates that environmental factors not usually associated with DNA damage are capable of promoting an SOS-like response. We propose that this modulated induction of RecA allows EHEC to adapt to environmental insults such as d-serine while avoiding unwanted phage-induced lysis.

IMPORTANCE

The SOS response is a global stress network that is triggered by the presence of DNA damage due to breakage or stalled replication forks. Activation of the SOS response can trigger the replication of lytic bacteriophages and promote genetic diversification through error-prone polymerases. We have demonstrated that the host-associated metabolite d-serine contributes to Escherichia coli niche specification and accumulates inside cells that cannot catabolize it. This results in a modulated activation of the SOS antirepressor RecA that is insufficient to trigger lytic bacteriophage but capable of increasing the SOS-associated mutation frequency. These findings describe how relevant signals not normally associated with DNA damage can hijack the SOS response, promoting diversity as E. coli strains adapt while avoiding unwanted phage lysis.

Transcriptional and translational regulation by RNA thermometers, riboswitches and the sRNA DsrA in Escherichia coli O157:H7 Sakai under combined cold and osmotic stress adaptation

The enteric pathogen Escherichia coli O157:H7 Sakai (EHEC) is able to grow at lower temperatures compared to commensal E. coli Growth at environmental conditions displays complex challenges different to those in a host. EHEC was grown at 37°C and at 14°C with 4% NaCl, a combination of cold and osmotic stress as present in the food chain. Comparison of RNAseq and RIBOseq data provided a snap shot of ongoing transcription and translation, differentiating transcriptional and post-transcriptional gene regulation, respectively. Indeed, cold and osmotic stress related genes are simultaneously regulated at both levels, but translational regulation clearly dominates. Special emphasis was given to genes regulated by RNA secondary structures in their 5^'UTRs, such as RNA thermometers and riboswitches, or genes controlled by small RNAs encoded in trans The results reveal large differences in gene expression between short-time shock compared to adaptation in combined cold and osmotic stress. Whereas the majority of cold shock proteins, such as CspA, are translationally downregulated after adaptation, many osmotic stress genes are still significantly upregulated mainly translationally, but several also transcriptionally.

Plasmids from Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Strains with Rare Enterohemolysin Gene (ehxA) Subtypes Reveal Pathogenicity Potential and Display a Novel Evolutionary Path

Most Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) strains associated with severe disease, such as hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS), carry large enterohemolysin-encoding (ehxA) plasmids, e.g., pO157 and pO103, that contribute to STEC clinical manifestations. Six ehxA subtypes (A through F) exist that phylogenetically cluster into eae-positive (B, C, F), a mix of eae-positive (E) and eae-negative (A), and a third, more distantly related, cluster of eae-negative (D) STEC strains. While subtype B, C, and F plasmids share a number of virulence traits that are distinct from those of subtype A, sequence data have not been available for subtype D and E plasmids. Here, we determined and compared the genetic composition of four subtype D and two subtype E plasmids to establish their evolutionary relatedness among ehxA subtypes and define their potential role in pathogenicity. We found that subtype D strains carry one exceptionally large plasmid (>200 kbp) that carries a variety of virulence genes that are associated with enterotoxigenic and enterohemorrhagic E. coli, which, quite possibly, enables these strains to cause disease despite being food isolates. Our data offer further support for the hypothesis that this subtype D plasmid represents a novel virulence plasmid, sharing very few genetic features with other plasmids; we conclude that these plasmids have evolved from a different evolutionary lineage than the plasmids carrying the other ehxA subtypes. In contrast, the 50-kbp plasmids of subtype E (pO145), although isolated from HUS outbreak strains, carried only few virulence-associated determinants, suggesting that the clinical presentation of subtype E strains is largely a result of chromosomally encoded virulence factors.

IMPORTANCE

Bacterial plasmids are known to be key agents of change in microbial populations, promoting the dissemination of various traits, such as drug resistance and virulence. This study determined the genetic makeup of virulence plasmids from rare enterohemolysin subtype D and E Shiga toxin-producing E. coli strains. We demonstrated that ehxA subtype D plasmids represent a novel E. coli virulence plasmid, and although subtype D plasmids were derived from nonclinical isolates, they encoded a variety of virulence determinants that are associated with pathogenic E. coli In contrast, subtype E plasmids, isolated from strains recovered from severely ill patients, carry only a few virulence determinants. The results of this study reemphasize the plasticity and vast diversity among E. coli plasmids. This work demonstrates that, although E. coli strains of certain serogroups may not be frequently associated with disease, they should not be underestimated in protecting human health and food safety.

Analysis of the Core Genome and Pan-Genome of Autotrophic Acetogenic Bacteria

Acetogens are obligate anaerobic bacteria capable of reducing carbon dioxide (CO₂) to multicarbon compounds coupled to the oxidation of inorganic substrates, such as hydrogen (H₂) or carbon monoxide (CO), via the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway. Owing to the metabolic capability of CO₂ fixation, much attention has been focused on understanding the unique pathways associated with acetogens, particularly their metabolic coupling of CO₂ fixation to energy conservation. Most known acetogens are phylogenetically and metabolically diverse bacteria present in 23 different bacterial genera. With the increased volume of available genome information, acetogenic bacterial genomes can be analyzed by comparative genome analysis. Even with the genetic diversity that exists among acetogens, the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway, a central metabolic pathway, and cofactor biosynthetic pathways are highly conserved for autotrophic growth. Additionally, comparative genome analysis revealed that most genes in the acetogen-specific core genome were associated with the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway. The conserved enzymes and those predicted as missing can provide insight into biological differences between acetogens and allow for the discovery of promising candidates for industrial applications.

Virulence, Antimicrobial Resistance Properties and Phylogenetic Background of Non-H7 Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli O157

Escherichia coli (E.coli) O157 that do not produce Shiga toxin and do not possess flagellar antigen H7 are of diverse H serotypes. In this study, the antibiotic resistance properties, genotype of a set of virulence associated genes and the phylogenetic background of E. coli O157:non-H7 groups were compared. Whole genome sequencing was performed on fourteen O157:non-H7 isolates collected in the STEC-ID-net study. The genomes were compared with E. coli O157 genomes and a typical Enteropathogenic E. coli (tEPEC) genome downloaded from NCBI. Twenty-six (86%) of the analyzed genomes had the intimin encoding gene eae but of different types mostly correlating with their H types, e.g., H16, H26, H39, and H45 carried intimin type ε, β, κ, and α, respectively. They belonged to several E. coli phylogenetic groups, i.e., to phylogenetic group A, B1, B2, and D. Seven (50%) of our collected O157:non-H7 isolates were resistant to two or more antibiotics. Several mobile genetic elements, such as plasmids, insertion elements, and pathogenicity islands, carrying a set of virulence and resistance genes were found in the E. coli O157:non-H7 isolates. Core genome phylogenetic analysis showed that O157:non-H7 isolates probably evolved from different phylogenetic lineages and were distantly related to the E. coli O157:H7 lineage. We hypothesize that independent acquisition of mobile genetic elements by isolates of different lineages have contributed to the different molecular features of the O157:non-H7 strains. Although distantly related to the STEC O157, E. coli O157:non-H7 isolates from multiple genetic background could be considered as pathogen of concern for their diverse virulence and antibiotic resistance properties.

Support vector machine applied to predict the zoonotic potential of E. coli O157 cattle isolates

Sequence analyses of pathogen genomes facilitate the tracking of disease outbreaks and allow relationships between strains to be reconstructed and virulence factors to be identified. However, these methods are generally used after an outbreak has happened. Here, we show that support vector machine analysis of bovine E. coli O157 isolate sequences can be applied to predict their zoonotic potential, identifying cattle strains more likely to be a serious threat to human health. Notably, only a minor subset (less than 10%) of bovine E. coli O157 isolates analyzed in our datasets were predicted to have the potential to cause human disease; this is despite the fact that the majority are within previously defined pathogenic lineages I or I/II and encode key virulence factors. The predictive capacity was retained when tested across datasets. The major differences between human and bovine E. coli O157 isolates were due to the relative abundances of hundreds of predicted prophage proteins. This finding has profound implications for public health management of disease because interventions in cattle, such a vaccination, can be targeted at herds carrying strains of high zoonotic potential. Machine-learning approaches should be applied broadly to further our understanding of pathogen biology.

Short-term evolution of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O157:H7 between two food-borne outbreaks

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) O157:H7 is a public health threat and outbreaks occur worldwide. Here, we investigate genomic differences between related STEC O157:H7 that caused two outbreaks, eight weeks apart, at the same restaurant. Short-read genome sequencing divided the outbreak strains into two sub-clusters separated by only three single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the core genome while traditional typing identified them as separate phage types, PT8 and PT54. Isolates did not cluster with local strains but with those associated with foreign travel to the Middle East/North Africa. Combined long-read sequencing approaches and optical mapping revealed that the two outbreak strains had undergone significant microevolution in the accessory genome with prophage gain, loss and recombination. In addition, the PT54 sub-type had acquired a 240 kbp multi-drug resistance (MDR) IncHI2 plasmid responsible for the phage type switch. A PT54 isolate had a general fitness advantage over a PT8 isolate in rich medium, including an increased capacity to use specific amino acids and dipeptides as a nitrogen source. The second outbreak was considerably larger and there were multiple secondary cases indicative of effective human-to-human transmission. We speculate that MDR plasmid acquisition and prophage changes have adapted the PT54 strain for human infection and transmission. Our study shows the added insights provided by combining whole-genome sequencing approaches for outbreak investigations.

Escherichia coli Type III Secretion System 2 ATPase EivC Is Involved in the Motility and Virulence of Avian Pathogenic Escherichia coli

Type III secretion systems (T3SSs) are crucial for bacterial infections because they deliver effector proteins into host cells. The Escherichia coli type III secretion system 2 (ETT2) is present in the majority of E. coli strains, and although it is degenerate, ETT2 regulates bacterial virulence. An ATPase is essential for T3SS secretion, but the function of the ETT2 ATPase has not been demonstrated. Here, we show that EivC is homologous to the β subunit of F0F1 ATPases and it possesses ATPase activity. To investigate the effects of ETT2 ATPase EivC on the phenotype and virulence of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC), eivC mutant and complemented strains were constructed and characterized. Inactivation of eivC led to impaired flagella production and augmented fimbriae on the bacterial surface, and, consequently, reduced bacterial motility. In addition, the eivC mutant strain exhibited attenuated virulence in ducks, diminished serum resistance, reduced survival in macrophage cells and in ducks, upregulated fimbrial gene expression, and downregulated flagellar and virulence gene expression. The expression of the inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-8 were increased in HD-11 macrophages infected with the eivC mutant strain, compared with the wild-type strain. These virulence-related phenotypes were restored by genetic complementation. These findings demonstrate that ETT2 ATPase EivC is involved in the motility and pathogenicity of APEC.

Could transformation mechanisms of acetylase-harboring pMdT1 plasmid be evaluated through proteomic tools in Escherichia coli?

Escherichia coli is a commensal microorganism of the gastrointestinal tract of animals and humans and it is an excellent model organism for the study of antibiotic resistance mechanisms. The resistance transmission and other characteristics of bacteria are based on different types of gene transfer occurring throughout the bacterial evolution. One of which is horizontal gene transfer that allows us to understand the ability of bacteria to acquire new genes. One dimensional and two dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE) techniques were performed in order to identify and characterize the proteome of two E. coli strains: Electromax DH10B, a transformation-ready strain; and TF-Se20, the Electromax DH10B that contains the aac(6')-Ib-cr4-harboring pMdT1 plasmid. After 2-DE and subsequent analysis by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS), it was possible to identify 76 distinct proteins on the TF-Se20 strain, whereas 71 had a known function. From Electromax DH10B strain, 72 different proteins were identified of which 71 were associated with a biological process. The protein of interest, aminoglycoside N-(6')-acetyltransferase type 1, was identified by MALDI-TOF MS. The liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) technique was performed to determine its sequence. Seventy six percent of the acetylase sequence was reconstructed only in the TF-Se20 strain, representing the single protein associated to antibiotic resistance. MALDI-TOF MS and LC-MS/MS approaches allowed us to determine the total proteome of both strains, as well as the acetylase sequence. Both of them enhance the ability to obtain more accurate information about the mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance. The pMdT1 plasmid brings a new perspective in understanding the metabolic processes that lead to antibiotic resistance.

BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

This study highlights the importance of proteomics and bioinformatics in understanding mechanisms of gene transfer and antibiotic resistance. These two approaches allow to compare the protein expression in different samples, as well as different biological processes related to each protein.

Whole Genome Sequencing for Genomics-Guided Investigations of Escherichia coli O157:H7 Outbreaks

Multi isolate whole genome sequencing (WGS) and typing for outbreak investigations has become a reality in the post-genomics era. We applied this technology to strains from Escherichia coli O157:H7 outbreaks. These include isolates from seven North America outbreaks, as well as multiple isolates from the same patient and from different infected individuals in the same household. Customized high-resolution bioinformatics sequence typing strategies were developed to assess the core genome and mobilome plasticity. Sequence typing was performed using an in-house single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) discovery and validation pipeline. Discriminatory power becomes of particular importance for the investigation of isolates from outbreaks in which macrogenomic techniques such as pulse-field gel electrophoresis or multiple locus variable number tandem repeat analysis do not differentiate closely related organisms. We also characterized differences in the phage inventory, allowing us to identify plasticity among outbreak strains that is not detectable at the core genome level. Our comprehensive analysis of the mobilome identified multiple plasmids that have not previously been associated with this lineage. Applied phylogenomics approaches provide strong molecular evidence for exceptionally little heterogeneity of strains within outbreaks and demonstrate the value of intra-cluster comparisons, rather than basing the analysis on archetypal reference strains. Next generation sequencing and whole genome typing strategies provide the technological foundation for genomic epidemiology outbreak investigation utilizing its significantly higher sample throughput, cost efficiency, and phylogenetic relatedness accuracy. These phylogenomics approaches have major public health relevance in translating information from the sequence-based survey to support timely and informed countermeasures. Polymorphisms identified in this work offer robust phylogenetic signals that index both short- and long-term evolution and can complement currently employed typing schemes for outbreak ex- and inclusion, diagnostics, surveillance, and forensic studies.

The Type Three Secretion System 2-Encoded Regulator EtrB Modulates Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli Virulence Gene Expression

Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 (EHEC) is a foodborne pathogen that causes bloody diarrhea and hemolytic uremic syndrome throughout the world. A defining feature of EHEC pathogenesis is the formation of attaching and effacing (AE) lesions on colonic epithelial cells. Most of the genes that code for AE lesion formation, including a type three secretion system (T3SS) and effectors, are carried within a chromosomal pathogenicity island called the locus of enterocyte effacement (LEE). In this study, we report that a putative regulator, which is encoded in the cryptic E. coli type three secretion system 2 (ETT2) locus and herein renamed EtrB, plays an important role in EHEC pathogenesis. The etrB gene is expressed as a monocistronic transcript, and EtrB autoregulates expression. We provide evidence that EtrB directly interacts with the ler regulatory region to activate LEE expression and promote AE lesion formation. Additionally, we mapped the EtrB regulatory circuit in EHEC to determine a global role for EtrB. EtrB is regulated by the transcription factor QseA, suggesting that these proteins comprise a regulatory circuit important for EHEC colonization of the gastrointestinal tract.

Three New Escherichia coli Phages from the Human Gut Show Promising Potential for Phage Therapy

With the emergence of multi-drug resistant bacteria the use of bacteriophages (phages) is gaining renewed interest as promising anti-microbial agents. The aim of this study was to isolate and characterize phages from human fecal samples. Three new coliphages, ɸAPCEc01, ɸAPCEc02 and ɸAPCEc03, were isolated. Their phenotypic and genomic characteristics, and lytic activity against biofilm, and in combination with ciprofloxacin, were investigated. All three phages reduced the growth of E. coli strain DPC6051 at multiplicity of infection (MOI) between 10-3 and 105. A cocktail of all three phages completely inhibited the growth of E. coli. The phage cocktail also reduced biofilm formation and prevented the emergence of phage-resistant mutants which occurred with single phage. When combined with ciprofloxacin, phage alone or in cocktail inhibited the growth of E. coli and prevented the emergence of resistant mutants. These three new phages are promising biocontrol agents for E. coli infections.

Cryptic prophages as targets for drug development

Bacterial chromosomes may contain up to 20% phage DNA that encodes diverse proteins ranging from those for photosynthesis to those for autoimmunity; hence, phages contribute greatly to the metabolic potential of pathogens. Active prophages carrying genes encoding virulence factors and antibiotic resistance can be excised from the host chromosome to form active phages and are transmissible among different bacterial hosts upon SOS responses. Cryptic prophages are artifacts of mutagenesis in which lysogenic phage are captured in the bacterial chromosome: they may excise but they do not form active phage particles or lyse their captors. Hence, cryptic prophages are relatively permanent reservoirs of genes, many of which benefit pathogens, in ways we are just beginning to discern. Here we explore the role of active prophage- and cryptic prophage-derived proteins in terms of (i) virulence, (ii) antibiotic resistance, and (iii) antibiotic tolerance; antibiotic tolerance occurs as a result of the non-heritable phenotype of dormancy which is a result of activation of toxins of toxin/antitoxin loci that are frequently encoded in cryptic prophages. Therefore, cryptic prophages are promising targets for drug development.

DgcA, a diguanylate cyclase from Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae regulates bacterial pathogenicity on rice

Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) is the causal agent of rice blight disease as well as a serious phytopathogen worldwide. It is also one of the model organisms for studying bacteria-plant interactions. Current progress in bacterial signal transduction pathways has identified cyclic di-GMP as a major second messenger molecule in controlling Xanthomonas pathogenicity. However, it still remains largely unclear how c-di-GMP regulates the secretion of bacterial virulence factors in Xoo. In this study, we focused on the important roles played by DgcA (XOO3988), one of our previously identified diguanylate cyclases in Xoo, through further investigating the phenotypes of several dgcA-related mutants, namely, the dgcA-knockout mutant ΔdgcA, the dgcA overexpression strain OdgcA, the dgcA complemented strain CdgcA and the wild-type strain. The results showed that dgcA negatively affected virulence, EPS production, bacterial autoaggregation and motility, but positively triggered biofilm formation via modulating the intracellular c-di-GMP levels. RNA-seq data further identified 349 differentially expressed genes controlled by DgcA, providing a foundation for a more solid understanding of the signal transduction pathways in Xoo. Collectively, the present study highlights DgcA as a major regulator of Xoo virulence, and can serve as a potential target for preventing rice blight diseases.

Variable tellurite resistance profiles of clinically-relevant Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) influence their recovery from foodstuffs

Tellurite (Tel)-amended selective media and resistance (Tel-R) are widely used for detecting Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) from foodstuffs. Tel-R of 81 O157 and non-O157 STEC strains isolated from animal, food and human was thus investigated. Variations of STEC tellurite minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) values have been observed and suggest a multifactorial and variable tellurite resistome between strains. Some clinically-relevant STEC were found highly susceptible and could not be recovered using a tellurite-based detection scheme. The ter operon was highly prevalent among highly Tel-R STEC but was not always detected among intermediately-resistant strains. Many STEC serogroup strains were found to harbor sublines showing a gradient of MIC values. These Tel-R sublines showed statistically significant log negative correlations with increasing tellurite concentration. Whatever the tellurite concentration, the highest number of resistant sublines was observed for STEC belonging to the O26 serogroup. Variations in the number of these Tel-R sublines could explain the poor recovery of some STEC serogroups on tellurite-amended media especially from food products with low levels of contamination. Comparison of tellurite MIC values and distribution of virulence-related genes showed Tel-R and virulence to be related.

Global transcriptional regulation by H-NS and its biological influence on the virulence of Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli

As a global transcriptional regulator, H-NS, the histone-like nucleoid-associated DNA-binding and bridging protein, plays a wide range of biological roles in bacteria. In order to determine the role of H-NS in regulating gene transcription and further find out the biological significance of this protein in Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC), we conducted transcriptome analysis of hns mutant by RNA sequencing. A total of 983 genes were identified to be regulated by H-NS in EHEC. 213 and 770 genes were down-regulated and up-regulated in the deletion mutant of hns, respectively. Interestingly, 34 of 97 genes on virulence plasmid pO157 were down-regulated by H-NS. Although the deletion mutant of hns showed a decreased survival rate in macrophage compared with the wild type strain, it exhibited the higher ability to colonize mice gut and became more virulent to BALB/c mice. The BALB/c mice infected with the deletion mutant of hns showed a lower survival rate, and a higher bacterial burden in the gut, compared with those infected with wild type strain, especially when the gut microbiota was not disturbed by antibiotic administration. These findings suggest that H-NS plays an important role in virulence of EHEC by interacting with host gut microbiota.

Escherichia coli type III secretion system 2 (ETT2) is widely distributed in avian pathogenic Escherichia coli isolates from Eastern China

Pathogens utilize type III secretion systems to deliver effector proteins, which facilitate bacterial infections. The Escherichia coli type III secretion system 2 (ETT2) which plays a crucial role in bacterial virulence, is present in the majority of E. coli strains, although ETT2 has undergone widespread mutational attrition. We investigated the distribution and characteristics of ETT2 in avian pathogenic E. coli (APEC) isolates and identified five different ETT2 isoforms, including intact ETT2, in 57·6% (141/245) of the isolates. The ETT2 locus was present in the predominant APEC serotypes O78, O2 and O1. All of the ETT2 loci in the serotype O78 isolates were degenerate, whereas an intact ETT2 locus was mostly present in O1 and O2 serotype strains, which belong to phylogenetic groups B2 and D, respectively. Interestingly, a putative second type III secretion-associated locus (eip locus) was present only in the isolates with an intact ETT2. Moreover, ETT2 was more widely distributed in APEC isolates and exhibited more isoforms compared to ETT2 in human extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli, suggesting that APEC might be a potential risk to human health. However, there was no distinct correlation between ETT2 and other virulence factors in APEC.

Characterization of Shiga Toxin Subtypes and Virulence Genes in Porcine Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli

Similar to ruminants, swine have been shown to be a reservoir for Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC), and pork products have been linked with outbreaks associated with STEC O157 and O111:H-. STEC strains, isolated in a previous study from fecal samples of late-finisher pigs, belonged to a total of 56 serotypes, including O15:H27, O91:H14, and other serogroups previously associated with human illness. The isolates were tested by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and a high-throughput real-time PCR system to determine the Shiga toxin (Stx) subtype and virulence-associated and putative virulence-associated genes they carried. Select STEC strains were further analyzed using a Minimal Signature E. coli Array Strip. As expected, stx_2e (81%) was the most common Stx variant, followed by stx_1a (14%), stx_2d (3%), and stx_1c (1%). The STEC serogroups that carried stx_2d were O15:H27, O159:H16 and O159:H-. Similar to stx_2a and stx_2c, the stx_2d variant is associated with development of hemorrhagic colitis and hemolytic uremic syndrome, and reports on the presence of this variant in STEC strains isolated from swine are lacking. Moreover, the genes encoding heat stable toxin (estIa) and enteroaggregative E. coli heat stable enterotoxin-1 (astA) were commonly found in 50 and 44% of isolates, respectively. The hemolysin genes, hlyA and ehxA, were both detected in 7% of the swine STEC strains. Although the eae gene was not found, other genes involved in host cell adhesion, including lpfA_O113 and paa were detected in more than 50% of swine STEC strains, and a number of strains also carried iha, lpfA_O26, lpfA_O157, fedA, orfA, and orfB. The present work provides new insights on the distribution of virulence factors among swine STEC strains and shows that swine may carry Stx1a-, Stx2e-, or Stx2d-producing E. coli with virulence gene profiles associated with human infections.

Draft Genome Sequences of Three European Laboratory Derivatives from Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 Strain EDL933, Including Two Plasmids

Escherichia coliO157:H7 EDL933, isolated in 1982 in the United States, was the first enterohemorrhagicE. coli(EHEC) strain sequenced. Unfortunately, European labs can no longer receive the original strain. We checked three European EDL933 derivatives and found major genetic deviations (deletions, inversions) in two strains. All EDL933 strains contain the cryptic EHEC-plasmid, not reported before.

Comparative Genomic Analysis of Escherichia coli O157:H7 Isolated from Super-Shedder and Low-Shedder Cattle

Cattle are the primary reservoir of the foodborne pathogen Escherichia coli O157:H7, with the concentration and frequency of E. coli O157:H7 shedding varying substantially among individual hosts. The term ''super-shedder" has been applied to cattle that shed ≥10(4) cfu E. coli O157:H7/g of feces. Super-shedders have been reported to be responsible for the majority of E. coli O157:H7 shed into the environment. The objective of this study was to determine if there are phenotypic and/or genotypic differences between E. coli O157:H7 isolates obtained from super-shedder compared to low-shedder cattle. From a total of 784 isolates, four were selected from low-shedder steers and six isolates from super-shedder steers (4.01-8.45 log cfu/g feces) for whole genome sequencing. Isolates were phage and clade typed, screened for substrate utilization, pH sensitivity, virulence gene profiles and Stx bacteriophage insertion (SBI) sites. A range of 89-2473 total single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were identified when sequenced strains were compared to E. coli O157:H7 strain Sakai. More non-synonymous SNP mutations were observed in low-shedder isolates. Pan-genomic and SNPs comparisons did not identify genetic segregation between super-shedder or low-shedder isolates. All super-shedder isolates and 3 of 4 of low-shedder isolates were typed as phage type 14a, SBI cluster 3 and SNP clade 2. Super-shedder isolates displayed increased utilization of galactitol, thymidine and 3-O-β-D-galactopyranosyl-D-arabinose when compared to low-shedder isolates, but no differences in SNPs were observed in genes encoding for proteins involved in the metabolism of these substrates. While genetic traits specific to super-shedder isolates were not identified in this study, differences in the level of gene expression or genes of unknown function may still contribute to some strains of E. coli O157:H7 reaching high densities within bovine feces.

Presence of pathogenic Escherichia coli is correlated with bacterial community diversity and composition on pre-harvest cattle hides

BACKGROUND

Since 1982, specific serotypes of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) have been recognized as significant foodborne pathogens acquired from contaminated beef and, more recently, other food products. Cattle are the major reservoir hosts of these organisms, and while there have been advancements in food safety practices and industry standards, STEC still remains prevalent within beef cattle operations with cattle hides implicated as major sources of carcass contamination. To investigate whether the composition of hide-specific microbial communities are associated with STEC prevalence, 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) bacterial community profiles were obtained from hide and fecal samples collected from a large commercial feedlot over a 3-month period. These community data were examined amidst an extensive collection of prevalence data on a subgroup of STEC that cause illness in humans, referred to as enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC). Fecal 16S rRNA gene OTUs (operational taxonomic units) were subtracted from the OTUs found within each hide 16S rRNA amplicon library to identify hide-specific bacterial populations.

RESULTS

Comparative analysis of alpha diversity revealed a significant correlation between low bacterial diversity and samples positive for the presence of E. coli O157:H7 and/or the non-O157 groups: O26, O111, O103, O121, O45, and O145. This trend occurred regardless of diversity metric or fecal OTU presence. The number of EHEC serogroups present in the samples had a compounding effect on the inverse relationship between pathogen presence and bacterial diversity. Beta diversity data showed differences in bacterial community composition between samples containing O157 and non-O157 populations, with certain OTUs demonstrating significant changes in relative abundance.

CONCLUSIONS

The cumulative prevalence of the targeted EHEC serogroups was correlated with low bacterial community diversity on pre-harvest cattle hides. Understanding the relationship between indigenous hide bacterial communities and populations may provide strategies to limit EHEC in cattle and provide biomarkers for EHEC risk assessment.

Biophysical Characterization and Activity of Lymphostatin, a Multifunctional Virulence Factor of Attaching and Effacing Escherichia coli

Attaching and effacing Escherichia coli cause diarrhea and typically produce lymphostatin (LifA), an inhibitor of mitogen-activated proliferation of lymphocytes and pro-inflammatory cytokine synthesis. A near-identical factor (Efa1) has been reported to mediate adherence of E. coli to epithelial cells. An amino-terminal region of LifA shares homology with the catalytic domain of the large clostridial toxins, which are retaining glycosyltransferases with a DXD motif involved in binding of a metal ion. Understanding the mode(s) of action of lymphostatin has been constrained by difficulties obtaining a stably transformed plasmid expression clone. We constructed a tightly inducible clone of enteropathogenic E. coli O127:H6 lifA for affinity purification of lymphostatin. The purified protein inhibited mitogen-activated proliferation of bovine T lymphocytes in the femtomolar range. It is a monomer in solution and the molecular envelope was determined using both transmission electron microscopy and small-angle x-ray scattering. Domain architecture was further studied by limited proteolysis. The largest proteolytic fragment containing the putative glycosyltransferase domain was tested in isolation for activity against T cells, and was not sufficient for activity. Tryptophan fluorescence studies indicated thatlymphostatin binds uridine diphosphate-N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc) but not UDP-glucose (UDP-Glc). Substitution of the predicted DXD glycosyltransferase motif with alanine residues abolished UDP-GlcNAc binding and lymphostatin activity, although other biophysical properties were unchanged. The data indicate that lymphostatin has UDP-sugar binding potential that is critical for activity, and is a major leap toward identifying the nature and consequences of modifications of host cell factors.

What a Dinner Party! Mechanisms and Functions of Interkingdom Signaling in Host-Pathogen Associations

Chemical signaling between cells is an effective way to coordinate behavior within a community. Although cell-to-cell signaling has mostly been studied in single species, it is now appreciated that the sensing of chemical signals across kingdoms can be an important regulator of nutrient acquisition, virulence, and host defense. In this review, we focus on the role of interkingdom signaling in the interactions that occur between bacterial pathogens and their mammalian hosts. We discuss the quorum-sensing (QS) systems and other mechanisms used by these bacteria to sense, respond to, and modulate host signals that include hormones, immune factors, and nutrients. We also describe cross talk between these signaling pathways and strategies used by the host to interfere with bacterial signaling, highlighting the complex bidirectional signaling networks that are established across kingdoms.

Gene Activation through the Modulation of Nucleoid Structures by a Horizontally Transferred Regulator, Pch, in Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli

The horizontally transferred chromosomal segments, which are the main source of genetic diversity among bacterial pathogens, are bound by the nucleoid protein H-NS, resulting in the formation of a nucleoprotein complex and the silencing of gene expression. The de-silencing or activation of virulence genes necessary for the colonization of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli is achieved mainly by the action of two regulators, Pch and Ler, which are encoded by horizontally transferred elements. Although Ler has been shown to activate transcription by counteracting H-NS silencing, the mechanism for Pch is poorly understood. We show here that Pch activates the LEE1 promoter and also enhances the Ler-mediated activation of other LEE promoters. Transcriptional activation was completely dependent on repression by the H-NS/StpA/Hha/YdgT complex, indicating that Pch-derived activation was achieved by alleviating H-NS-mediated silencing. Expression of pch reduced the binding of H-NS at LEE1 promoter and altered the nucleoprotein complex. Furthermore, in vitro reconstruction of the protein-DNA complex on LEE1 promoter DNA confirmed the exclusive effect of Pch on H-NS binding. These results demonstrated that Pch is another anti-silencing regulator and a modulator of H-NS-containing nucleoprotein complexes. Thus, the anti-silencing mechanism plays a key role in the coordinated regulation of virulence genes in EHEC.

Carriage of λ Latent Virus Is Costly for Its Bacterial Host due to Frequent Reactivation in Monoxenic Mouse Intestine

Temperate phages, the bacterial viruses able to enter in a dormant prophage state in bacterial genomes, are present in the majority of bacterial strains for which the genome sequence is available. Although these prophages are generally considered to increase their hosts’ fitness by bringing beneficial genes, studies demonstrating such effects in ecologically relevant environments are relatively limited to few bacterial species. Here, we investigated the impact of prophage carriage in the gastrointestinal tract of monoxenic mice. Combined with mathematical modelling, these experimental results provided a quantitative estimation of key parameters governing phage-bacteria interactions within this model ecosystem. We used wild-type and mutant strains of the best known host/phage pair, Escherichia coli and phage λ. Unexpectedly, λ prophage caused a significant fitness cost for its carrier, due to an induction rate 50-fold higher than in vitro, with 1 to 2% of the prophage being induced. However, when prophage carriers were in competition with isogenic phage susceptible bacteria, the prophage indirectly benefited its carrier by killing competitors: infection of susceptible bacteria led to phage lytic development in about 80% of cases. The remaining infected bacteria were lysogenized, resulting overall in the rapid lysogenization of the susceptible lineage. Moreover, our setup enabled to demonstrate that rare events of phage gene capture by homologous recombination occurred in the intestine of monoxenic mice. To our knowledge, this study constitutes the first quantitative characterization of temperate phage-bacteria interactions in a simplified gut environment. The high prophage induction rate detected reveals DNA damage-mediated SOS response in monoxenic mouse intestine. We propose that the mammalian gut, the most densely populated bacterial ecosystem on earth, might foster bacterial evolution through high temperate phage activity.

Dormant bacterial viruses, or prophages, are found in the genomes of almost all bacteria, but their impact on bacterial host fitness is largely unknown. Through experiments in mice, supported by a mathematical model, we quantified the activity of Escherichia coli prophage λ in monoxenic mouse gut, as well as its impact on its carrier bacteria. λ carriage negatively impacted its hosts due to frequent reactivation, but indirectly benefited its host by killing susceptible bacterial competitors. The high prophage activity unraveled in this study reflects a constant rate of SOS response, resulting from DNA damage in monoxenic mouse intestine. Our results should motivate researchers to take the presence of prophages into account when studying the action of specific bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract of mammals.

Bibliometric analysis of the top-cited gastroenterology and hepatology articles

OBJECTIVE

To identify the top-cited articles in gastroenterology and hepatology, and analyse their characteristics.

METHODS

Two searches were conducted in the Science Citation Index Expanded database; a search of 69 journals under the category 'Gastroenterology and Hepatology' (list A) and a keyword search of all journals (list B). The search results were analysed and the inter-rater coefficient of agreement between evaluators was measured using Cohen κ.

RESULTS

The number of citations varied from 1049 to 2959 in list A and from 1929 to 5500 in list B. In both lists, the majority of articles were research papers. No significant correlations were found between the number of citations and the number of years since publication (R(2)=0.00992, p=0.473 and R(2)=0.00202, p=0.757, respectively). However, the mean number of citations of papers published before the year 2000 was lower than those published after 2000 (36.70 ± 19.31 vs 106.03 ± 39.22). No correlation was found between number of authors and the number of citations (R(2)=0.04352, p=0.130), but strong correlations were found between the number of institutes involved or number of countries and the number of citations (R(2)=0.275, p<0.001 and R(2)=0.16181, p=0.003, respectively). Females were under-represented in authorship (45 vs 254, p=0.004). Only 21 papers (of 54) in list A were supported by grants. No correlation was found between number of grants received and the number of citations (R(2)=0.02573, p=0.247). The inter-rater agreement between evaluators had a Cohen κ coefficient 0.76-0.84.

CONCLUSIONS

Top-cited articles were not only published in highly ranked journals specialising in Gastroenterology and Hepatology but also in 14 journals not specialised in this field. The number of citations correlated with the number of institutes and the number of countries involved but not with the number of grants received or the number of authors. Females were under-represented in the authorship.

The role of temperate bacteriophages in bacterial infection

Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria. There are an estimated 10(31) phage on the planet, making them the most abundant form of life. We are rapidly approaching the centenary of their identification, and yet still have only a limited understanding of their role in the ecology and evolution of bacterial populations. Temperate prophage carriage is often associated with increased bacterial virulence. The rise in use of technologies, such as genome sequencing and transcriptomics, has highlighted more subtle ways in which prophages contribute to pathogenicity. This review discusses the current knowledge of the multifaceted effects that phage can exert on their hosts and how this may contribute to bacterial adaptation during infection.

Genomic Comparative Study of Bovine Mastitis Escherichia coli

Escherichia coli, one of the main causative agents of bovine mastitis, is responsible for significant losses on dairy farms. In order to better understand the pathogenicity of E. coli mastitis, an accurate characterization of E. coli strains isolated from mastitis cases is required. By using phylogenetic analyses and whole genome comparison of 5 currently available mastitis E. coli genome sequences, we searched for genotypic traits specific for mastitis isolates. Our data confirm that there is a bias in the distribution of mastitis isolates in the different phylogenetic groups of the E. coli species, with the majority of strains belonging to phylogenetic groups A and B1. An interesting feature is that clustering of strains based on their accessory genome is very similar to that obtained using the core genome. This finding illustrates the fact that phenotypic properties of strains from different phylogroups are likely to be different. As a consequence, it is possible that different strategies could be used by mastitis isolates of different phylogroups to trigger mastitis. Our results indicate that mastitis E. coli isolates analyzed in this study carry very few of the virulence genes described in other pathogenic E. coli strains. A more detailed analysis of the presence/absence of genes involved in LPS synthesis, iron acquisition and type 6 secretion systems did not uncover specific properties of mastitis isolates. Altogether, these results indicate that mastitis E. coli isolates are rather characterized by a lack of bona fide currently described virulence genes.

Prevalence and pathogenic potential of Escherichia coli isolates from raw milk and raw milk cheese in Egypt

The objectives of this study were to investigate prevalence and pathogenic potential of Escherichia coli contaminating raw milk and its products in Egypt. Out of 187 dairy products including 72 raw milk samples, 55 Karish cheese and 60 Ras cheese, 222 E. coli isolates including 111, 89 and 22 were obtained from 55 raw milk samples (76.4%), 41 Karish cheese (74.5%), and 13 Ras cheese (21.7%), respectively. Isolated E. coli strains were examined for 24 representative virulence genes present in diarrheagenic E. coli (DEC) and extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC). Among DEC and ExPEC virulence factors, genes for enteropathogenic E. coli (eaeA, bfpA, EAF), enterohemorrhagic E. coli (stx1, stx2, eaeA), enterotoxigenic E. coli (elt, est), enteroinvasive E. coli (invE), enteroaggregative E. coli (Eagg, astA), diffusely adherent E. coli (daaD), ExPEC (cdt-I to cdt-V, cnf1, cnf2, hlyA) and putative adhesins (efa1, iha, ehaA, saa, and lpfAO113) were screened by colony hybridization assay. Out of 222 E. coli strains, 104 (46.8%) isolated from 69 (36.9%) samples carried one or more virulence genes. The most prevalent gene detected was lpfAO113 (40.5%), followed by ehaA (32.4%,), astA (3.15%,), iha (1.80%), hlyA (1.35%), stx1 (0.90%), stx2 (0.90%), eaeA (0.45%), cdt-III (0.45%) and cnf2 (0.45%). Two strains isolated from Karish cheese harbored 5 virulence genes (stx1, stx2, iha, ehaA, lpfAO113). Stx subtype was determined to be stx1 (not stx1c or stx1d) and stx2d. Indeed, expression of hemolysin A, CDT-III, CNF-II, Stx1 and Stx2d was confirmed by blood agar plate, cytotoxicity assay and Western blotting, respectively. Among the 222 E. coli strains, 54 (48.6%), 38 (42.6%) and 12 (54.7%) isolated from raw milk, Karish cheese and Ras cheese were potentially virulent, respectively. O-genotyping indicated that most of the potentially virulent E. coli isolates did not belong to clinically important O serogroups except O75, O91 and O166, which have been associated with human diseases. Phylogenetic grouping revealed that 150 (67.6%), 67 (30.2%) and 5 (2.30%) strains were clustered into A, B1 and D groups, respectively, which are considered to be associated with intestinal infection, indicating that these E. coli strains might have a potential to cause gastroenteritis. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive study regarding prevalence and pathogenic potential of E. coli in dairy products in Egypt. Raw milk, Karish cheese and Ras cheese in Egypt are highly contaminated with E. coli including potentially pathogenic strains, which may impose a public health threat.

Identification of novel in vivo obligate GroEL/ES substrates based on data from a cell-free proteomics approach

Chaperones are essential to maintain the proper folding of various proteins in vivo. The Escherichia coli chaperonin GroEL/GroES (GroE) is one of the best-studied chaperones, and its in vivo substrates have been identified, mainly by mass spectrometry-based proteomic studies. Here, we newly identified 20 in vivo obligate GroE substrates with the aid of data from an in vitro comprehensive analysis. The newly identified substrates have similar physicochemical properties to the known substrates, but their expression levels in vivo were significantly lower. Information from the in vitro comprehensive analysis has the potential to compensate for limitations of the MS-based proteomic approaches.

Genomic Comparison of Two O111:H- Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli Isolates from a Historic Hemolytic-Uremic Syndrome Outbreak in Australia

Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) is an important cause of diarrhea and hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS) worldwide. Australia's worst outbreak of HUS occurred in Adelaide in 1995 and was one of the first major HUS outbreaks attributed to a non-O157 Shiga-toxigenic E. coli (STEC) strain. Molecular analyses conducted at the time suggested that the outbreak was caused by an O111:H(-) clone, with strains from later in the outbreak harboring an extra copy of the genes encoding the potent Shiga toxin 2 (Stx2). Two decades later, we have used next-generation sequencing to compare two isolates from early and late in this important outbreak. We analyzed genetic content, single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and prophage insertion sites; for the latter, we demonstrate how paired-end sequence data can be leveraged to identify such insertion sites. The two strains are genetically identical except for six SNP differences and the presence of not one but two additional Stx2-converting prophages in the later isolate. Isolates from later in the outbreak were associated with higher levels of morbidity, suggesting that the presence of the additional Stx2-converting prophages is significant in terms of the virulence of this clone.

The response of foodborne pathogens to osmotic and desiccation stresses in the food chain

In combination with other strategies, hyperosmolarity and desiccation are frequently used by the food processing industry as a means to prevent bacterial proliferation, and particularly that of foodborne pathogens, in food products. However, it is increasingly observed that bacteria, including human pathogens, encode mechanisms to survive and withstand these stresses. This review provides an overview of the mechanisms employed by Salmonella spp., Shiga toxin producing E. coli, Cronobacter spp., Listeria monocytogenes and Campylobacter spp. to tolerate osmotic and desiccation stresses and identifies gaps in knowledge which need to be addressed to ensure the safety of low water activity and desiccated food products.

Characterization of Functional Prophages in Clostridium difficile

Bacteriophages (phages) are present in almost, if not all ecosystems. Some of these bacterial viruses are present as latent "prophages," either integrated within the chromosome of their host, or as episomal DNAs. Since prophages are ubiquitous throughout the bacterial world, there has been a sustained interest in trying to understand their contribution to the biology of their host. Clostridium difficile is no exception to that rule and with the recent release of hundreds of bacterial genome sequences, there has been a growing interest in trying to identify and classify these prophages. Besides their identification in bacterial genomes, there is also growing interest in determining the functionality of C. difficile prophages, i.e., their capacity to escape their host and reinfect a different strain, thereby promoting genomic evolution and horizontal transfer of genes through transduction, for example of antibiotic resistance genes. There is also some interest in using therapeutic phages to fight C. difficile infections.The objective of this chapter is to share with the broader C. difficile research community the expertise we developed in the study of C. difficile temperate phages. In this chapter, we describe a general "pipeline" comprising a series of experiments that we use in our lab to identify, induce, isolate, propagate, and characterize prophages. Our aim is to provide readers with the necessary basic tools to start studying C. difficile phages.

Commensal 'trail of bread crumbs' provide pathogens with a map to the intestinal landscape

Growth of a microorganism in a host is essential for infection, and bacterial pathogens have evolved to utilize specific metabolites to enhance replication in vivo. Now, emerging data demonstrate that pathogens rely on microbiota-derived metabolites as a form of bacterial-bacterial communication to gain information about location within a host and modify virulence gene expression accordingly. Thus, metabolite-sensing is critical for pathogens to establish infection. Here, we highlight recent examples of how the foodborne pathogen enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 (EHEC) exploits microbiota-derived metabolites to recognize the host intestinal environment and control gene expression that results in controlled expression of virulence traits.

Identification of potential drug targets by subtractive genome analysis of Escherichia coli O157:H7: an in silico approach

Bacterial enteric infections resulting in diarrhea, dysentery, or enteric fever constitute a huge public health problem, with more than a billion episodes of disease annually in developing and developed countries. In this study, the deadly agent of hemorrhagic diarrhea and hemolytic uremic syndrome, Escherichia coli O157:H7 was investigated with extensive computational approaches aimed at identifying novel and broad-spectrum antibiotic targets. A systematic in silico workflow consisting of comparative genomics, metabolic pathways analysis, and additional drug prioritizing parameters was used to identify novel drug targets that were essential for the pathogen’s survival but absent in its human host. Comparative genomic analysis of Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes annotated metabolic pathways identified 350 putative target proteins in E. coli O157:H7 which showed no similarity to human proteins. Further bio-informatic approaches including prediction of subcellular localization, calculation of molecular weight, and web-based investigation of 3D structural characteristics greatly aided in filtering the potential drug targets from 350 to 120. Ultimately, 44 non-homologous essential proteins of E. coli O157:H7 were prioritized and proved to have the eligibility to become novel broad-spectrum antibiotic targets and DNA polymerase III alpha (dnaE) was the top-ranked among these targets. Moreover, druggability of each of the identified drug targets was evaluated by the DrugBank database. In addition, 3D structure of the dnaE was modeled and explored further for in silico docking with ligands having potential druggability. Finally, we confirmed that the compounds N-coeleneterazine and N-(1,4-dihydro-5H-tetrazol-5-ylidene)-9-oxo-9H-xanthene-2-sulfon-amide were the most suitable ligands of dnaE and hence proposed as the potential inhibitors of this target protein. The results of this study could facilitate the discovery and release of new and effective drugs against E. coli O157:H7 and other deadly human bacterial pathogens.

Incomplete LPS Core-Specific Felix01-Like Virus vB_EcoM_VpaE1

Bacteriophages represent a valuable source for studying the mechanisms underlying virus-host interactions. A better understanding of the host-specificity of viruses at the molecular level can promote various phage applications, including bacterial diagnostics, antimicrobial therapeutics, and improve methods in molecular biology. In this study, we describe the isolation and characterization of a novel coliphage, vB_EcoM_VpaE1, which has different host specificity than its relatives. Morphology studies, coupled with the results of genomic and proteomic analyses, indicate that vB_EcoM_VpaE1 belongs to the newly proposed genus Felix01likevirus in the family Myoviridae. The genus Felix01likevirus comprises a group of highly similar phages that infect O-antigen-expressing Salmonella and Escherichia coli (E. coli) strains. Phage vB_EcoM_VpaE1 differs from the rest of Felix01-like viruses, since it infects O-antigen-deficient E. coli strains with an incomplete core lipopolysaccharide (LPS). We show that vB_EcoM_VpaE1 can infect mutants of E. coli that contain various truncations in their LPS, and can even recognize LPS that is truncated down to the inner-core oligosaccharide, showing potential for the control of rough E. coli strains, which usually emerge as resistant mutants upon infection by O-Ag-specific phages. Furthermore, VpaE1 can replicate in a wide temperature range from 9 to 49 °C, suggesting that this virus is well adapted to harsh environmental conditions. Since the structural proteins of such phages tend to be rather robust, the receptor-recognizing proteins of VpaE1 are an attractive tool for application in glycan analysis, bacterial diagnostics and antimicrobial therapeutics.